josh sides

Sexual Propositions
Thebedroomandtheballot

orsomanygayrightsactivistsandtheirsupportersinCalifornia,wakingup onNovember5,2008wasapainfulprocess,akintogreetingthedaywitha wretchedhangoverorabruisinginjury.Latethenightbefore,ithadbecome

clearthatfellowCalifornianspassedProposition8thelandmarkballotmeasure

validatingonlymarriagebetweenamanandawoman,rescindingarightgranted tothembytheCaliforniaSupremeCourtonlysixmonthsearlier.InCaliforniasbastionsofhomosexualityPolkStreet,BernalHeights,CastroinSanFrancisco,West HollywoodandSilverlakeinLosAngeles,variousdistrictsinOakland,andevenin theprovincialcapitalofSacramentogaysandtheirsupportersimmediatelydecried theclimateofhatredandbigotrythathadengulfedthepresumptivelyliberalstate ofCalifornia.1 ElsewherebutparticularlyintheruralandsuburbanbastionsofProposition8 supportproponentscelebratedthevictoryasatriumphofdirectdemocracy.Incarefullycalibratedstatements,oneafteranothersupporteremphasizedthattheballot measurehadvindicatedthesacrosanctprincipleoflimitedgovernment.Itupholds thepeoplesrighttogovernthemselves,ReverendJimFranklinoftheCornerstone

Boom: A Journal of California,Vol.1,Number3,pps3043.ISSN2153-8018,electronicISSN2153-764X.2011 bytheRegentsoftheUniversityofCalifornia.Allrightsreserved.Pleasedirectallrequestsforpermissionto photocopyorreproducearticlecontentthroughtheUniversityofCaliforniaPresssRightsandPermissions website,http://www.ucpressjournals.com/reprintInfo.asp.DOI:10.1525/boom.2011.1.3.30.

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Prop 8 supporters march in Salinas.

ChurchinFresnosaid.2ElderL.WhitneyClayton,prominentmemberoftheChurchofJesusChristofLatter-Day Saints,repeatedlyemphasized:Werenotantigay.Butif FranklinandClaytonbelievedthis,itseemsunlikelythat mostProposition8supportersdid.Morelikely,supporters wereconvincedbytheextraordinarilyexpensiveandstrikinglymendaciousadvertisingcampaignthatprecededthe Novemberelection.Withapricetagof$83million,largely fundedbytheLDSChurch,thecampaignwarnedvoters thatschoolteacherswouldbeforcedtoindoctrinatechildren intothehomosexuallifestyle.Inoneparticularlyeffective television advertisement, a distressed teacher complains tohisprincipal:Ibecameateachertomoldchildren,not messthemup.Ourhandsaretiedhere,Terry,theexasperatedprincipalresponds.Yourepreachingtothechoir. GiventhepassionsignitedonallsidesbyProposition8,it wasdifficultthenasitisnowtoviewtheresultoftheelectionasanythingotherthanareferendumonhomosexuality.

Andyet,toviewitinthiswaywouldobscureamuchmore significantstoryaboutCaliforniapolitics.First,Proposition 8servesasareminderthatCaliforniahasbecome,toquote journalistDavidS.Broder,notagovernmentoflawsbut lawswithoutgovernment.3Sincetheprogressivesinserted the ballot initiative into the State Constitution in 1911, Californianshavevotedonanastounding329initiatives, secondinthenationonlytoOregonians,whogotahead startwhentheyimplementedtheprocessin1904.4Political scientistsarecertainlynotofonemindabouttheeffectsof directdemocracyonourrepublicanformofgovernment, butthecaseofCaliforniasuggeststhattheinitiativeprocess isnotonlyalientothespiritoftheUnitedStatesConstitution,buttendstotrampleminorityrightsandcanevenlook alotlikemobrule. Second,amoresurprisingelementofthisstoryistheextent towhichCaliforniasimultaneouslycelebratedandreviled foritsfabledsexualtoleranceforthepasthalf-centuryhas

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November 2008, supporters of marriage equality protest the passing of Proposition 8 in San Francisco. Proposition 8 was the culmination of an effort, spanning four decades, to harness the power of the ballot initiative to regulate sexual issues.

pioneeredtheuseofsexualpropositions,ballotinitiativesdesignedtoeitherexpandthescopeofobscenitycensorship or to suppress the rights and aspirations of homosexuals. AclosestudyofallstatewideballotinitiativesintheUnited Statesbetween1904and2009revealsastartlingfact:SecondonlytoOregonians,Californianshaveplacedmoresexual propositionsontheballotthanresidentsofanyoftheother twenty-twostateswherethestatewideballotinitiativeisavailable.5Viewedthroughtheprismofsexualpropositions,the politicallandscapeofCalifornialooksquitedifferentthanwe generallyimagine.If,forexample,Californiansareinclined toregardthemselvesascosmopoliteswhosepolicyinterests areakintothoseoftheirbluestatebrethrenin,say,Massachusetts,Michigan,andNewYork(whichdoesnotprovide forstatewideballotinitiative),theymightbesurprisedthat,in therealmofsexualpropositions,theybehavemorelikevoters inthepurpleandredstatesofColorado,Nevada,Montana, andSouthDakota,andnothingatalllikevotersinMissouri,

Oklahoma,andWyoming,traditionallyconservativestatesin whichcitizenshaveaccesstothestateinitiativeprocessbut haveneverbotheredtomusteranysexualpropositions. Understandingthisunfamiliarlandscaperequiresusto placeProposition8initsproperperspective.Itwasnotan anomalouslowpointinCaliforniapolitics.Rather,itwasa promontoryfromwhichwemightlookbacktoseethehistoricaltrajectoryofCaliforniaspioneeringroleinadvancing sexualpropositions.Fromthatvantagepoint,severalfacts becomeclear.UnlikeProposition13,whichsimultaneously startedthenationaltaxrevoltandreviveddirectdemocracy, sexualpropositionsgenerallyhavenotbeengrassrootscampaigns.Inalmosteverycase,theyhavebeencraftedbya smallgroupofindividualswithheavyfinancialbackingand presentedtovoters,whowerethenforcedtomakeacritical decisiononanissueaboutwhichtheyhadbeengenerally unconcernedandwidelyuninformed.6Additionally,justas Proposition13servedasamodelfortaxopponentsnationally,

