Beam Bending Theory and Calculations

Beam Index
Disclaimer: The information on this page has not been checked by an independent person. Use this information at your own risk. ROYMECH Home Index for Beam Information Introduction... dictionary definition.... "a long sturdy piece of squared timber or steel used in house building " For the notes on this site a beam is as a structural member considered because it is primarily loaded in a tranverse direction to its length.. A column is a structural member compressively loaded along its length.. A beam is typically a structural member which has a constant section and has a length dimension which is long compared to its section dimensions. It primarily support loads in a tranverse direction to its length. Beams are primarily used in construction of structures. In mechanical engineering shafts, levers, springs, gear teeth are designed using beam theory.. This section only relates to beams subject to tranverse loads, it does not include notes on beams withstanding axial or torsional loads Links to Beam Notes Beam Theory Single Span Beams Sites Providing Relevant Information 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams..UMIST notes Statics and Strength of Materials...U of Wisconsin Notes including section on beams 4 Beams...Building Principles a very clear download document Elasticity...Short wide rangining paper download Mitcalc...Excel based software including coded beam calculations ON LINE ANALYSIS...EPC server on line structural calculations (Free at the moment) - Only USA units Shear/BM diagrams Continuous Beams Singularity Functions Curved Beams Strain energy Energy Methods
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Elastic Bending Theory
Disclaimer: The information on this page has not been checked by an independent person. Use this information at your own risk. ROYMECH Home Beams Index

Introduction.... Superposition.... Nomenclature.... Simple Bending.... Deflection.... Area Moment Method....
Introduction The stress, strain, dimension, curvature, elasticity, are all related, under certain assumption, by the theory of simple bending. This theory relates to beam flexure resulting from couples applied to the beam without consideration of the shearing forces.
Superposition Principle The superposition principle is one of the most important tools for solving beam loading problems allowing simplification of very complicated design problems.. For beams subjected several loads of different types the resulting shear force, bending moment, slope and deflection can be found at any location by summing the effects due to each load acting separately to the other loads.
Nomenclature e = strain
E = Young's Modulus = /e (N/m2) y = distance of surface from neutral surface (m). R = Radius of neutral axis (m). I = Moment of Inertia (m4 - more normally cm4) Z = section modulus = I/ymax(m3 - more normally cm3) F = Force (N) x = Distance along beam
= deflection (m) = Slope (radians) = stress (N/m2)
Simple Bending A straight bar of homogeneous material is subject to only a moment at one end and an equal and opposite moment at the other end...
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Assumptions The beam is symmetrical about Y-Y The traverse plane sections remain plane and normal to the longitudinal fibres after bending (Beroulli's assumption) The fixed relationship between stress and strain (Young's Modulus)for the beam material is the same for tension and compression ( = E.e )
Consider two section very close together (AB and CD). After bending the sections will be at A'B' and C'D' and are no longer parallel. AC will have extended to A'C' and BD will have compressed to B'D' The line EF will be located such that it will not change in length. This surface is called neutral surface and its intersection with Z_Z is called the neutral axis The development lines of A'B' and C'D' intersect at a point 0 at an angle of radians and the radius of E'F' = R Let y be the distance(E'G') of any layer H'G' originally parallel to EF..Then
H'G'/E'F' =(R+y) /R = (R+y)/R

And the strain e at layer H'G' =
e = (H'G'- HG) / HG = (H'G'- HG) / EF = [(R+y) - R ] /R = y /R

