Engr 190 f2010 Text

Energy and Nuclear Power
ENGR 190 Idaho State University College of Engineering Fall 2010
Supplemental Text and Notes

Prepared by Jay F. Kunze, PhD, PE, CHP Editor: Michael Haddox September, 2010
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Useful References on the Internet ................................................................................................................ iv Unit Conversions .......................................................................................................................................... v Basic Numbers for Nuclear Engineers ........................................................................................................ vii Electricity and Natural Gas Rates ................................................................................................................. 1 Capacity Factor ............................................................................................................................................. 2 Energy Data for the USA 2009 Energy Review ........................................................................................ 4 History of Scientific Studies Leading to Nuclear Power ............................................................................ 23 Nuclear Energy vs. Chemical Energy ......................................................................................................... 24 Initial Development Building a Bomb ..................................................................................................... 24 The Effects of Nuclear Explosions ............................................................................................................. 25 Concepts for Power Plants Following World War II .................................................................................. 27 Pressurized and Boiler Water Reactors....................................................................................................... 28 World List of Nuclear Power Plants ........................................................................................................... 33 Neutron Cross Sections ............................................................................................................................... 62 Neutron Flux ............................................................................................................................................... 66 Making a Reactor Critical ........................................................................................................................... 67 Reactivity and Time Behavior of a Reactor ................................................................................................ 70 Shutdown Decay Heat................................................................................................................................. 73 The Xenon-135 Fission Product Poison Problem ....................................................................................... 75 Heat Removal From the Reactor................................................................................................................. 76 Maximum Power from a Reactor Without Affecting Safety ...................................................................... 79 Health, Safety and Radiation ...................................................................................................................... 82 Protection from Radiation ........................................................................................................................... 84 Low Level Radiation Effects on Humans ................................................................................................... 86 The Linear, No-Threshold (LNT) Hypothesis/The Collective Dose Hypothesis .......................... 87 The Case of Radon in Homes ........................................................................................................ 90 Plutonium ....................................................................................................................................... 92 The Taiwan Co-60 Incident ........................................................................................................... 92 Nuclear and Reactor Safety And Regulations............................................................................................. 94 Economics of Nuclear Electricity ............................................................................................................... 95 Summary of Serious Nuclear Criticality Accidents .................................................................................... 96 Lessons Learned........................................................................................................................................ 101 From Mine to Fuel Assembly ................................................................................................................... 101 US Department of Energy Laboratories.................................................................................................... 106
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References Data on Energy Sources, Energy Production and Consumption, is from the Energy Information Agency, U.S. Department of Energy The Listing o Nuclear Power Plants Throughout the World is Reproduced, with permission, from the March 2009 issue of Nuclear News, American Nuclear Society, 555 N. Kensington Ave., LaGrange Park, Illinois, 60526 Some other material is copied from Nuclear Reactor Engineering, by Samuel Glasstone and Alexander Sesonske, D. Van Nostrand Co. (1963), copyright assigned to the General Manager of the United States Atomic Energy Commission
USEFUL REFERENCES ON THE INTERNET
1. Energy Information Agency of the US Department of Energy - www.eai.doe.gov 2. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - www.ipcc.ch/ Established by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme 3. InterContinental Energy Exchange - www.theice.com/ Headquartered in London, it serves primarily the USA and United Kingdom. In the electrical market, COB = California Oregon Border, or John Day (JD) (dam on the Columbia River) and would be the primary references for electrical costs in Idaho. 4. For current prices of oil and other commodities - www.wtrg.com/daily/crudeoilprice.html 5. U. S. Statistical Abstract for 2009 - www.census.gov/compendia/statab/ 6. Bloomberg Energy Prices - www.bloomberg.com/markets/commodities/energy-prices/
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UNIT CONVERSIONS