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Unlike Proposition 13, which simultaneously started the national tax revolt and revived direct democracy, sexual propositions generally have not been grassroots campaigns.
stimulatingasurgeintheuseoftheinitiative,Californias sexualpropositionsstimulatedwidespreademulation,with sixteenstatesultimatelyfollowingsuit. Finally,althoughsexualpropositionsarefarlesscommonthanballotinitiativesconcerningeducation,election policies, government administration, the environment, taxation, and insurance, their use has increased steadily sincefirstbeingintroducedinCaliforniain1966.Inthe twentyyearsthatfollowed,sevensexualpropositionswere introducedintheUnitedStates;inthesecondtwentyyears, fifteenwereintroduced;intheyear2008alone,threemeasureswereplacedontheballot.7Theirgrowingrelevance demands our close attention to another California story gonenational,and,perhaps,awry. Ultimately,sexualpropositionshaveservedtorileemotionsandvindicatetheinitiativeprocess,whiledoingnothingtoprotectusagainstthe moraldangerstheypurporttoeradicate. Carahercomplained,speaktooneanotherafterwardsof theirexperiencesandtheirconquestsofyoungwomenin therinks,andwheredotheskatersgoaftertheyleavethe rinks?Ianswer,someofthemgotoperdition!10 Throughthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcentury, purveyorsofsalaciousperiodicalsandliveentertainment skirmished frequently with church leaders throughout NorthernCalifornia,butitwasneverafairfight.Forevery crusadingminister,therewerecountlesscustomersinan ever-expandingmarketforeroticentertainment.Theministryusuallysucceededonlywhentheirdesiretosuppress ungodlinessdovetailedwiththeinterestsofbusinesselites, asinthecaseofthePanama-PacificInternationalExpositionof1915ortherehabilitationofNorthBeachandUnion SquareshortlyafterWorldWarII.11Whenacriticalmassof homosexualmenandwomenbegantoexpresstheiraffectionsindimlylitbars,darkenedalleys,andpublicparks, many church leaders wrung their hands, but they often foundthattheSanFranciscoPoliceDepartmentwasaninconsistentandunpredictableally.Inlate-bloomingLosAngeles,theclergysquestforgodlinessfoundamuchmore receptiveaudienceinthelargelyProtestantpopulationof Midwesternorigin.There,theywereabletoforgeanalliancewithprogressivereformerswhoviewedthesuppressionofungodlybehaviorascentraltotheprojectofgood government reform.12 More directly, the best tool at the disposalofministersandotherfolksconcernedwithungodlybehaviorwasthechargeoflewdnessorobscenity brought before municipal courts. They generally found sympathetic judges who were easily convinced that the offendingmaterialinquestionmetthelowthresholdfor chargesofindecency,lewdness,andobscenity.13 Californiansmoderndisputeaboutthelimitsofprivate sexual behavior and erotic consumption began in 1957. While the landmark ruling Roth v. United States reaffirmed the longstanding argument that the First

Trial Run: The Road to Proposition 16

AmoralbattlehasragedinCaliforniasincethefirstArgonautsarrivedin1849,oftentradingtheirbiblesforbooze, ortheirhard-earnedgoldnuggetsforfleetingbitsofaffectionatathelocalbrothel.Theexoticentertainmentsthat theyfanciedaresowelldocumentedthattheyneednotbe recountedindetailhere,butitissufficienttosaythatthey deviatedwildlyfromwhatAmericansgenerallyregardedas properandvirtuous. AstagnantpoolofhumanimmoralitywashowoneobserverofearlySanFranciscodescribedtheadultrecreationalareaofthecity.9Sharingthis viewwasacadreofbothProtestantandCatholicpriestswho assailedtheungodlinessoferoticentertainmentandprostitution.PerhapsmostcolorfulamongthemwasFatherTerenceCaraher,pastoroftheRomanCatholicChurchofSt. Francis,whotookhiscrusadetoiceskatingrinksinturnof-the-centurySanFrancisco.Someofthemaleskaters,
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Proposition 8 supporters march in Salinas.

Amendmentdidnotprotectobscenity,italsolimitedthe definitionofobscenitytoonlythoseworksthat,takenas a whole, appealed to the prurient interest of the average person, applying contemporary community standards.14 In short, the decision robbed religious leaders ofanimportanttool:thechargeofcriminalobscenityor indecency.Afloodtideoffilth,apopularLosAngeles televisionnewsmannamedGeorgePutnamfrettedseveral

yearsafterthedecision,isthreateningtopervertanentire generation.15 TheRothdecisionloosenedonegiantboulderinacounterculturalavalanchethatwouldsoonengulfthenations metropolises. While the decision certainly expanded the marketforeroticbooks,magazines,andfilms,thesexual revolution drew more of its momentum from other significanteventsofthe1950sandearly1960s.Chiefamong theseweretheproliferationofhomophilepublicationsby earlygayandlesbianactivistsinthemid-1950s,theovert homoeroticismoftheBeatmovement,theFDAsapproval ofthebirthcontrolpill,theincreasedincidenceofpremaritalsexandcohabitationamongheterosexuals,innovations in erotic entertainment, and the new visibility of a once undergroundgaybarscene.Inthislastinstance,Lifemagazineshatteredtheconspiracyofsilenceabouthomosexualitybypublishingatwo-partseriesonHomosexualityin AmericainJuneof1964.Featuringphotographsofbarechestedandleather-cladpatronsinadimlylitSanFrancisco

The ministry usually succeeded only when their desire to suppress ungodliness dovetailed with the interests of business elites . . .
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gay bar, the issue sold more than 7.3 million copies and served as a beacon for homosexuals nationwide. An engravedinvitationtoeveryfaggotinAmericawouldnthave causedmoreofasensation,acharacterinJackFritschers memoir-novel, Some Dance to Remember, said. Reading LifesexposeinIowawaslikediscoveringatravelagents dreambrochure.
16