The accepted relationship between stress and strain is = E.e Therefore
= E.e = E. y /R /E=y/R
Therefore, for the illustrated example, the tensile stress is directly related to the distance above the neutral axis. The compressive stress is also directly related to the distance below the neutral axis. Assuming E is the same for compression and tension the relationship is the same. As the beam is in static equilibrium and is only subject to moments (no vertical shear forces) the forces across the section (AB) are entirely longitudinal and the total compressive forces must balance the total tensile forces. The internal couple resulting from the sum of ( .dA .y) over the whole section must equal the externally applied moment.
This can only be correct if (ya) or (y.z.y) is the moment of area of the section about the neutral axis. This can only be zero if the axis passes through the centre of gravity (centroid) of the section. The internal couple resulting from the sum of ( .dA .y) over the whole section must equal the externally applied moment. Therefore the couple of the force resulting from the stress on each area when totalled over the whole area will equal the applied moment
From the above the following important simple beam bending relationship results
It is clear from above that a simple beam subject to bending generates a maximum stress at the surface furthest away from the neutral axis. For sections symmetrical about Z-Z the maximum compressive and tensile stress is equal.
max = ymax. M / I
The factor I /ymax is given the name section Modulus (Z) and therefore
max = M / Z
Values of Z are provided in the tables showing the properties of standard steel sections
Deflection of Beams Below is shown the arc of the neutral axis of a beam subject to bending.
For small angle dy/dx = tan = The curvature of a beam is identified as d /ds = 1/R In the figure
is small and x; is practically = s; i.e ds /dx =1
From this simple approximation the following relationships are derived.
Integrating between selected limits. The deflection between limits is obtained by further integration.
It has been proved ref Shear - Bending that dM/dx = S and dS/dx = -w = d2M /dx Where S = the shear force M is the moment and w is the distributed load /unit length of beam. therefore
If w is constant or a integratatable function of x then this relationship can be used to arrive at general expressions for S, M, dy/dx, or y by progressive integrations with a constant of integration being added at each stage. The properties of the supports or fixings may be used to determine the constants. (x= 0 - simply supported, dx/dy = 0 fixed end etc ) In a similar manner if an expression for the bending moment is known then the slope and deflection can be obtained at any point x by single and double integration of the relationship and applying suitable constants of integration.
Singularity functions can be used for determining the values when the loading a not simple ref Singularity Functions
Example - Cantilever beam Consider a cantilever beam (uniform section) with a single concentrated load at the end. At the fixed end x = 0, dy = 0 , dy/ dx = 0
From the equilibrium balance ..At the support there is a resisting moment -FL and a vertical upward force F. At any point x along the beam there is a moment F(x - L) = Mx = EI d 2y /dx 2
Example - Simply supported beam Consider a simply supported uniform section beam with a single load F at the centre. The beam will be deflect symmetrically about the centre line with 0 slope (dy/dx) at the centre line. It is convenient to select the origin at the centre line.
Moment Area Method
This is a method of determining the change in slope or the deflection between two points on a beam. It is expressed as two theorems... Theorem 1 If A and B are two points on a beam the change in angle (radians) between the tangent at A and the tangent at B is equal to the area of the bending moment diagram between the points divided by the relevant value of EI (the flexural rigidity constant). Theorem 2 If A and B are two points on a beam the displacement of B relative to the tangent of the beam at A is equal to the moment of the area of the bending moment diagram between A and B about the ordinate through B divided by the relevant value of EI (the flexural rigidity constant). Examples ..Two simple examples are provide below to illustrate these theorems Example 1) Determine the deflection and slope of a cantilever as shown..
The bending moment at A = MA = FL The area of the bending moment diagram AM = F.L2 /2 The distance to the centroid of the BM diagram from B= xc = 2L/3 The deflection of B = y b = A M.x c /EI = F.L 3 /3EI The slope at B relative to the tan at A = b =AM /EI = FL2 /2EI
Example 2) Determine the central deflection and end slopes of the simply supported beam as shown..
E = 210 GPa ......I = 834 cm4...... EI = 1,7514. 10 6Nm 2
A1 = 10.1,8.1,8/2 = 16,2kNm A2 = 10.1,8.2 = 36kNm A2 = 10.1,8.2 = 36kNm A1 = 10.1,8.1,8/2 = 16,2kNm x1 = Centroid of A1 = (2/3).1,8 = 1,2 x2 = Centroid of A2 = 1,8 + 1 = 2,8 x3 = Centroid of A3 = 1,8 + 1 = 2,8 x4 = Centroid of A4 = (2/3).1,8 = 1,2 The slope at A is given by the area of the moment diagram between A and C divided by EI.
A = (A1 + A2) /EI
= (16,2+36).10 3 / (1,7514. 10 6) = 0,029rads = 1,7 degrees
The deflection at the centre (C) is equal to the deviation of the point A above a line that is tangent to C. Moments must therefore be taken about the deviation line at A.
C = (AM.xM) /EI
= (A1 x1 +A2 x2) / EI = 120,24.10 3/ (1,7514. 10 6) = 0,0686m = 68,6mm
Shear Force And Bending diagrams
Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