To convert from acres acres acres amperes ampere hours Angstrom Angstrom atmospheres atmospheres atmospheres atmospheres atmospheres barrel (of oil) bars British gallon Btu Btu Btu/hour Btu/hr. ft F bushels (US) bushels(US) bushels(US) calories calories candelas centimeters centimeters centipoises centipoises circular mil Coulombs cubic centimeters cubic feet cubic feet cubic feet cubic meters cubic yards cubic yards density(gm/cm) dynes dynes/sq.cm dyne-cm fathoms feet feet feet ft feet/sec feet/sec feet/s Multiply by 1/640 0.40469 43560 1 3600 1E-08 0.1 14.696 29.921 33.78 760 101,330 42 0.98692 1.2 777.65 1055.1 1/3414 5.69 1.2445 35.239 0.0035239 1/4.186=0.2389 252 1 1/2.54 1/30.48 0.01 2.419 5.06771E-06 1 0.001 2.2957E-05 7.4805 0.028317 35.315 201.97 0.76455 1 1E-05 1E-06 1E-07 6 30.48 1/5280 1/3280.8 28.3317 1/1.467 1.0973 0.30048 to Obtain square miles hectares (ha) square feet Coulombs/sec Coulombs Cm nanometers pounds/in inches of Hg feet of water mm of Hg Pa gallons(US) atmospheres gal (US) ft-lb(f) Joules kW W/mK cubic feet L m J Btu lumen/st inches Feet g/(cm-s) lbm/(hr-ft) cm A-s L acre-ft gal (US) m ft gal (US) cubic meters specific gravity Newtons (N) bars N-m feet cm miles kilometers L miles/hour km/hour m/s To convert from foot candles ft-pounds(force) ft-pounds/sec ft-pounds/sec furlongs furlongs foot candles ft-pounds(force) ft-pounds/sec ft-pounds/sec furlongs furlongs gallons(US) gallons(US) gallons(US) gallons(US) grams g/(cm-s) grains hectares hectares horsepower horsepower horsepower horsepower hrs Imperial gallon inches inches Joules Joules Joules/kg Joules/sec kilograms km km km/hour kilowatts kilowatts kilowatt hours knots liters liters lumen/sq.ft lux meters meters microns miles miles miles Multiply by 10.764 1.3558 1/550 1/738 660 1/8 10.764 1.3558 1/550=0.001818 1/738=0.001355 1/8 = 0.125 660 1/7.48=0.13369 3.7854 4 128 1/453.6 1 7000 2.4711 10,000 2546.1 550 0.7457 2546.1 1.2 2.54 1000 1/1055 1 430 E-6 1.341E-03 2.2046 0.62137 3280.8 0.62137 3414 1.341 3,600,000 1.151 0.035315 0.2642 1 1 3.28083 39.37 1E-06 5280 8 1.6093 to Obtain lux (lumen/m) J horsepower (hp) kW feet mile lux (lumen/m) J horsepower (hp) kW mile feet ft (= 231 cubic in.) L quarts (US) fluid ounces (oz) pounds (force) poises pound(mass) acres m Btu/h ft-lbf/s kW Btu gal(US) Cm mils Btu W-s Btu/pound Hp lbm miles feet miles/h Btu/h Hp Joules miles/h ft gal (US) foot candle lumen/m feet inches meters feet furlongs km
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To convert from miles/hour miles/hour nautical miles Newtons Newtons N-m or J N-m or J ounce(US fluid) ounce (avd) ounce (avd) ounce (Troy) Pascals poises pound(f) pound (m) pound (m) pounds/sq. foot pounds/sq. inch pounds/sq. inch pounds(m)/ft radians radians slugs stokes(poise/gm/cm) tablespoon tons(long, metric) tons (metric) tons (short) Watts Watts Watts Watt/sq. meter Water density
Multiply by 1.4667 1.6093 1.1508 100,000 0.22481 1E+07 0.73756 29.574 1/16 28.35 1/12 0.000145 1 4.4482 453.59 1/32.17=0.031081 47.88 2.036 27.59 16.018 57.296 1/6.2832 (2) 32.174 1 14.18 2240 1.12 2000 3.414 1E+07 1 0.317
to Obtain ft/sec km/h Miles Dynes pounds(f) dyne-cm ft-lbf cm(=1/128 gal) pound(mass) Grams Pound lbf/in gm/(cm-s) Newtons (N) Grams Slugs Pa inches of Hg inches of water kg/m Degrees revolutions pounds(m) cm/s Grams Pounds tons(short) Pounds Btu/h ergs/s J/s Btu/(hr sq ft)
Normal Distribution Curve

(known as the Gaussian Distribution) It is mathematically represented by: 2 Integration of this equation can be used to determine the area under the curve between any two locations on the x-axis. The integral over all values should equal 1.000, i.e. 100% probability of obtaining all values of x. The value of x has real meaning, where: = with z being any one of the observations that gave a mean value of and a standard deviation of . The following is a table of the areas under the Gaussian Distribution Function from x= 0 (the center, or mean) to various values of x (total for x = 2 times the value given): x Area 0.0 0.0000 0.1 0.0398 0.2 0.0793 0.3 0.1179 0.4 0.1554 0.5 0.1915 0.6 0.2258 0.7 0.258 0.8 0.2881 0.9 0.3159 1.0 0.3413 = 68.26% probability for 1 on 1.1 0.3643 each side of the mean (i.e. 2 x 1.2 0.3849 0.3413 = 0.6826) 1.3 0.4032 1.4 0.4192 1.5 0.4332 1.6 0.4452 1.7 0.4555 1.8 0.4641 1.9 0.4713 2.0 0.4772 = 95.44% probability for 2 on 2.1 0.4821 each side of the mean 2.2 0.4861 2.3 0.4893 2.4 0.4918 2.5 0.4938 3.0 0.4987 = 99.74% for 3 each side of mean 4.0 0.5000 100%, to four significant figures () = 1 2
2
=1 gm/cm = 62.427 lb/ft =1000 kg/m at 4 degrees C Note: 0 degrees C = 32 degrees F 5 C degrees change = 9 F degrees change Speed of light =299,792,458 m/s = 184,000 miles/sec. Acceleration of gravity =32.2 ft/s = 9.80 m/s The Greek Alphabet Alpha Beta Gamma Delta Epsilon Zeta Eta Theta Iota Kappa Lambda Mu
Nu Xi Omicron Pi Rho Sigma Tau Upsilon Phi Chi Psi Omega
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BASIC NUMBERS FOR NUCLEAR ENGINEERS
1 eV = 1.6x10-19 joules 1 fission = 200 MeV (approx., including capture gammas) 1 atom undergoing combustion = ~4 eV 3.1x1010 fission/sec = 1 watt
1 MWD ~ 1 gm fissioned (actually1.05 gm) = 1.22 gm of fissile material consumed* 50,000 MWD/MTHM ~ 6.3% atom burnup
3.7x1010 disintegrations/sec = 1 Curie
1 MeV of 1 Curie source at 1 foot distance = 6 R/hr Dose rate = [Curies x Mev/(4R)]x(conversion factor)
1 Rad = 1 cGy 1 Rem = 1 cSv
Theory of Relativity E = mc gives actual change in mass of 9.6x10-7 kg = ~1milli gram converted to energy to produce the 1MWD of energy.
The 1.22 gm remaining (less 1 milligram) is primarily the mass of the fission products, the U-236 (from neutron capture), and the several neutrons released in each fission.
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ELECTRICITY AND NATURAL GAS RATES

Current (September 2009) retail energy costs for electricity.
In eastern Idaho, the average residential cost for electricity is about 6.5 cents per kWh. In Idaho, the average industrial price for electricity charged in April 2008 was 4.8 cents per kWh. With the wholesale price decreasing recently because of low demand from the recession, the industrial rate would be expected to decrease when the PUC makes its next ruling. Overall average retail price in Idaho, all sectors was 5.4 cents/kWh in April 2008. The current (September 2009) wholesale spot market price for purchasing power from the grid in the northwest is 3.0 cents/kWh for off-peak power (was 4.5 cents in March). (Reference: www.theice.com through the Energy Information Agency of the U.S. Department of Energy) The national average retail residential price in the USA for electricity was about 10 cents per kWh in April 2009, with the highest price areas being New York (15.6 cents per kWh) and Hawaii (27 cents per kWh). Power-Demand Charge This is separate from the energy charge, and is imposed on major users who demand power in the 50 kW and above range. Idaho Power charges approximately $2.70 per kW each month, based on the highest demand (in kW) for any 15 minutes period during the month. Demand charges at most other utilities in the nation are in the $7 per kW per month range. (These charges are in addition to the energy charge.) ELECTRICITY Producing Plants The following table shows the September 2010 costs of fossil fuels and indicates the overall net thermal efficiency of current technology (new) power plants. (Ref.: www.theice.com ) Type of Fuel Cost per MM Btu (Sept. 2009 Approx) $1.80 - $2.70 $3.00 - $5.00 $12.50 ($70 per barrel) Current new plant net thermal efficiency 39% 60%* 40% (avg of diesel & GT)
Coal Natural Gas* Petroleum
* This is the overall thermal efficiency for new Gas Turbine Combine Cycle (GTCC) power plants now being offered by the three major GTCC suppliers, Mitsubishi, General Electric, and Siemens (Germany). Since much of the electric generation system in the USA is quite old (more than 25 years), the overall thermodynamic efficiency for the USAs fossil energy electricity plants is approximately 30%. Nuclear power plants now in service have an efficiency in the 33% to 34% range. The newest Generation III Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) plants have an efficiency of nearly 37%.