Beach-based Christian Anti-Communism Crusade and madeadecisivemovetowardapoliticalcareer.Inthesummerof1961,Barnesregularlygavespeechesalongsidethe Crusadesfounder,FredC.Schwarz,toeverlargerandsympatheticcrowds,evenappearingbeforetheCommitteeon ElectionsandReapportionmentinSeptembertooffertestimonyindefenseofabilloutlawingtheCommunistParty inCalifornia.Thebillnevermadeitoutofcommittee,but Barneswasapparentlyemboldenedbyhisforay,andsubsequentlyputhisnameforthasaRepublicancandidatefor StateAssemblyDistrict78inSanDiego.Benefittingfrom the1961Reapportionment,duringwhichanextraRepublicanassemblyseatwasaddedtoSanDiego,Barnesfaced a weak Democratic rival in Robin Goodenough. Though hehadnopoliticalexperience,Barnesknewhowtogive sermons,andhowtousehisnewseatintheAssemblyto combatwhatheviewedassinfulbehavior.17 Ononehand,Barneswasverymuchinstepwiththe CaliforniaRepublicanAssemblyoftheearly1960s,combatingtaxesandlobbyinghardagainsttheRumfordFair HousingAct,themostsignificantpieceofantidiscriminatorylegislationinCaliforniaatthetime.Hisyoungaide, formerpublisheroftheOceanside-Carlsbad Banner,William K.Shearer,wasapoliticalmastermindwhoengineeredthe passageofProposition14in1964,killingtheRumfordAct. And,likeothermembersoftheCaliforniaRepublicanAssembly,Barnesthrewhissupportbehindthepresidential bidofBarryGoldwater.AccordingtothenCaliforniaAttorneyGeneralStanleyMosk,Shearerevensubmittedregular articlestoaJackson,Mississippi,newspaperinwhichhe declaredthatGoldwatersopponent,JohnF.Kennedy,bore similaritiestoAdolfHitler. ButevenconservativeRepublicansscratchedtheirheads atBarnessevolvingdemagoguery.Sometimebetweenhis electionandhisarrivalinSacramento,Barnesappearsto have realized that anticommunism was a political nonstarter,particularlyinthestronglyDemocraticAssembly.

Butifgays,lesbians,thecountlessnewconsumersof erotica,andthelegionsofFree-LoversflockingtoCaliforniafeltthattheyhadtrouncedboththechurchandmainstreamAmericanvalues,theircelebrationwaspremature. Manypracticesthathadbecomesociallyacceptableeven passamong a healthy proportion of Californians remainedlegallyproscribed.Californialawstillprohibited sodomyandotherformsofconsensualhomosexualand heterosexual contact. The San Francisco Police Department, under antiprostitution enforcement practices, regularly quarantined women they regarded as socially undesirable.FouryearsafterCarolDodafirstdroppedher topataSanFrancisconightclubinJuneof1964,topless dancersinCaliforniawereregularlyarrestedfor,andoccasionallyevenconvictedof,lewdness.Ifsomeconservative spokespersons today regard California as hopelessly, shamefully, and inevitably libertine, many traditional Californiansofthe1960sdidnot.Althoughtheywerenot yetaunifiedgroupunderthebannerofsocialconservatism,theybelievedthatCaliforniacouldstillbesaved andthatwhateverbattlestheyhadlostonthestreets,and on the newsstands, could be won at the ballot box. GalvanizingthisgroupforthefirsttimeinCaliforniawasE. RichardBarnes,aretiredNavalchaplainwhostormedinto theCaliforniaStateAssemblyin1963andlaunchedthe moderncrusadetocleanupCalifornia. HavingservedasachaplainintheKoreanWar,Barnes retiredtoSanDiego,wherehecontinuedtoprovidespiritual guidance to veterans and their families through the 1950s.Butin1961,attheageof55,BarnesjoinedtheLong

Many practices that had become socially acceptableeven passamong a healthy proportion of Californians remained legally proscribed.
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With Shearers aid, Barnes secured $185,000 in financial backing from Patrick J. Frawley, the president of the Eversharp Company (makers of the Schick safety razor) and, as John H. Averill of the Los Angeles Times put it, financial angel to right wing causes.
Highlyadaptive,heredirectedhisrhetoricalparanoiaatpornography,makingatleasttwentyattemptsintheAssembly tostrengthenCaliforniasobscenitycodeandevisceratethe substanceoftheRothdecision.Failinginthis,Barnesadoptedastrategystillsomewhatnovelatthetimeofcraftinganinitiativetogivethepeopletherighttobypassthe legislatureandeffectivelyreinterprettheSupremeCourts decision. Described as the CLEAN initiative (California League Enlisting Action Now), and certified with almost 500,000signaturesasProposition16forthe1966ballot, themeasuresought,amongotherprovisions,tostrikethe utterlywithoutredeemingsocialimportancetestfromthe Californiaobscenitycode.Buttheshrewdestsectionofthe initiativetackledRothsinvocationofcontemporarycommunity standards. Since Roth, judges in California and elsewhere had dismissed countlessobscenitychargeson thegroundsthattheworksdidnotviolatecontemporary community standards, because they usually interpreted community to be the State as a whole. Proposition 16 soughttoestablishthejuryastheexclusivejudgeofthe conscienceofthecommunity,offeringlegionsofsuburbanandruralsupporterslocalcontroloverobscenity. WithShearersaid,Barnessecured$185,000infinancial backingfromPatrickJ.Frawley,thepresidentoftheEversharp Company (makers of the Schick safety razor) and, asJohnH.AverilloftheLos Angeles Timesputit,financial angel to right wing causes.18 A multimillionaire, devout Catholic,andvehementanti-Communist,Frawleyhadlent hisconsiderableresourcesandenergiestotheBarryGoldwaterpresidentialcampaign,andthereelectioncampaign forConnecticutSenatorThomasJ.Doddin1964.Thougha Democrat,Doddpossessedtheanti-Communistcredentials, includingacloseassociationwithSchwarzoftheChristian
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Anti-CommunismCrusade,toappealtoconservativeslike Frawley.BeyondtheconservativechargethatobscenitydegradedthemoralfiberofAmericans, renderingthem defenselessagainstCommunistaggression,therewasnoclear explanation for why Frawley would throw his support to Barnesssomewhatexoticcampaign.However,givenFrawleysextraordinarybusinessacumen,andthefactthathehad recentlymovedhisConnecticut-basedcompanytoCalifornia tolaunchitsneweststainlesssteelsafetyrazorsinoneofthe nationsbiggestmarkets,advertisingcouldnothavebeenfar fromhismind.VeryfewpiecesofProposition16literature wouldappearin1966thatdidnotalsoinformreadersabout thevirtuesoftheSuperKronaComfortEdge.19 TotheextentthatthevoluminousProposition16campaignliteraturemadeacoherentargument,itwentsomething like this: pornography was a $2 billion industry (a totally unsubstantiated and highly unlikely figure); 75 to 90percentofpornographyfellintothehandsofkids(an unsubstantiated,butadmittedlylikelyfigure);mostcrime wasthefunctionofexposuretopornography(aclaimwith absolutelynoscientificorcriminologicalsupport,thenor now). But the rhetorical pitch of the campaign literature wastrulyoutlandish.IsYourChildLessThanaPig?one newspaperinsertread,citinganobscurecodeagainstworryinganyanimalforprofitorgain.Pigsareprotectedby statute.Yourchildisnotprotectedagainstprofiteersinfilth, obsceneandpornographicmaterial!Inanothernewspaper insert,Barnespredictedthethemesofthenewpornography comingtoCaliforniansiftheyfailedtopassProposition16: whipping,gagging,sexrituals,transvestia,sadism,masochism,homosexuality,phallicsymbols,inter-racialaffairs, wifeswapping,lesbianism,grouporgies,voyeurism,[and] aphrodisiacs. And in another, readers were asked what