Introduction Normally a beam is analysed to obtain the maximum stress and this is compared to the material strength to determine the design safety margin. It is also normally required to calculate the deflection on the beam under the maximum expected load. The determination of the maximum stress results from producing the shear and bending moment diagrams. To facilitate this work the first stage is normally to determine all of the external loads. Nomenclature e = strain
E = Young's Modulus = /e (N/m2) y = distance of surface from neutral surface (m). R = Radius of neutral axis (m). I = Moment of Inertia (m4 - more normally cm4) Z = section modulus = I/ymax(m3 - more normally cm3) M = Moment (Nm) w = Distrubuted load on beam (kg/m) or (N/m as force units) W = total load on beam (kg ) or (N as force units) F= Concentrated force on beam (N) S= Shear Force on Section (N) L = length of beam (m) x = distance along beam (m) Calculation of external forces To allow determination of all of the external loads a free-body diagram is construction with all of the loads and supports replaced by their equivalent forces. A typical free-body diagram is shown below.
= stress (N/m2)
The unknown forces (generally the support reactions) are then determined using the equations for plane static equilibrium.
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For example considering the simple beam above the reaction R2 is determined by Summing the moments about R1 to zero R2. L - W.a = 0 Therefore R2 = W.a / L R1 is determined by summing the vertical forces to 0 W - R1 - R2 = 0 Therefore R1 = W - R2
Shear and Bending Moment Diagram The shear force diagram indicates the shear force withstood by the beam section along the length of the beam. The bending moment diagram indicates the bending moment withstood by the beam section along the length of the beam. It is normal practice to produce a free body diagram with the shear diagram and the bending moment diagram position below For simply supported beams the reactions are generally simple forces. When the beam is built-in the free body diagram will show the relevant support point as a reaction force and a reaction moment.... Sign Convention The sign convention used for shear force diagrams and bending moments is only important in that it should be used consistently throughout a project. The sign convention used on this page is as below
Typical Diagrams A shear force diagram is simply constructed by moving a section along the beam from (say)the left origin and summing the forces to the left of the section. The equilibrium condition states that the forces on either side of a section balance and therefore the resisting shear force of the section is obtained by this simple operation The bending moment diagram is obtained in the same way except that the moment is the sum of the product of each force and its distance (x) from the section. Distributed loads are calculated buy summing the product of the total force (to the left of the section) and the distance (x) of the centroid of the distributed load. The sketches below show simply supported beams with on concentrated force.
The sketches below show Cantilever beams with three different load combinations.
Note: The force shown if based on loads (weights) would need to be converted to force units i.e. 50kg = 50x9,81(g) = 490 N. Shear Force Moment Relationship Consider a short length of a beam under a distributed load separated by a distance x.
The bending moment at section AD is M and the shear force is S. The bending moment at BC = M + M and the shear force is S + S. The equations for equilibrium in 2 dimensions results in the equations.. Forces
S - w.x = S + S
Therefore making x infinitely small then.. dS /dx = - w Moments.. Taking moments about C
M + Sx - M - M - w(x)2 /2 = 0 Therefore making x infinitely small then.. dM /dx = S