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Other Residential Energy Rates Natural Gas In Idaho these residential rates are currently in the $10 per million Btu (1000 cubic feet has about 1 million Btu). However, spot wholesale prices for natural gas peaked at $14 per million Btu in late 2007. These high rates would be expected to be adjusted downward, because the current national wholesale price of natural gas is approximately $3 per 1000 cubic feet (per million Btu) Heating Oil and Propane These generally track with the price of gasoline (excluding tax). During the coming winter, it is projected that these will be in the $2.00 per gallon range = $16 per million Btu. Coal though not used residentially, ISU currently pays $48 per ton of coal delivered from Wyoming. Its heating value is about 10,500 Btu/pound, giving a cost of $2.30 per million Btu
CAPACITY FACTOR A facility output earning potential may be a hotel room, a theater seat, an airplane seat, or a kWh that could have been generated but was not (for various reasons). When such an income potential is not used to its fullest extent, the fraction of the use that is utilized is referred to as the capacity factor or utilization factor. This factor is the quotient of A/B, where A = the amount of time, or occupancy, or amount generated in a certain period of time (usually a year) B = the maximum amount of time, or occupancy, or amount generated that could have been accomplished in that same period of time. For instance: If a hotel room has occupants (is sold) for 183 days in the year, its utilization factor (or capacity factor) for that year was only 50% (183 days occupied / 365 days in the year). If a power plant is rated at 1000 MW, it should be able to produce 1000 MW x 1000 kW/MW x 365 days x 24 hours per day 8.76 x 109 KWh in a year (B in the above equation). If it only produced 5.1 x 109 kWh, its capacity factor was only 5. lE9/8.76E9 = 66%.
Determining the Average Annual Cost of a Capital Investment PAYMENTS ON A LOAN or PERIODIC ANNUITY PAYMENTS a. , = 1 1 1 (1 + ) = = , 1 = (1 + ) 1 (1 + ) (1 + ) 1
This gives the uniform payment required on a $1 loan, if the interest per payment period is i (a decimal), and the number of payments is n. This result is based on all payments being the same amount. The interest is entered as a decimal, as the rate per period. If the annual rate is 8% and the payments are made monthly, then the nominal monthly interest rate is (8/12)% = 0.006667 (Called Capital Recovery Factor).
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This is the amount of an ANNUITY required to be deposited now in order to pay 1 per period for n periods. An interesting relationship is that sn,i-1 = an,i-1 - i, and basically represents the difference between saving in advance for a purchase vs. borrowing money for a purchase. This factor, Pn,i multiplied by the total Principal cost of the investment, gives the annual cost that must be made to pay off the loan. The reciprocal is the multiplier to amount you would invest in order receive the annual payments given in dollars.
b. The reciprocal of this is the annuity formula (called Present Worth Factor - Uniform Series). 1 (1 + ) (1 + ) 1 , = = (1 + )
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ENERGY DATA FOR THE USA 2009 ENERGY REVIEW
Energy Flow, 2009 ........................................................................................................................................ 5 Primary Energy Flow by Source and Sector ................................................................................................. 6 Primary Energy Overview ............................................................................................................................ 7 Primary Energy Production by Source.......................................................................................................... 8 Primary Energy Consumption by Source...................................................................................................... 9 Petroleum Flow Chart ................................................................................................................................. 10 Crude Oil Production and Crude Oil Well Productivity ............................................................................. 11 Refinery Capacity and Utilization............................................................................................................... 12 Petroleum Net Imports by Country of Origin ............................................................................................. 13 Electricity Flow Chart ................................................................................................................................. 14 Electricity Overview ................................................................................................................................... 15 Electricity Net Generation, by Fuel Source (kWh) ..................................................................................... 16 Electricity Net Generation, by Plant Type .................................................................................................. 17 Consumption for Electricity Generation by Energy Source ....................................................................... 18 Natural Gas Flow Chart .............................................................................................................................. 19 Coal Flow Chart .......................................................................................................................................... 20 Nuclear Power Plant Operations ................................................................................................................. 21 Renewable Energy Production and Consumption by Primary Energy Source ........................................... 22
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Figure 1.0 Energy Flow, 2009
(Quadrillion Btu)
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10 11
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Includes lease condensate. Natural gas plant liquids. 3 Conventional hydroelectric power, biomass, geothermal, solar/photovoltaic, and wind. 4 Crude oil and petroleum products. Includes imports into the Strategic Petroleum Reserve. 5 Natural gas, coal, coal coke, biofuels, and electricity. 6 Adjustments, losses, and unaccounted for. 7 Coal, natural gas, coal coke, electricity, and biofuels. 8 Natural gas only; excludes supplemental gaseous fuels. 9 Petroleum products, including natural gas plant liquids, and crude oil burned as fuel.
Includes 0.02 quadrillion Btu of coal coke net exports. Includes 0.12 quadrillion Btu of electricity net imports. 12 Total energy consumption, which is the sum of primary energy consumption, electricity retail sales, and electrical system energy losses. Losses are allocated to the end-use sectors in proportion to each sectors share of total electricity retail sales. See Note, Electrical Systems Energy Losses, at end of Section 2. Notes: Data are preliminary. Values are derived from source data prior to rounding for publication. Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Sources: Tables 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, and 2.1a.