kindofwomandoyouwantyourdaughtertobe?Whatkind ofwomandoyouwantyoursontomarry?Whatkindof womandothegirlsofAmericawanttobe?Theanswer,naturally,wasawomanofgoodnessandnotthedegenerate pictureofwomanandmanshovedatthemfromallsides.

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familyasatrisk.Averitablepariahtohispartybythetime heleftoffice,Barnesmayhaveactuallybeenavisionary, anticipatingafamilyvalueagendaandsocialconservatismalmosttwentyyearsbeforeitbecameapillarofthe RepublicanPartyplatform. DuringBarnesstimeintheAssembly,hehadfoundan ideologicalallyinJohnBriggs,aRepublicanfromFullertoninOrangeCounty,oneoftheonlycountiesinwhich themajorityofvoterssupportedProposition16.Although BriggswasmorethantwentyyearsyoungerthanBarnes, hesharedhisrecordofmilitaryserviceinKoreaandstrong religiousconvictions.However,unlikeBarnes,Briggswas nofirebrand;hepolitelyandvaguelyadvocatedforfiscal responsibility,freeenterprise,andlocalcontrolinhisfirst oftwofailedbidsfortheAssemblyin1962.Bythetimeof the1966election,Briggssteppeduptheintensityofhis rhetoric, vowing to end Californias policy of subsidizing laziness and immorality through welfare programs. He also ran for a seat in the less competitive thirty-fifth AssemblyDistrict,farnorthofOrangeCountyintheSanta BarbaraandVenturaarea.21WhenBriggsfinallytookhis hard-earnedseatin1967,theformerinsurancebrokerfocusedmostofhisenergiesontrimminggovernmentspending,cuttingtaxes,andrevampinginsurancepolicy.Ifinhis heartBriggssharedBarnessmoralisticzeal,therewaslittle indicationofitinthefirstdecadeofhispoliticalcareer. WhenBriggsascendedtothemorepowerfulroleofState SenatorfromOrangeCountyandgubernatorialaspirantin 1977,however,heveeredhardright,unleashingamoral invectiveagainsthomosexuality.IntheyearssincetheLife article,andsinceProposition16,homosexualityhadmoved wellabovegroundinCalifornia.WhenSaturdayNightLive (andlaterDavidLetterman)musicianPaulShafferco-wrote thediscotrackItsRainingMenin1979,SanFranciscos CastroStreetmayhavebeenonhismind;boththestreet andcitywereawashinopenlygayrevelry.Inaremarkably candidinterviewwiththeLos Angeles TimesinOctoberof 1978, Briggs worried that allowing open homosexuals to teachchildrenportendedaperiodofmoraldecayinthis countythatwouldleadtothedeathofcivilization.22 Briggswasnoinnovator.Hesimplyfollowedthelead of Anita Bryant in Miami, the songstress-turned-spokeswomanforFloridaorangejuice.Thethirty-seven-year-old motheroffourwaspoliticizedbyarecentlypassedDade Countyordinancebarringdiscriminationagainstgaysin

Countless colleagues in Sacramento, and dozens of Californianewspapers,includingtheLos Angeles Times,regardedBarnesasacrackpot,buthisnumberslookedvery good.Weeksbeforethegeneralelection,areputablepollingorganizationfoundCaliforniavotersfavoringProposition16bya2-to-1margin,andanother,moredubiouspoll showeda6-to-1margininsupportofthemeasure.Butthere wasanOctobersurprise:gubernatorialcandidateRonald Reaganssupportforthemeasuremovedfromstaunchto tepidbecausehethoughtitoverbroad,andjustdaysbefore theelection,whileadvisingvoterstosupportthemeasure, headded,evenifitisruledunconstitutional.Reaganbeat EdmundPatBrownbyalargemargin,andvoterssoundly rejectedProposition16.