Therefore putting the relationships into integral form.
The integral (Area) of the shear diagram between any limits results in the change of the shearing force between these limits and the integral of the Shear Force diagram between limits results in the change in bending moment...
Sites Providing Relevant Information 1. Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams..UMIST notes 2. Statics and Strength of Materials...U of Wisconsin Notes including section on beams 3. Statics of bending shear force and Bending moment diagrams...MIT Paper

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Singularity Functions
Introduction When calculating the shear Force and the bending moment diagrams for more complex loading across discontinuities such as concentrated loads and moments. Simple methods are not enough. For the more complicated cases the use of singularity functions provide a convenient method. A singularity function is expressed as
Where n = any integer (positive or negative) including zero a = distance on x axis along the beam,from the selected origin, identifying the location of the discontinuity.
Rules in applying singularity functions If n >0 and the expression inside the angular brackets is positive then fn(x) = (x-a)n the expression is a normal algbraic formula If n > 0 and the expression inside the angular brackets is negative then fn(x) = 0 If n < 0 then fn = 1 for x = a and fn(x) = 0 otherwise If n = 0 then fn = 1 for x >= a and fn(x) = 0 otherwise
Unit Singularity Function
Singularity Function as used
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Example of using singularity functions for a simply supported beam
A more complex example of using singularity functions The requirement is to obtain the Shear load, moment, slope and deflection anywhere along the beam as shown
The equations above can be used to determine the shear load, moment, slope and deflection for the beam from x = 0 to x = L
Sites Providing Relevant Information 1. Lecture notes 2 Singularity functions...Berkely University download - with informative notes 2. Deflection of Beams...Michigan U. Useful downloads on beam deflection using singularity functions 3. Beam Loading...Notes including section on using singularity functions to model beam loading

Simple Beams
Simple Beams
Introduction Simple beams are straight of single span and are generally simply supported and are therefore statically determinate using the static equilibrium laws. The single cantilever beam which is built in at one end comes within this category. There are three basic types of supported beam. Other beam types can be obtained by combining these three ..
Beam loading Beams can be loaded in a variety of ways.

q q q q
Concentrated loads Uniformly distributed loads Distributed loads according to some pattern Concentrated moments
The superposition principle provides convenient method of calculating the stresses and deflections for beams subject to a number of different loads. The effect of each load can be established seperately and the effect of all the loads acting simultaneously can be obtained by summing the seperate results... Beam Sections Beams normally have constant sections which for structural work include a variety of forms many of which are included in the sections part of this website ( Sections ). In mechanical engineering, generally, the sections considered are round sections (shafts), or rectangular sections. Beams with sections which vary along their length are often encountered i.e when completing beam calculations for springs, and gear teeth. These special cases are dealt with in the notes related to these specific topics Beam loading formulea A number of the standard beam loading formulea are provided on this website Stress -Strain
Sites Providing Relevant Information 1. 2. 3. 4. Beams, Bending, and Boundary Conditions ...Very simple basic initial notes include review of beam loading types Analysis of Statically Determinate Beams...U of Tornot Notes related to using graphical methods Beam Types...Efunda -Information on beams with easy to use calculators- Subscription required for extended access xcalcs... Section information and Calculations