U.S. Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Review 2009
Figure 2.0 Primary Energy Flow by Source and Sector, 2009
(Quadrillion Btu)
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Supply Sources
Demand Sectors
Percent of Source Percent of Sector 94 3 72 22
Petroleum1 35.3
1
5
Transportation 27.0
41 40
Natural Gas2 23.4

7 11
3 32 35 30
Industrial5 18.8
17
76
1 7
Residential & Commercial6 10.6
Coal3 19.7
12
26 9
53
7 <1 93
18
48 11 22
Renewable Energy 4
100
Electric Power7 38.3
7.7
Nuclear Electric Power 8.3
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Does not include biofuels that have been blended with petroleumbiofuels are included in Renewable Energy." 2 Excludes supplemental gaseous fuels. 3 Includes less than 0.1 quadrillion Btu of coal coke net exports. 4 Conventional hydroelectric power, geothermal, solar/PV, wind, and biomass. 5 Includes industrial combined-heat-and-power (CHP) and industrial electricity-only plants.
Includes commercial combined-heat-and-power (CHP) and commercial electricity-only plants. 7 Electricity-only and combined-heat-and-power (CHP) plants whose primary business is to sell electricity, or electricity and heat, to the public. Note: Sum of components may not equal 100 percent due to independent rounding. Sources: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, Tables 1.3, 2.1b-2.1f , 10.3, and 10.4. U.S. Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Review 2009 37
Table 1.1 Primary Energy Overview, Selected Years, 1949-2009

Trade Imports Renewable Energy 3 Total 31.722 35.540 40.148 42.804 50.676 63.501 62.723 63.920 63.585 62.372 61.357 61.602 62.052 63.137 65.948 67.232 67.014 66.623 R64.180 R68.924 R67.799 R67.178 R67.659 R69.030 R69.476 R70.870 R70.531 R70.126 R68.494 R70.891 R71.316 R72.639 R72.631 R73.037 R71.903 R71.485 R71.883 R70.931 R70.197 R70.352 R69.592 R70.957 R71.608 R73.421 72.970 1.427 1.886 2.752 3.999 5.402 7.470 8.540 10.299 13.466 13.127 12.948 15.672 18.756 17.824 17.933 14.658 12.639 10.777 10.647 11.433 10.609 13.201 14.162 15.747 17.162 17.117 16.348 16.968 18.510 19.243 18.881 20.284 21.740 22.908 23.133 24.531 25.398 24.673 26.218 28.196 29.247 29.162 28.762 R27.644 25.160 1.448 1.913 2.790 4.188 5.892 8.342 9.535 11.387 14.613 14.304 14.032 16.760 19.948 19.106 19.460 15.796 13.719 11.861 11.752 12.471 11.781 14.151 15.398 17.296 18.766 18.817 18.335 19.372 21.273 22.390 22.260 23.702 25.215 26.581 27.252 28.973 30.157 29.407 31.061 33.543 34.710 34.673 34.685 R32.952 29.781 0.877 .786 1.465 1.023 1.376 1.936 1.546 1.531 1.425 1.620 1.761 1.597 1.442 1.078 1.753 2.421 2.944 2.787 2.045 2.151 2.438 2.248 2.093 2.499 2.637 2.772 2.854 2.682 1.962 1.879 2.318 2.368 2.193 2.092 1.525 1.528 1.265 1.032 1.117 1.253 1.273 1.264 1.507 2.071 1.515 1.592 1.465 2.286 1.477 1.829 2.632 2.151 2.118 2.033 2.203 2.323 2.172 2.052 1.920 2.855 3.695 4.307 4.608 3.693 3.786 4.196 4.021 3.812 4.366 4.661 4.752 5.141 4.937 4.258 4.061 4.511 4.633 4.514 4.299 3.715 4.006 3.770 3.668 4.054 4.433 4.561 4.868 5.448 R7.016 6.932 -0.144 .448 .504 2.710 4.063 5.709 7.384 9.269 12.580 12.101 11.709 14.588 17.896 17.186 16.605 12.101 9.412 7.253 8.059 8.685 7.584 10.130 11.586 12.929 14.105 14.065 13.194 14.435 17.014 18.329 17.750 19.069 20.701 22.281 23.537 24.967 26.386 25.739 27.007 29.110 30.149 29.805 29.238 R25.936 22.849 0.403 -1.372 -.444 -.427 -.722 -1.367 -.818 -.485 -.456 -.482 -1.067 -.178 -1.948 -.337 -1.649 -1.212 -.258 R-.723 .799 -.894 1.107 -.552 -.073 .860 1.362 -.283 .881 1.394 R2.093 R.037 R2.103 R2.465 R1.429 R-.140 R1.372 R2.517 R-1.953 R1.183 R.927 R.851 R.704 R-.973 R.682 R.045 -1.241 29.002 31.632 37.410 42.137 50.577 63.522 64.596 67.696 70.316 67.906 65.355 69.104 70.989 71.856 72.892 69.826 67.570 63.888 63.154 66.504 66.091 66.031 68.522 71.556 72.913 72.333 71.880 73.397 R74.835 R76.257 R77.257 R79.782 80.874 R81.369 R82.427 R84.732 R82.902 R83.749 R84.010 R85.805 R85.793 R84.687 R86.246 R83.496 78.368 0.000 .000 .000 .006 .043 .239 .413 .584 .910 1.272 1.900 2.111 2.702 3.024 2.776 2.739 3.008 3.131 3.203 3.553 4.076 4.380 4.754 5.587 5.602 6.104 6.422 6.479 6.410 6.694 7.075 7.087 6.597 7.068 7.610 7.862 R8.029 R8.145 7.959 8.222 R8.161 R8.215 R8.455 R8.427 8.349 2.974 2.978 2.784 2.929 3.398 4.076 4.268 4.398 4.433 4.769 4.723 4.768 4.249 5.039 5.166 5.485 R5.477 6.034 R6.561 R6.522 R6.185 R6.223 R5.739 R5.568 R6.391 R6.206 R6.238 R5.992 R6.261 R6.153 R6.703 R7.166 R7.175 R6.654 R6.677 R6.260 R5.311 R5.888 R6.141 R6.247 R6.406 R6.824 R6.719 R7.366 7.744 Petroleum 4 Coal Total Total 5 Total 6 2.974 2.978 2.784 2.929 3.398 4.076 4.268 4.398 4.433 4.769 4.723 4.768 4.249 5.039 5.166 5.485 R5.477 6.034 R6.561 R6.522 R6.185 R6.223 R5.739 R5.568 R6.391 R6.206 R6.237 R5.992 R6.261 R6.153 R6.701 R7.165 R7.177 R6.655 R6.678 R6.257 R5.312 R5.892 R6.139 R6.235 R6.393 R6.774 R6.706 R7.381 7.761 Fossil Fuels 8 Renewable Energy 3 Exports Net Imports 1 Nuclear Electric Power Consumption