A Succession of Failed Initiatives

AftertheNovemberdrubbing,Barnestriedtofallmorein line with the California Republican Assembly, seeking to defeatenvironmentalprotectionlegislation,rejectteacher retirementpackages,andcuttaxes.Buteventhen,hispositionsremainedextreme.Atonepoint,heledthechargein Californiatoabolishfederalincometaxes.In1971,heinfamouslywrotealettertoRichardNixon,widelycirculatedin thepress,inwhichhedescribedNixonseffortstobefriend theChineseassuicidalidiocy.Barnesspubliclampooning ofthePresidentalienatedmanysupporters.Hewasousted fromtheAssemblyin1972anddidnotreturntopolitics. Thoughwequicklyforgetfailedinitiatives,Proposition 16setanimportantprecedentforconservativesinCalifornia.Thoughitlostbadlybythestandardsofmostpundits atthetime,morethan2.5millionvoters(43percentofthe electorate)supportedit.Clearly,therewasaverylargeaudiencereceptivetoBarnesscoremessagethatCaliforniawas in a moral free fall. The first California initiative to deal withobscenityorsexualityinanyform,Proposition16also field-testedtheuseoftheinitiativeformoralorvalueissues.Anditperformedbeautifully,demonstratingthateven acomplexandconstitutionallydubiouspositioncouldwin support,particularlywhenitcharacterizedchildrenandthe

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The first California initiative to deal with obscenity or sexuality in any form, Proposition 16 also field-tested the use of the initiative for moral or value issues.
publicaccommodations,housing,andemployment.Taking apagefromBarnessplaybook,BryantformedSaveOur Children,Inc.,anantigaygroupthatpromulgatedthenotion thatallowinghomosexualteachersinschoolswoulddestroy anentiregenerationofstudents.Bryantsgroupcollected morethansixtimesthe10,000signaturesrequiredtoforce thelawtoaballotforareferendum.Moreimportantly,duringthefourmonthsbetweenthepassageoftheordinance andtheJune7referendum,Bryantshighprofileforcedthe issueofhomosexualityintothenationalspotlight,making itoneofthetopmediastoriesof1977. OnthedaybeforetheDadeCountyreferendum,Briggs flewtoMiamitolendhissupporttotheBryantcampaign. WarningMiamivotersaboutthedangeroftheSanFranciscoinfluence,BriggsvowedtocarryBryantsfightbackto California.Duringthecampaign,BobGreen,Bryantshusbandandmanager,alsowarnedthatfailuretoreversethe ordinancewouldmeanthatDadeCountywillbecomelike SanFranciscowheremanygaysdominatedailylife. The
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Weknowthattheunderminingoftraditionalvalueswhich beganinthe60shasleftmanyAmericansinamoralvacuumwhichtheytrytofillwithdrugs,alcohol,andalternative lifestyles...InJune,weCaliforniansgavethenationanew idea.TheJarvis[sic]Amendmenthasmadefiscalresponsibilityrespectableagainandisservingasamodelofinspiration fortherestofthenation.Nowthenationiswatchingusagain. WeregoingtoputAmericabackonthehighroad,notbecausethepoliticianswantit,butbecausepeopledemandit.25

For John Briggs, Californias role as a vanguard in a nationaltaxrevoltauguredwellforitsroleasavanguardin thenationalrestorationoftraditionalvalues. Proposition6lostbya58to42percentmargin,almost exactlythesamemarginbywhichProposition16hadlostin 1966.Asin1966,valueinitiativesclearlyhadlegs,drawing thesupport,inthisinstance,ofmorethan2.8millionvoters. Butforsocialconservatives,thelessonsofProposition6were morecomplicatedthanthoseofProposition16.First,while Ronald Reagan tepidly supported Proposition 16, he vigorouslyopposedProposition6,courageouslybreakingwithhis partysadvicethatheignoretheissueashebuilthiscampaign forthePresidency.WithoutthesupportoftheRepublicanPartysgreateststatesman,Briggsfacedatoughbattle.Second,in thedecadesinceProposition16,gaysandlesbianshadbecome apoliticalforce,exercisingadecisiveinfluenceinSanFranciscopolitics.ThroughoutCalifornia,homosexualsHarvey Milkthemostfamousamongthemlobbiedhardagainst Proposition6,canvassingneighborhoodsandfloodingnewspapers with editorials. Finally, to overcome his handicaps, Briggsneededmoremoney,butitwasnoteasytocomeby. NoticeablyabsentfromBriggssfundingrosterwastheLDS Church.SinceProposition16,LDShadbecomeextremelyinfluentialinballotinitiativepolitics.Ifthechurchreallywanted to,LosAngelesLDSleaderJohnK.Carmackbraggedin1978, itcouldineightdaysget500,000signatures....IfPresident Kimball[theLDSPresidentinUtah]saidDropeverything andqualifythisinitiativefortheballot;thecountrysmorals

nextday,votersinDadeCountyrepealedtheordinanceby amarginoftwo-to-one,ablowtoadvocatesofgayrightsin Floridaandnationwide.Onthefollowingday,Briggsstood onthestepsofCityHallinSanFrancisco,announcingthe BriggsInitiativeProposition6banninghomosexuals fromteachinginCaliforniaschools.SanFrancisco,Briggs toldthesizeablecrowd,isthefountainheadofallhomosexualactivityinthecountry.Itisinacaptured-nationstatus, andthepeoplewanttobeliberated. Echoingathemefrom

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Barnesscampaignthatwouldonlybecomelouderonthe march,decadeslater,towardProposition8,Briggsflipped thescriptofvictimization:therightsofsocialconservatives werebeingviolatedbythepracticesoflibertines. CitingboththemoraldeclineofCaliforniaandthevindicationoftheproperty-taxcuttingmeasure,Proposition13, Briggswarnedthatcitizensrightsasparentsandtaxpayerswerethreatenedbytheemploymentofhomosexualsin publicschools:

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Broadside from Richard E. Barness Proposition 16 campaign in 1966. An attempt to strengthen obscenity laws in California, and to protect families from the attack on traditional values, Proposition 16 lost. But Richard E. Barnes pioneered the use of the ballot initiatives of social issues, a technique that would find later success in Proposition 22 (2000) and Proposition 8 (2008).