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Beams Formulae
Disclaimer: The information on this page has not been checked by an independent person. Use this information at your own risk. ROYMECH Home Formulae_Index Nomenclature
Stress/Strain Formulae
Strain = Change in length (dL)over original length (L) e = dL / L Stress = Force (F) divided by Area withstanding Force (A)
=F/A
Young's Modulus E = Stress ( ) / Strain(e). This is a property of a material E=/e
Bending
General Formula for Bending A beam with a moment of inertia I and with Young's modulus E will have a bending stress f at a distance from the Neutral Axis (NA) y and the NA will bend to a radius R ...in accordance with the following formula.
M/I=/y=E/R Important note W and w as used below for beam concentrated load, total load and uniform distributed load are assumed to be in units of force i.e. Newtons If they are provided in units of weight i.e kg then they should be converted into units of force by mutliplying by the gravity constant g (9.81) Simply Supported Beam . Concentrated Load
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Beams Formulae
Simply Supported Beam . Uniformly Distributed Load
Cantilever . Concentrated Load
Cantilever . Uniformly Distributed Load
Beams Formulae
Fixed Beam . Concentrated Load
Fixed Beam . Uniformly Distributed Load
Beams Formulae
Torsion /Shear
Poisson's Ratio = = (lateral strain / primary strain )
Shear Modulus G = Shear Stress /Shear Strain G = / = E / (2 .( 1 + )) General Formula for Torsion
A shaft subject to a torque T having a polar moment of inertia J and a shear Modulus G will have a shear stress q at a radius r and an angular deflection over a length L as calculated from the following formula. T/J=G./L=/r
Pressure Vessels - Thin Walled Cylinders

For a thin walled cylinder subject to internal pressure P the circumferential stress = p_c. This stress tends to stretch the cylinder along its length. This is also called the longitudinal stress. p_c = P . d / ( 4 . t )
For a thin walled cylinder subject to internal pressure P the tangential stress = p_t This stress tends to increase the diameter). This is also called the hoop stress. p_t = P . d / ( 2 . t )
The above two formulae are only valid if the ratio of thickness to dia is less than 1:20
Pressure Vessels - Thick Walled Cylinders
Beams Formulae
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Continuous & Built In Beams
Continuous Beams
Introduction Built -in (Encastre) beams are fixed at both ends. Continuous beam which are beams with more than two supports and covering more than one span. These beams are not statically determinate using the static equilibrium laws. Nomenclature e = strain
E = Young's Modulus = /e (N/m2) y = distance of surface from neutral surface (m). R = Radius of neutral axis (m). I = Moment of Inertia (m4 - more normally cm4) Z = section modulus = I/y max(m3 - more normally cm3) M = Moment (Nm) w = Distributed load on beam (kg/m) or (N/m as force units) W = total load on beam (kg ) or (N as force units) F= Concentrated force on beam (N) L = length of beam (m) x = distance along beam (m)
= stress (N/m2)
Built in beams A built in beam is normally considered to be horizontal with both ends built-in at the same level and with zero slope at both ends. A loaded built in beam has a moment at both ends and normally the maximum moments at at one or both of the two end joints. A built in beam is generally much stronger than a simply supported beam of the same geometry. The bending moment reduces along the beam and changes sign at points of contraflexure between the supports and the load. A typical built-in beam is shown below.
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It is not normally possible to determine the bending moments and the resulting stress using static equilibrium. Deflection calculations are often used to enable the moments to be determined. Repeating section from Beam Theory It has been proved ref Shear Bending that dM/dx = S and dS/dx = -w = d2M /dx Where S = the shear force M is the moment and w is the distributed load /unit length of beam. Therefore
Using the above beam as an example...
Using the above equations the bending moment, shear force, deflection, slope can be determined at any point along the beam.
M = EI d 2y/dx 2 = w(- 6x2+6lx -l2)/12 at x = 0 & l then M = -wl2 /12 and at x = l/2 then M = wl2 /24 S = EI d 3y/dx 3 = w(l/2 - x) at x = 0 then S = w.l/2 at x = l then S = -w.l/2
Continuous Beams This type of beam is normally considered using the Clapeyron's Theorem ( Three Moments theorem)
The three moments theorem identifies the relationship between the bending moments found at three consecutive supports in a continuous beam. This is achieved by evaluating the slope of of the beam at the end where the two spans join. The slopes are expressed in terms of the three moments and the supported loads which are then equated and the resulting equations solved. This relationship for spans with supports at the same height and with spans of constant section results in the following expression.
M A.L 1 + 2.M B(L 1 + L 2)+ M C.L 2 = - 6(A 1 . x 1 /L 1 + A 2 . x 2 /L 2 )