(Quadrillion Btu)
Production
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Year
Fossil Fuels 2
Nuclear Electric Power
Stock Change and Other 7
Total 9 31.982 34.616 40.208 45.087 54.017 67.844 69.289 72.704 75.708 73.991 71.999 76.012 78.000 79.986 80.903 78.122 76.168 73.153 R73.038 R76.714 R76.491 R76.756 R79.173 R82.819 R84.944 R84.651 R84.606 R85.955 R87.601 R89.257 R91.169 R94.172 R94.761 R95.178 R96.812 R98.970 R96.316 R97.853 R98.131 R100.313 R100.445 R99.790 R101.527 R99.402 94.578
1949 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009P
28.748 32.563 37.364 39.869 47.235 59.186 58.042 58.938 58.241 56.331 54.733 54.723 55.101 55.074 58.006 59.008 58.529 57.458 54.416 58.849 57.539 56.575 57.167 57.875 57.483 58.560 57.872 57.655 55.822 58.044 57.540 58.387 58.857 59.314 57.614 57.366 58.541 56.894 R56.099 R55.895 R55.038 55.968 R56.447 R57.613 56.860
0.000 .000 .000 .006 .043 .239 .413 .584 .910 1.272 1.900 2.111 2.702 3.024 2.776 2.739 3.008 3.131 3.203 3.553 4.076 4.380 4.754 5.587 5.602 6.104 6.422 6.479 6.410 6.694 7.075 7.087 6.597 7.068 7.610 7.862 R8.029 R8.145 7.959 8.222 R8.161 R8.215 R8.455 R8.427 8.349
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Net imports equal imports minus exports. A minus sign indicates exports are greater than imports. Coal, natural gas (dry), crude oil, and natural gas plant liquids. See Note "Renewable Energy Production and Consumption" at the end of Section 10. 4 Crude oil and petroleum products. Includes imports into the Strategic Petroleum Reserve. 5 Also includes natural gas, coal, coal coke, fuel ethanol, biodiesel, and electricity. 6 Also includes natural gas, petroleum, coal coke, biodiesel, and electricity. 7 Calculated as consumption and exports minus production and imports. Includes petroleum stock change and adjustments; natural gas net storage withdrawals and balancing item; coal stock change,
losses, and unaccounted for; fuel ethanol stock change; and biodiesel stock change and balancing item. 8 Coal, coal coke net imports, natural gas, and petroleum. 9 Also includes electricity net imports. R=Revised. P=Preliminary. Notes: See "Primary Energy," "Primary Energy Production," and "Primary Energy Consumption" in Glossary. Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Web Page: For all data beginning in 1949, see http://www.eia.gov/emeu/aer/overview.html. Sources: Tables 1.2, 1.3, and 1.4.
Table 1.2 Primary Energy Production by Source, Selected Years, 1949-2009

Fossil Fuels Renewable Energy 1
(Quadrillion Btu)
ENGR 190
Crude Oil 3 NGPL 0.714 .823 1.240 1.461 1.883 2.512 2.544 2.598 2.569 2.471 2.374 2.327 2.327 2.245 2.286 2.254 2.307 2.191 2.184 2.274 2.241 2.149 2.215 2.260 2.158 2.175 2.306 2.363 2.408 2.391 2.442 2.530 2.495 2.420 2.528 2.611 2.547 2.559 2.346 2.466 2.334 2.356 2.409 R2.419 2.541 28.748 32.563 37.364 39.869 47.235 59.186 58.042 58.938 58.241 56.331 54.733 54.723 55.101 55.074 58.006 59.008 58.529 57.458 54.416 58.849 57.539 56.575 57.167 57.875 57.483 58.560 57.872 57.655 55.822 58.044 57.540 58.387 58.857 59.314 57.614 57.366 58.541 56.894 R56.099 R55.895 R55.038 55.968 R56.447 R57.613 56.860 0.000 .000 .000 .006 .043 .239 .413 .584 .910 1.272 1.900 2.111 2.702 3.024 2.776 2.739 3.008 3.131 3.203 3.553 4.076 4.380 4.754 5.587 5.602 6.104 6.422 6.479 6.410 6.694 7.075 7.087 6.597 7.068 7.610 7.862 R8.029 R8.145 7.959 8.222 R8.161 R8.215 R8.455 R8.427 8.349 1.425 1.415 1.360 1.608 2.059 2.634 2.824 2.864 2.861 3.177 3.155 2.976 2.333 2.937 2.931 2.900 2.758 3.266 3.527 3.386 2.970 3.071 2.635 2.334 2.837 3.046 3.016 2.617 2.892 2.683 3.205 3.590 3.640 3.297 3.268 2.811 2.242 2.689 2.825 2.690 2.703 2.869 2.446 R2.511 2.682 NA NA NA .001 .004 .011 .012 .031 .043 .053 .070 .078 .077 .064 .084 .110 .123 .105 .129 .165 .198 .219 .229 .217 .317 .336 .346 .349 .364 .338 .294 .316 .325 .328 .331 .317 .311 .328 .331 .341 .343 .343 .349 R.360 .373 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) .055 .060 .063 .064 .066 .069 .070 .071 .070 .070 .069 .066 .065 .064 .064 .065 .066 .072 .081 R.097 .109 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) .022 .029 .031 .030 .031 .036 .033 .033 .034 .031 .046 .057 .070 .105 .115 .142 .178 .264 .341 R.546 .697 1.549 1.562 1.424 1.320 1.335 1.431 1.432 1.503 1.529 1.540 1.499 1.713 1.838 2.038 2.152 2.476 R2.596 R2.663 R2.904 R2.971 R3.016 R2.932 R2.875 R3.016 R3.159 R2.735 R2.782 R2.932 R2.908 R3.028 R3.099 R3.155 R3.108 R2.929 R2.965 R3.006 R2.624 R2.705 R2.805 R2.998 R3.104 R3.226 R3.489 R3.867 3.900 2.974 2.978 2.784 2.929 3.398 4.076 4.268 4.398 4.433 4.769 4.723 4.768 4.249 5.039 5.166 5.485 R5.477 6.034 R6.561 R6.522 R6.185 R6.223 R5.739 R5.568 R6.391 R6.206 R6.237 R5.992 R6.261 R6.153 R6.701 R7.165 R7.177 R6.655 R6.678 R6.257 R5.312 R5.892 R6.139 R6.235 R6.393 R6.774 R6.706 R7.381 7.761
4
Year 10.683 11.447 14.410 14.935 16.521 20.401 20.033 20.041 19.493 18.575 17.729 17.262 17.454 18.434 18.104 18.249 18.146 18.309 18.392 18.848 18.992 18.376 17.675 17.279 16.117 15.571 15.701 15.223 14.494 14.103 13.887 13.723 13.658 13.235 12.451 12.358 12.282 12.163 12.026 11.503 10.963 10.801 10.721 R10.509 11.241
Coal
Natural Gas (Dry) Total Nuclear Electric Power Geothermal Solar/PV Wind Biomass Total
Hydroelectric Power 5
Total 31.722 35.540 40.148 42.804 50.676 63.501 62.723 63.920 63.585 62.372 61.357 61.602 62.052 63.137 65.948 67.232 67.014 66.623 R64.180 R68.924 R67.799 R67.178 R67.659 R69.030 R69.476 R70.870 R70.531 R70.126 R68.494 R70.891 R71.316 R72.639 R72.631 R73.037 R71.903 R71.485 R71.883 R70.931 R70.197 R70.352 R69.592 R70.957 R71.608 R73.421 72.970
1949 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009P
11.974 14.060 12.370 10.817 13.055 14.607 13.186 14.092 13.992 14.074 14.989 15.654 15.755 14.910 17.540 18.598 18.377 18.639 17.247 19.719 19.325 19.509 20.141 20.738 221.360 22.488 21.636 21.694 20.336 22.202 22.130 22.790 23.310 24.045 23.295 22.735 223.547 22.732 22.094 22.852 23.185 23.790 23.493 R23.851 21.578
5.377 6.233 9.345 12.656 15.775 21.666 22.280 22.208 22.187 21.210 19.640 19.480 19.565 19.485 20.076 19.908 19.699 18.319 16.593 18.008 16.980 16.541 17.136 17.599 17.847 18.326 18.229 18.375 18.584 19.348 19.082 19.344 19.394 19.613 19.341 19.662 20.166 19.439 R19.633 R19.074 R18.556 19.022 R19.825 R20.834 21.500
Most data are estimates. See Tables 10.1-10.2c for notes on series components and estimation. Beginning in 1989, includes waste coal supplied. Beginning in 2001, also includes a small amount of refuse recovery. See Table 7.1. 3 Includes lease condensate. 4 Natural gas plant liquids. 5 Conventional hydroelectric power.
R=Revised. P=Preliminary. NA=Not available. (s)=Less than 0.0005 quadrillion Btu. Notes: See "Primary Energy Production" in Glossary. Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Web Page: For all data beginning in 1949, see http://www.eia.gov/emeu/aer/overview.html. Sources: Tables 5.1, 6.1, 7.1, 8.2a, 10.1, A2, A4, A5, and A6.
Page 8
Table 1.3 Primary Energy Consumption by Source, Selected Years, 1949-2009

Fossil Fuels Renewable Energy 1
(Quadrillion Btu)
ENGR 190
Natural Gas 3 Petroleum 11.883 13.315 17.255 19.919 23.246 29.521 30.561 32.947 34.840 33.455 32.731 35.175 37.122 37.965 37.123 34.202 31.931 30.232 30.054 31.051 30.922 32.196 32.865 34.222 34.211 33.553 32.845 33.527 33.744 R34.561 R34.436 35.673 R36.159 R36.816 R37.837 R38.263 R38.185 R38.225 R38.808 R40.292 R40.391 R39.955 R39.769 R37.279 35.268 29.002 31.632 37.410 42.137 50.577 63.522 64.596 67.696 70.316 67.906 65.355 69.104 70.989 71.856 72.892 69.826 67.570 63.888 63.154 66.504 66.091 66.031 68.522 71.556 72.913 72.333 71.880 73.397 R74.835 R76.257 R77.257 R79.782 80.874 R81.369 R82.427 R84.732 R82.902 R83.749 R84.010 R85.805 R85.793 R84.687 R86.246 R83.496 78.368 0.000 .000 .000 .006 .043 .239 .413 .584 .910 1.272 1.900 2.111 2.702 3.024 2.776 2.739 3.008 3.131 3.203 3.553 4.076 4.380 4.754 5.587 5.602 6.104 6.422 6.479 6.410 6.694 7.075 7.087 6.597 7.068 7.610 7.862 R8.029 R8.145 7.959 8.222 R8.161 R8.215 R8.455 R8.427 8.349 1.425 1.415 1.360 1.608 2.059 2.634 2.824 2.864 2.861 3.177 3.155 2.976 2.333 2.937 2.931 2.900 2.758 3.266 3.527 3.386 2.970 3.071 2.635 2.334 2.837 3.046 3.016 2.617 2.892 2.683 3.205 3.590 3.640 3.297 3.268 2.811 2.242 2.689 2.825 2.690 2.703 2.869 2.446 R2.511 2.682 NA NA NA .001 .004 .011 .012 .031 .043 .053 .070 .078 .077 .064 .084 .110 .123 .105 .129 .165 .198 .219 .229 .217 .317 .336 .346 .349 .364 .338 .294 .316 .325 .328 .331 .317 .311 .328 .331 .341 .343 .343 .349 R.360 .373 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) .055 .060 .063 .064 .066 .069 .070 .071 .070 .070 .069 .066 .065 .064 .064 .065 .066 .072 .081 R.097 .109 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) .022 .029 .031 .030 .031 .036 .033 .033 .034 .031 .046 .057 .070 .105 .115 .142 .178 .264 .341 R.546 .697 1.549 1.562 1.424 1.320 1.335 1.431 1.432 1.503 1.529 1.540 1.499 1.713 1.838 2.038 2.152 2.476 R2.596 R2.663 R2.904 R2.971 R3.016 R2.932 R2.875 R3.016 R3.159 R2.735 R2.782 R2.932 R2.908 R3.028 R3.101 R3.157 R3.105 R2.928 R2.963 R3.008 R2.622 R2.701 R2.807 R3.010 R3.117 R3.277 R3.503 R3.852 3.883 2.974 2.978 2.784 2.929 3.398 4.076 4.268 4.398 4.433 4.769 4.723 4.768 4.249 5.039 5.166 5.485 R5.477 6.034 R6.561 R6.522 R6.185 R6.223 R5.739 R5.568 R6.391 R6.206 R6.238 R5.992 R6.261 R6.153 R6.703 R7.166 R7.175 R6.654 R6.677 R6.260 R5.311 R5.888 R6.141 R6.247 R6.406 R6.824 R6.719 R7.366 7.744 0.005 .006 .014 .015 (s) .007 .012 .026 .049 .043 .021 .029 .059 .067 .069 .071 .113 .100 .121 .135 .140 .122 .158 .108 .037 .008 .067 .087 .095 .153 .134 .137 .116 .088 .099 .115 .075 .072 .022 .039 .084 .063 .107 .112 .117
4
Year 5.145 5.968 8.998 12.385 15.769 21.795 22.469 22.698 22.512 21.732 19.948 20.345 19.931 20.000 20.666 20.235 19.747 18.356 17.221 18.394 17.703 16.591 17.640 18.448 19.602 19.603 20.033 20.714 21.229 21.728 22.671 23.085 23.223 22.830 22.909 23.824 22.773 23.558 R22.831 R22.909 R22.561 22.224 R23.702 R23.791 23.362
Coal
Coal Coke Net Imports 2 Total Nuclear Electric Power Geothermal Solar/PV Wind Biomass Total Electricity Net Imports 2
Hydroelectric Power 5
Total 31.982 34.616 40.208 45.087 54.017 67.844 69.289 72.704 75.708 73.991 71.999 76.012 78.000 79.986 80.903 78.122 76.168 73.153 R73.038 R76.714 R76.491 R76.756 R79.173 R82.819 R84.944 R84.651 R84.606 R85.955 R87.601 R89.257 R91.169 R94.172 R94.761 R95.178 R96.812 R98.970 R96.316 R97.853 R98.131 R100.313 R100.445 R99.790 R101.527 R99.402 94.578
1949 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009P
11.981 12.347 11.167 9.838 11.581 12.265 11.598 12.077 12.971 12.663 12.663 13.584 13.922 13.766 15.040 15.423 15.908 15.322 15.894 17.071 17.478 17.260 18.008 18.846 19.070 19.173 18.992 19.122 19.835 19.909 20.089 21.002 21.445 21.656 21.623 22.580 21.914 21.904 22.321 22.466 22.797 22.447 22.749 R22.385 19.761
-0.007 .001 -.010 -.006 -.018 -.058 -.033 -.026 -.007 .056 .014 (s) .015 .125 .063 -.035 -.016 -.022 -.016 -.011 -.013 -.017 .009 .040 .030 .005 .010 .035 .027 .058 .061 .023 .046 .067 .058 .065 .029 .061 .051 .138 .044 .061 .025 .041 -.024
Page 9
Most data are estimates. See Tables 10.1-10.2c for notes on series components and estimation. Net imports equal imports minus exports. A minus sign indicates exports are greater than imports. 3 Natural gas only; excludes supplemental gaseous fuels. See Note 1, "Supplemental Gaseous Fuels," at end of Section 6. 4 Petroleum products supplied, including natural gas plant liquids and crude oil burned as fuel. Does not include biofuels that have been blended with petroleumbiofuels are included in "Biomass." 5 Conventional hydroelectric power.
R=Revised. P=Preliminary. NA=Not available. (s)=Less than 0.0005 and greater than -0.0005 quadrillion Btu. Notes: See "Primary Energy Consumption" in Glossary. See Table E1 for estimated energy consumption for 1635-1945. See Note 3, "Electricity Imports and Exports," at end of Section 8. Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Web Page: For all data beginning in 1949, see http://www.eia.gov/emeu/aer/overview.html. Sources: Tables 5.12, 6.1, 7.1, 7.7, 8.1, 8.2a, 10.1, 10.3, A4, A5, and A6.
Figure 5.0. Petroleum Flow, 2009
(Million Barrels per Day)
ENGR 190
5
1 Unfinished oils, hydrogen/oxygenates/renewables/other hydrocarbons, and motor gasoline and aviation gasoline blending components. 2 Renewable fuels and oxygenate plant net production (0.75), net imports (1.34) and adjustments (-0.03) minus stock change (0.06) and product supplied (-0.08). 3 Finished petroleum products, liquefied petroleum gases, and pentanes plus. 4 Natural gas plant liquids.
Production minus refinery input. Notes: Data are preliminary. Values are derived from source data prior to rounding for publication. Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Sources: Tables 5.1, 5.3, 5.5, 5.8, 5.11, 5.13a-5.13d, 5.16, and Petroleum Supply Monthly, February 2010, Table 4.