hangonthis,thatwordwouldgoaboutallover.26ButLDS passedonsupportingProposition6becauseithadlostfaith inCaliforniasconservativestopulloffavictory:despiteheavy LDSbacking,conservativeshadfailedtocollectthevotesfora moderateversionofBarnessantiobscenityballotinitiativein 1972.Idontthinkthechurchlikestobealoser,Carmack said,andBriggswasobviouslyregardedasamanheadedfor aloss.Movingforward,conservativeswouldhavetosecure theblessingsofLDSwhichalreadyhadmorethan400,000 membersinCaliforniabythelate1970stowinavaluesinitiativeinanincreasinglyliberalstate. Afterthefrustratingresultsofthe1966,1972,and1978 valuesinitiatives,Californiasconservativeslargelyretreated fromtheballotinitiativeprocess.In1978,theymadeone

finalattempttohavecommunitydefinedlocallyonmattersofobscenity,justasBarneshadtriedtodoin1966,but theyfailedtogetevenenoughvotestoputthemeasureon theballot.Andtheydidnotsucceedinqualifyingasingle sex-relatedvaluesinitiativeforthenexttwentyyears.This hadalmostnothingtodowithanymajorstrategicreconsiderationontheirpart,butwiththefactthatconservatives, manyofwhonowidentifiedthemselvesassocialconservatives,didnotneedtheballotinitiativetofurthertheir agendasinthe1980sandearly1990s. Beginning with Ronald Reagans ascent to the White Housein1981,CaliforniaconservativesenjoyedthreeRepublicanpresidentialterms.Beginningin1983withGeorge Deukmejian,theyenjoyedfourRepublicangubernatorial
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I dont think the church likes to be a loser, Carmack said, and Briggs was obviously regarded as a man headed for a loss.
terms.Deukmejianssuccessor,PeteWilson,renegedona campaignpromisebyvetoinganassemblybillthatbanned workplacediscriminationagainstgaysandlesbians.And many social conservativesthough certainly not all of themsawanallyintheAIDSepidemicstartingin1981, becauseitbroughtthesexualrevolutiontoascreechinghalt andappearedtovindicatetheirlong-heldbeliefthathomosexuality was unnatural. By the end of the millennium, manysocialconservatives,andtheLDSchurchinparticular, exhibitedgreatcompassionforAIDSvictims.Butitmust besaidthatintheearlydaysofthedisease,manyofthem wereopportunistic.Itssomethingyououghttobelooking at,GeorgiaCongressmanNewtGingrichsaidofAIDSat aspeechbeforetheAmericanCoalitionforTraditionalValues.AIDSwilldomoretodirectAmericabacktothecostof violatingtraditionalvalues,andtomakeAmericaawareof thedangerofcertainbehaviorthananythingweveseen.... Forusitisagreatrallyingcry.And,shortlybeforejoining Reagansstaff,PatrickBuchannansarcasticallylamented,in theNew York Post,thefateofthepoorhomosexuals.They havedeclaredwaruponnature,hewrote,andnownature isexactinganawfulretribution.Thesexualrevolution, hecontinued,hasbeguntodevouritschildren.
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Similar efforts were simultaneously underway in Massachusetts,Washington,D.C.,Vermont,Iowa,andHawaii.By theearly1990s,thelegalizationofgaymarriageappeared imminent,andoppositiontoitbecameanessentialpillarof socialconservatismgenerally,andoftheRepublicanParty inparticular.VicePresidentDanQuaylebecameoneofthe firstnationalleaderstoacknowledgeandvilifythetrend whenhetoldtheaudienceofGoodMorningAmericain 1992thatso-calledgaymarriageandheterosexualmarriagewerenotmorallyequivalent. Socialconservativesquicklyframedtheissueasoneof statesrights.Alarmedthatsame-sexmarriagesfrompermittingstateswouldnowbefoisteduponstatesthatdid notsanctiongaymarriage,manyralliedforafederallaw defending traditional marriage. In 1996, the Defense of MarriageActemerged,protectingstatesfromhavingtorecognizegaymarriagesfromotherstatesandreaffirmingthat thetermmarriagewasexclusivelyreservedfortheunion ofamanandawoman.Itsailedthroughbothhousesof Congressandwasquicklysignedintolaw. Meanwhile,inCalifornia,socialconservativesenjoyed nosuchprotections.AlthoughtheFamilyCodeofCaliforniaunambiguouslydefinedmarriageasacivilcontract betweenamanandawoman,anothersectionoftheCode recognizedthelegitimacyofgaymarriagesthathadbeen contractedinotherstateswhereitwaslegal.Infact,aslegal scholarBarbaraJ.Coxhasobserved,Californiacourtshad repeatedlyvalidatedalternativemarriagesfromotherstates, even though they were not legal in California, including common-lawmarriages,proxymarriages,andpolygamous marriages.28Inotherwords,thefactthatgaymarriagewas notyetlegalinanyotherstateswasnoguaranteethatCalifornianswouldnotultimatelyhavetorecognizegaymarriage. This was the climate in which the first new social initiativeindecadesemerged.Proposition22,whichwould amendtheFamilyCodetoreadonlymarriagebetweena manandawomanisvalidorrecognizedinCalifornia,appearedonthegeneralelectionballotinNovemberof2000. Introducing the ballot initiative was William J. Pete Knight,aRepublicanfromthedesertcityofPalmdale,who wasfirstelectedtotheAssemblyin1992andthentothe StateSenatein1996.AretiredUnitedStatesAirForcepilot, formertestpilotatEdwardsAirForceBase,andthebrother andfatherofgaymen,Knightpossessedbothall-American credentialsandanimustowardhomosexuals.Hisson,David,

Same-Sex Marriage and the Resurgence of Sexual Propositions

Theclimateforsocialinitiativesreturnedintheearly1990s asanewmovementforsame-sexmarriageinCalifornia, andbeyond,gainedsteam.Earlyin1989,theSanFrancisco BarAssociationendorsedamendingtheFamilyCodetorecognizemarriagebetweentwopeople,andlaterthatyear theSanFranciscoBoardofSupervisorspassedalawgranting domestic partnership licenses to same-sex couples.