If the beams has a different section for each span then the more general expression applies as shown below
M A.L 1/I 1 + 2.M B(L 1/I 1 + L 2/I 2 ) + M C. L2 = - 6 [A 1 . x 1 /(L 1 .I 1 ) + A 2 . x 2 / (L 2 .I 2 ) ]
Example Areas and x 1 value calculations
Examples using theorem. Example 1) This simple example is a two span continuous beam with the ends simple supported,therefore with no moments at the end support points.. 1) Bending Moments.
2) Shear Forces
3) Diagrams
Example 2) This simple example is a three span continuous beam with the ends simple supported,therefore with no moments at the end support points..
The values of A1,x1,A2, and x2 are calculated using the methods above..
Sites Providing Relevant Information 1. 2. 3. 4. Three Moment equation for continous beam analysis...Very advanced paper download Mitcalc...Excel based software including coded beam calculations Granta -Solutions to Standard Problems...Very accessible notes for beams and sections ETBX Engineers Toolbox...A number of ver useful mechanical analysis tools with useful background notes ..Needs Java

Curved Beams
Curved beams
Introduction The beam theory can also be applied to curved beams allowing the stress to be determined for shapes including crane hooks and rings. When the dimensions of the cross section are small compared to the radius of curvature of the longitudonal axis the bending theory can be relatively accurate. When this is not the case even using the modified Bernoulli-Euler only provides approximate solutions Symbols
= strain
e = eccentricity (r c - r n) (m) c c = Distance from centroid axis to inner surface. (m) c i = Distance from neutral axis to inner surface. (m) c o = Distance from neutral axis to outer surface. (m)
= stress (N/m2)
Theory
d= Surface rotation resulting from bending stress
E = Young's Modulus = /e (N/m2) y = distance of surface from neutral surface (m). r n = Radius of neutral axis (m). r c = Radius of centroid (m). r = Radius of axis under consideration (m). I = Moment of Inertia (m4 - more normally cm4) Z = section modulus = I/y max(m3 - more normally cm3)
The sketch below shows a curved member subject to a bending moment M. The neutral axis r n and the centroid r c are not the same. This is the primary difference between a straight beam and a curved beam.
The strain at a radius r =
The strain is clearly 0 when r = at the neutral axis and is maximum when r = the outer radius of the beam (r = r o ) Using the relationship of stress/strain = E the normal stress is simply.
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Curved Beams
The location of the neutral axis is obtained from summing the product of the normal stress and the area elements over the whole area to 0
Neutral Axis for a Rectangular Section..
Curved Beams
Curved Beam in Bending The stress resulting from an applied bending moment is derived from the fact that the resisting moment is simple the integral over the whole section of the moment arm from the neutral axis (y) multiplied by dA (= dF). Moment equilibrium is achieved if
The curved beam flexure formula is in reasonable agreement for beams with a ratio of curvature to beam depth of rc/h of > 5 (rectangular section). As the beam curvature/depth radius increases the difference between the maximum stress calculated by curved beam formula and the normal beam formula reduces. If the ratio is about 8 then a maximum stress error of only about 5% results from using the straight beam formulae. Note:
Curved Beams
The above equations are valid for pure bending. In the more normal cases of e.g crane hooks, the bending moment is due to forces acting on one side of the section under consideration. The bending moment, in this case has to be taken about the centroidal axis , not the neutral axis and the additional tensile or compressive stresses have to be considered to obtain the resultant stresses on the section. ( see example below). Example Hook Calculation The hook is lifting a load of 25000N.
The stress values plotting against r are shown below:
The tensile stress at the inner surface is calculated at 126.76 N/mm2 and the compressive stress at the outer surface is calculated at
Curved Beams
-42,25 N/mm2...This section profile results in a tensile stress three times greater than the compressive stress. A more efficient section with the stresses balanced would result from having a wider inner section and a thinner outer section.
Sites Providing Relevant Information 1. 2. 3. 4. Thick curved beams...U.of West Australia ..Comprehensive Notes -excellent Beams composite curve, unsymmetrical...Washington U. Paper download software tools- spreadsheets... A number of spreadsheet models including a simple curved beam spreadsheet Pure Bending...Lecture Notes including some notes on curved beams