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rememberingwhathappenedwhenherevealedhissexual orientation,toldareporterin1999,Fromthatmomenton, myrelationshipwithmyfatherwasover.29Knightwenton subsequentlytointroducetotheLegislaturethreebillslimitingmarriagetoamanandawoman,buteachfailedtomake itoutofcommittee.Frustrated,KnightcircumventedthelegislatingprocessandtookProposition22tothevoters. Fromthebeginning,itwasclearthatthelessonsofProposition16andProposition6werenotlostonKnight.He quicklyraisedalmost$1million.Ashadbeenthecasesince Proposition16,thebulkofthemoneycamefromaverysmall group of wealthy donors, largely concentrated in Orange County.Though650donorschippedin,thelionsshareof themillioncamefromacliqueoffourOrangeCountymultimillionaires.Theleaderofthatgroup,HowardAhmanson, heirtotheHomeSavingsofAmericafortune,wasalsoanadvocatefortheChristianReconstructionistmovement,which soughtamongotherthingstorewritenationallawstobe consistentwithBiblicalones.Hewasalsoatrusteeofthe Chalcedon Institute, whose founder, Rousas John Rushdoony,advocatedthedeathpenaltyforhomosexuals.Even moresignificantthanthefinancialsupportoftheseOrange County powerbrokerswasthe institutional supportof the CatholicChurchand,moreimportantly,theLDSChurch, which instructed its 750,000 California members to lend whateversupporttheycouldtotheKnightcampaign.SecuringthesupportofLDSwhichJohnBriggshadbeenunable todowouldproveinvaluabletothecampaignssuccess. Proposition22wasthefirstvaluesinitiativetopassinCalifornia,anditpassedbyanoverwhelmingmarginof61to39 percent.Knighthadreadthemood,raisedthemoney,locked downreligioussupport,andsoundlyvanquishedhisrivals. Buthealsohaddonesomethingremarkablethathispredecessordidnot:hehadlocatedextraordinarypublicsupport wellbeyondtheranksofhard-linesocialconservatives.More than4.6millionof7.5millionregisteredvotersinCalifornia agreedwithKnightsamendmentintheMarch2000primary.Yet,eightmonthslaterduringthegeneralelection, CaliforniavotersoverwhelminglysupportedDemocratsAl GoreforPresidentandDianneFeinsteintotheSenateand pickedupfiveseatsintheHouseofRepresentatives.The KnightinitiativesucceededinpartbecauseahealthyproportionofDemocratsvotedinfavorofthemeasure,proof ofjusthowfarsuchmeasureshadcomesinceBarnessfirst foray.Sexualpropositions,inshort,hadgonemainstream.

Although the Family Code of California unambiguously defined marriage as a civil contract between a man and a woman, another section of the Code recognized the legitimacy of gay marriages that had been contracted in other states where it was legal.
Thisisagreatvictory,Knighttoldsupporterstheday aftertheelection.WeinCaliforniahavevotedbythemillionstokeepmarriagethewayithasalwaysbeenandthe wayitshouldalwaysbebetweenamanandawoman. Yet,Proposition22hadalmostnoimmediatepracticaleffect, other than to alienate homosexuals and their allies. Untilotherstateslegalizedgaymarriage,therewasnothingbrokenthatProposition22couldfix.Andtocritics,its passagewasapainfulreminderofhowundemocraticdirect democracycouldbe.Therehadbeennograssrootscampaigntobangaymarriage,nopassionatemassofvoters upsetaboutaprovisionintheCaliforniaFamilyCode.But whenpresentedwiththeopportunitytolimitgayrights, evenDemocraticvotersgotonboard. SupportersofgaymarriageimmediatelyfiledlegalchallengestoProposition22,beginningalonglegalbattlethat is still unresolved. In February of 2004, San Francisco MayorGavinNewsomchallengedProposition22byorderingthecityclerktoissuemarriagelicensestogaycouples. Forabriefperiod,thousandsofgaycouplesinSanFranciscorushedtomarry.Oneofthemostnotablemarriages ofthattumultuousperiodwasthatofJoeLazzaroandDavid Knight,theostracizedsonofWilliamKnight.Joinedonly bytheirtwobestfriends,LazzaroandKnightexchanged theirvowsinthespectacularrotundaofSanFranciscoCity Hallin2004.WilliamKnightdidnotattend.

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October 2008, the Protect Marriage Bus Tour stopped in Fresno and invited people to sign their names indicating their support of Prop 8. Proposition 8 was the culmination of an effort, spanning four decades, to harness the power of the ballot initiative to regulate sexual issues.

meddlesomenessthatrunscontrarytothespiritofdirect
William Pete Knight with wife, Helena, and sons David (left) and Peter (right) in front of an experimental X-15 rocket-powered aircraft, mid-1960s. A retired Air Force pilot, William Knight rose to prominence in the California Legislature in the 1990s and introduced Proposition 22, the first successful sexual proposition in California, on the 2000 ballot.

democracyasitwasoriginallyenvisioned,butisconsistent withtheletterofthelaw.Andyet,asourhistoricaltourof Californiaspoliticallandscapesuggests,theuseofsexual propositionshasnotonlyintensified,buthasalsodrawnthe supportofawideningspectrumofvoters.Inshort,theevidencesuggeststhatwewillcontinuetoseekandfindmoral satisfactionattheballotbox,evenwhendoingsoeradicates noverifiabledangersandalienatesapoliticalminority. Ofcourse,therearetechnicalsolutionstothisproblem. Forexample,asadvocatesforCaliforniaStateconstitutional reformhavesuggested,wemightauthorizethelegislature toholdhearingsontheimpactofproposedinitiatives,allowingthemtobettereducatethevotingpublic.Additionally, we might require supermajorities for constitutional andevenstatutoryinitiatives.30Butultimately,thefixfor thisproblemisnottechnicalbutprobablyspiritual.ItrequiresCalifornianstofullyappreciatethecontingencyof theirownperceivedrights.UnlesstheUnitedStatesSupremeCourthasruledthatthoserightscannotbeabridged, itisentirelypossiblethatsomewhereinCalifornia,someoneispreparingtoabridgethem.

OnMarch15,2008,theCaliforniaSupremeCourtruled thattheProposition22wasunconstitutional,stimulating anotherfrenzyofgayweddingsmorethan18,000from June16throughNovember5.AndthenvoterspassedProposition8.

Morality by Plebiscite
ContrarytotheclaimsofBarnesandhisfollowers,voluntaryexposuretopornographydidnotproducegenerationsof murderousrapists.ContrarytotheclaimsofBriggsandhis cronies,toleranceofhomosexualteachersdidnotproduce generations of morally damaged, sexually molested students.ContrarytotheclaimsofProposition22andProposition8supporters,allowinggaypeopletogetmarriedwill notcannotdestroy or devalue heterosexual marriage. During the five months in 2008 in which gay marriage waslegalinCalifornia,therewasnorashofheterosexual divorces,nomassmovementofstraightsabandoningtheir vows.Attheheartofeachofthesesexualpropositionsisa
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Ultimately, the fix for this problem is not technical but probably spiritual.

The author wishes to thank the editors of Boom, the two anonymous referees, and Dr. Lawrence Becker of California State University, Northridge, for their thoughtful and critical readings of earlier drafts of this article. b

15

Perversion for Profit film (Citizens for Decent Literature, 1963). PaulWelch,HomosexualityinAmerica,Life,26June1964, 6680. Meeker, Contacts Desired, 189; Jack Fritscher, Some Dance to Remember: A Novel of Gay Liberation in San Francisco, 19701982(SanFrancisco:PalmDrivePublishing,1990),155.

16

Notes
1

17

AlexandraZavis,IntheThickofProp.8;AGayCoupleWho MovedHeretoMarryContinuetoProtestItsPassage,Los Angeles Times,21December2008,B1. BethanyClough,ItsnowpartofourconstitutionThousands celebrate ruling for man-woman marriage measure, The Fresno Bee,1June2009,A1.

Richard Bergholz, District Changes Listed for Voters, Los Angeles Times,8April1962,A1;T.AnthonyQuinn, Redrawing the Lines: 1961. A Study of the Redistricting Process in California (ClaremontMensCollege,CA:TheRoseInstituteofStateand LocalGovernment,n.d.),44. John H. Averill, Dodd Won Support of Liberals, Conservatives,Los Angeles Times,1May1966,B6. OnFrawleyspoliticalandcorporateactivity,see:Averill,Dodd Won Support: Vincent J. Burke, 450 Business Leaders to SupportGoldwater,Los Angeles Times,22September1964,2; Corporations:EversharpMayMoveHQtoCulverCity,Los Angeles Times,17January1963,B8. BoomreaderscanperusethiscampaignliteratureintheNormanAllderdiceCollectionatStanfordsHooverInstitution.

18

DavidS.Broder,Democracy Derailed: Initiative Campaigns and the Power of Money (NewYork:Harcourt,2000),1. ThisdatawasgenerouslyfurnishedbyJohnG.Matsusakaof the Initiative and Referendum Institute at the University of SouthernCalifornia,henceforthcitedasIRIData.

19

IRIData. ThislastpointwasmadeabundantlyclearbyaSacramento Bee pollinJuly2010,whichshowedthatfewerthantwoyearsafter supportingProposition8,aslightmajorityofCalifornianindicatedthattheywouldsupportgaymarriage.SusanFerriss, NarrowMajorityofCaliforniaVotersFavorGayMarriagein Poll,The Sacramento Bee,10July2010,1A.

20

21

TwoWagingAssemblyFighttoRepresentPartsofTwoCounties,Los Angeles Times,30October1966,OC13. RobertScheer,ATimesInterviewwithSenatorJohnBriggson Homosexuality,Los Angeles Times,6October1978,B1.

22

23

IRIData. See,forexample:HerbertAsbury,The Barbary Coast: An Informal History of the San Francisco Underworld (NewYork:Capricorn Books,1968[1933]);SusanJohnson,Roaring Camp: The Social World of the California Gold Rush(NewYork:W.W.Norton,2000). B.E.Lloyd,Lights and Shades in San Francisco(SanFrancisco: A.L.Bancroft&Company,1876),78,79. San Francisco Call,29January1907,ascitedinAsbury,The Barbary Coast,262.

AnitaBryant,The Anita Bryant Story: The Survival of Our Nations Families and the Threat of Militant Homosexuality(OldTappan,NJ:RevelCompany,1977),85. BriggssaysGayshaveTakenCity,NewsWest,23June7July 1977,4.

24

25

YourRightsasaParentandaTaxpayerAreUnderAttack, leaflet,box1,folder2,JamesFosterPapers,KochLibrary,CornellUniversity. John Dart, Mormons Hold Back on Election Stands, Los Angeles Times,27May1978,C15.

10

26

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Josh Sides, Erotic City: Sexual Revolutions and the Making of Modern San Francisco(NewYork:Oxford,2009). GeraldWoods,APenchantforProbity:CaliforniaProgressives andtheDisreputablePleasures,ineds.WilliamDeverelland TomSitton,California Progressivism Revisited(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1994),99113.

27

12

WilliamMartin,With God on Our Side: The Rise of the Religious Right in America(NewYork:Broadway,1997),242243;Patrick J.Buchanan,AIDSDisease:ItsNatureStrikingBack,New York Post,24May1983,31. BarbaraJ.Cox,ApplyingtheUsualMarriage-ValidationRuleto MarriagesofSame-SexCouples,ineds.LynnD.Wardle,Mark Strasser,WilliamC.Duncan,andDavidOrgonCoolidge,Marriage and Same-Sex Unions: A Debate(Westport,Connecticut, 2003),319320. ThomasD.Elias,CatholicsBackPlantoBanCaliforniaGay Marriages,Washington Times,7November1999,C3.

28

13

See,forexample,thefollowingarticlesfromtheLos Angeles Times: News Venders Found Guilty, 25 August 1926, A1; ConvictedforIndecency,21January1949,A1; Rothv.UnitedStates,354U.S.476(1957);foranexceptionalexplanationofRothandsubsequentobscenityrulings,see:Donald A.Downs,ObscenityandPornography,ineds.KermitL.Hall, et.al.,The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States (NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1992),603604.

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29

30

R.JeffreyLustig,APeoplesConventionforCalifornia,ined. R. Jeffrey Lustig, Remaking California: Reclaiming the Public Good(Berkeley:HeydayBooks,2010),207.

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