Energy Methods of Beam Solutions
Disclaimer: The information on this page has not been checked by an independent person. Use this information at your own risk. ROYMECH Home Beams Index Notes Using Strain Energy Methods for solving beam problems Castigliano's Method Introduction When external forces are applied to an beam or structure the structure distorts. The external forces perform work and the energy is stored in the structure in the form stress and elastic deformation. In conformance with the law of conservation of energy the work done in the small movements of the external forces (W) must be equal to the potential energy U stored in the structure.
External Work Done = Internal Energy Stored W=U

When the external forces are removed the beam or structure rebounds elastically, and the stored potential energy returns to zero..... This simple concept provides methods of investigating the deflections of beams and structures under external loading. These methods called energy methods are completely independent of the normal stress/strain methods described elsewhere and are often much more convenient to apply. Castigliano theorem is the best known energy method and notes on the application of this thoerem are provided on this webpage The notes below provide a very basic introduction to the theorem. For detailed notes reference to specialist literature is required.. Castiglianos's Method This method provides a means of finding a particular deformation at a particular point. Unlike the method of double integration, it does not provide general equations for linear and angular deformations for every point on a beam or structure. For may problems a particular solution is often the only information required and the energy method is the most convenient option Castiglianos's theorem is stated below When forces act on elastic systems subject to small displacements, the displacement corresponding to any force collinear with the force is equal of the partial derivative to the total strain energy with respect to that force. The sign of the displacement is positive, if the displacement is in the same direction as the force Mathematically Catigliano's theorem is stated as follows..
i is the displacement of the point of application of the force F i in the direction of F i..
For angular displacement (rotational) This equation can be expressed as follows
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i is the rotational displacement (radians) of the moment M i in the direction of M i ..

This method is very useful for obtaining the displacement of a point where there is no force or moment. In this case a force/ moment is created and then made zero at a suitable point in the analysis. Procedure The procedure to be applied in using Castiglianos's theorem is as follows a) To determine a deflection y i in the direction of a real or fictitious force F f 1. Obtain an expression for the total strain energy including the the loads F,M,T,V and a fictitious force if required required. 2. Obtain the linear deflection y f from the relationship y f = U / F f 3. If the force is fictitious set F f = 0 and solve the resulting equation
a) To determine an angular deflection f in the direction of a real or fictitious moment M f 1. Obtain an expression for the total strain energy including the the loads F,M,T,V and a fictitious moment if required. 2. Obtain the angular deflection from the relationship f = U /M i 3. If the moment is fictitious set M f = 0 and solve the resulting equation
Examples Some examples of the use of Castigliano's theorem are provided to illustrate the principles.. Example 1 Consider a simply supported beam with a central load F. The deflection at the central load point is to be determined. l= 2m, b=0,1m, h= 0,05m, F=10 000N, E=206 GPa, G = 78,610, I = 4,17.10-6m4
For this example it is assumed that the beam is a rectangle width b and depth h. The strain energy for bending and for traverse shear is included in the consideration. Because the beam is symmetrical the deflection at the central point is obtained by doubling the solution from 0 to l/2. x = the distance from the left hand support. Moment M = (F/2).x and Tranverse Force V = F/2
With reference to the webpage on strain energy 1) The expression for the total strain energy =
Strain Energy
2) From Castigiano's theorem the deflection of the Force F in the direction of F
y f = U / F f
As can be seen from the above example the deflection resulting from the traverse shear is about 0,8% that of resulting from bending and is therefore generally ignored... Example 2 Consider the cantilever beam with a load F at a distance b from the free end. The deflection at the free end is required and so a fictitious load Ff has been added. The strain energy due to traverse shear loading can be neglected.
The expression for the moment is
1) With reference to the webpage on strain energy
Strain Energy The equation for the strain energy is therefore..
2) From Castigiano's theorem the deflection of the Force Ff in the direction of Ff
y f = U / F f
3) Setting Ff to zero and integrating for x results in
Example 3 Consider the frame as shown below with one leg free to move horizontally and the other leg pivotted. A horizontal force F is applied to the free leg and the deflection of the free leg is required. The strain energy due to traverse shear loading can be neglected.
The expression for the moment in CD M = Fy The expression for the moment in BC M = FL1 The expression for the moment in AB M = Fy The expression for the Tensile force in BC = F 1) With reference to the webpage on strain energy Strain Energy The equation for the strain energy is therefore..
2) From Castigiano's theorem the deflection of the Force F in the direction of F
= U / F f
Links to Spring Design 1. Strain Energy Methods ...A powerpoint presentation of the appication of strain energy methods 2. Elasticity Theory ...Very detailed notes including reference to strain energy
This Page is being developed

Home Beams Index Send Comments to Roy@roymech.co.uk Last Updated 17/10/2006

Beam Bending Theory and Calculations

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Beam Bending Theory and Calculations

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Beam Index

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Elastic Bending Theory

Elastic Bending Theory

= deflection (m) = Slope (radians) = stress (N/m2)

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Elastic Bending Theory

H'G'/E'F' =(R+y) /R = (R+y)/R

e = (H'G'- HG) / HG = (H'G'- HG) / EF = [(R+y) - R ] /R = y /R

http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Beams/Beam_theory.html (2 of 9)16/07/2007 17:58:28

Elastic Bending Theory

http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Beams/Beam_theory.html (3 of 9)16/07/2007 17:58:28

Elastic Bending Theory

is small and x; is practically = s; i.e ds /dx =1

From this simple approximation the following relationships are derived.

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Elastic Bending Theory

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Elastic Bending Theory

Moment Area Method

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Elastic Bending Theory

E = 210 GPa ......I = 834 cm4...... EI = 1,7514. 10 6Nm 2

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Elastic Bending Theory

A = (A1 + A2) /EI

= (16,2+36).10 3 / (1,7514. 10 6) = 0,029rads = 1,7 degrees

= (A1 x1 +A2 x2) / EI = 120,24.10 3/ (1,7514. 10 6) = 0,0686m = 68,6mm

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Shear Force And Bending diagrams

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Beams/Shear_Bending.html (1 of 4)16/07/2007 17:58:30

Shear Force And Bending diagrams

http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Beams/Shear_Bending.html (2 of 4)16/07/2007 17:58:30

Shear Force And Bending diagrams

Shear Force And Bending diagrams

M + Sx - M - M - w(x)2 /2 = 0 Therefore making x infinitely small then.. dM /dx = S

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http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Beams/Shear_Bending.html (4 of 4)16/07/2007 17:58:30

Unit Singularity Function

Singularity Function as used

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Example of using singularity functions for a simply supported beam

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Beam loading Beams can be loaded in a variety of ways.

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http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Form/Stress_Strain.html (1 of 5)16/07/2007 18:00:18

Simply Supported Beam . Uniformly Distributed Load

Cantilever . Concentrated Load

Cantilever . Uniformly Distributed Load

http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Form/Stress_Strain.html (2 of 5)16/07/2007 18:00:18

Fixed Beam . Concentrated Load

Fixed Beam . Uniformly Distributed Load

http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Form/Stress_Strain.html (3 of 5)16/07/2007 18:00:18

Pressure Vessels - Thin Walled Cylinders

Pressure Vessels - Thick Walled Cylinders

http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Form/Stress_Strain.html (4 of 5)16/07/2007 18:00:18

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