Page 10
127
Table 5.2 Crude Oil Production and Crude Oil Well Productivity, Selected Years, 1954-2009
Site Onshore Thousand Barrels per Day 0 0 2 30 229 191 173 464 1,229 1,401 1,617 1,609 1,696 1,714 1,722 1,825 1,867 1,962 2,017 1,874 1,773 1,798 1,714 1,582 1,559 1,484 1,393 1,296 1,175 1,050 970 963 984 974 908 864 741 722 683 P645 6,209 6,645 6,716 7,140 8,060 7,012 6,868 7,069 7,571 7,485 7,562 7,537 7,538 7,492 7,596 7,722 7,426 7,153 6,949 6,486 6,273 6,245 5,953 5,606 5,291 5,035 4,902 4,803 4,560 4,132 4,049 3,879 3,743 3,668 3,536 3,466 3,401 3,407 R3,580 E3,442 133 162 319 665 1,577 1,362 1,264 1,176 1,136 1,067 1,034 1,034 1,110 1,196 1,283 1,250 1,254 1,196 1,191 1,127 1,082 1,172 1,218 1,241 1,370 1,525 1,562 1,648 1,692 1,750 1,773 1,923 2,003 2,012 1,883 1,712 1,701 1,657 1,371 E1,868 6,342 6,807 7,035 7,804 9,180 8,007 7,776 7,875 8,353 8,181 8,210 8,176 8,261 8,688 8,879 8,971 8,680 8,349 8,140 7,613 7,355 7,417 7,171 6,847 6,662 6,560 6,465 6,452 6,252 5,881 5,822 5,801 5,746 5,681 5,419 5,178 5,102 5,064 R4,950 P5,310 (5) (5) (5) (5) 457 367 356 370 355 371 386 395 387 (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) 6,342 6,807 7,035 7,804 9,637 8,375 8,132 8,245 8,707 8,552 8,597 8,572 8,649 8,688 8,879 8,971 8,680 8,349 8,140 7,613 7,355 7,417 7,171 6,847 6,662 6,560 6,465 6,452 6,252 5,881 5,822 5,801 5,746 5,681 5,419 5,178 5,102 5,064 R4,950 P5,310 511 524 591 589 531 500 499 507 517 531 548 557 580 603 621 647 623 620 612 603 602 614 594 584 582 574 574 573 562 546 534 530 529 513 510 498 497 500 R526 526 12.4 13.0 11.9 13.2 18.1 16.8 16.3 16.3 16.8 16.1 15.7 15.4 14.9 14.4 14.3 13.9 13.9 13.5 13.3 12.6 12.2 12.1 12.1 11.7 11.4 11.4 11.3 11.3 11.1 10.8 10.9 10.9 10.9 11.1 10.6 10.4 10.3 10.1 9.4 10.1 Thousands Offshore Crude Oil Lease Condensate Total Production Producing Wells 3 Average Productivity 4 Barrels per Day per Well Type Crude Oil Well 1 Productivity Alaska
Geographic Location
48 States 2
ENGR 190
Year
1954 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
6,342 6,807 7,034 7,774 9,408 8,183 7,958 7,781 7,478 7,151 6,980 6,962 6,953 6,974 7,157 7,146 6,814 6,387 6,123 5,739 5,582 5,618 5,457 5,264 5,103 5,076 5,071 5,156 5,077 4,832 4,851 4,839 4,761 4,706 4,510 4,314 4,361 4,342 R4,268 P4,665
See "Crude Oil Well" in Glossary. United States excluding Alaska and Hawaii. As of December 31. 4 Through 1976, average productivity is based on the average number of producing wells. Beginning in 1977, average productivity is based on the number of wells producing at end of year. 5 Included in "Crude Oil." R=Revised. P=Preliminary. E=Estimate. Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Web Page: See http://www.eia.gov/oil_gas/petroleum/info_glance/petroleum.html for related infomation. Sources: Onshore: 1954-1975Bureau of Mines, Mineral Industry Surveys, Petroleum Statement (PS), Annual, annual reports. 1976-1980U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), Energy Data Reports, PS, Annual, annual reports. 1981-2008EIA, Petroleum Supply Annual (PSA), annual reports. 2009EIA estimates based on Form EIA-182, "Domestic Crude Oil First Purchase Report," and crude oil
production data reported by State conservation agencies. Offshore: 1954-1969U.S. Geological Survey, Outer Continental Shelf Statistics (June 1979). 1970-1975Bureau of Mines, Mineral Industry Surveys, PS, Annual, annual reports. 1976-1980EIA, Energy Data Reports, PS, Annual, annual reports. 1981-2008EIA, PSA, annual reports. 2009EIA estimates based on Form EIA-182, "Domestic Crude Oil First Purchase Report," and crude oil production data reported by State conservation agencies. Producing Wells: 1954-1975Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, "Crude Petroleum and Petroleum Products" chapter. 1976-1980EIA, Energy Data Reports, PS, Annual, annual reports. 1981-1994Independent Petroleum Association of America, The Oil Producing Industry in Your State. 1995 forwardGulf Publishing Co., World Oil, February issues. All Other Data: 1954-1975Bureau of Mines, Mineral Industry Surveys, PS, Annual, annual reports. 1976-1980EIA, Energy Data Reports, PS, Annual, annual reports. 1981-2008EIA, PSA, annual reports. 2009EIA, Petroleum Supply Monthly (February 2010).
Page 11
131
Table 5.9 Refinery Capacity and Utilization, Selected Years, 1949-2009

Operable Refineries Capacity On January 1 Thousand Barrels per Day 6,231 6,223 8,386 9,843 10,420 12,021 12,860 13,292 13,642 14,362 14,961 15,237 16,398 17,048 17,441 17,988 18,621 17,890 16,859 16,137 15,659 15,459 15,566 15,915 15,655 15,572 15,676 15,696 15,121 15,034 15,434 15,333 15,452 15,711 16,261 16,512 16,595 16,785 16,757 16,894 17,125 17,339 17,443 17,594 17,672 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 18,603 17,432 16,668 16,035 15,671 15,459 15,642 15,927 15,701 15,623 15,707 15,460 15,143 15,150 15,346 15,239 15,594 15,802 16,282 16,525 16,582 16,744 16,748 16,974 17,196 17,385 17,450 R17,607 17,674 5,556 5,980 7,820 8,439 9,557 11,517 11,881 12,431 13,151 12,689 12,902 13,884 14,982 15,071 14,955 13,796 12,752 12,172 11,947 12,216 12,165 12,826 13,003 13,447 13,551 13,610 13,508 13,600 13,851 14,032 14,119 14,337 14,838 15,113 15,080 15,299 15,352 15,180 15,508 15,783 15,578 15,602 15,450 15,027 14,640 89.2 92.5 92.2 85.1 91.8 92.6 90.9 92.3 93.9 86.6 85.5 87.8 89.6 87.4 84.4 75.4 68.6 69.9 71.7 76.2 77.6 82.9 83.1 84.7 86.6 87.1 86.0 87.9 91.5 92.6 92.0 94.1 95.2 95.6 92.6 92.6 92.6 90.7 92.6 93.0 90.6 89.7 88.5 R85.3 82.8 Thousand Barrels per Day Percent Annual Average 2 Gross Input to Distillation Units 3 Utilization 4
Operable Refineries 1
ENGR 190
Year
Number
1949 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009P
336 320 296 309 293 276 272 274 268 273 279 276 282 296 308 319 324 301 258 247 223 216 219 213 204 205 202 199 187 179 175 170 164 163 159 158 155 153 149 149 148 149 149 150 150
Page 12
1 Through 1956, includes only those refineries in operation on January 1; beginning in 1957, includes all "operable" refineries on January 1. See "Operable Refineries" in Glossary. 2 Average of monthly capacity data. 3 See Note 3, "Gross Input to Distillation Units," at end of section. 4 Through 1980, utilization is calculated by dividing gross input to distillation units by one-half of the sum of the current years January 1 capacity and the following years January 1 capacity. Beginning in 1981, utilization is calculated by dividing gross input to distillation units by the annual average capacity. R=Revised. P=Preliminary. NA=Not available. Web Pages: For all data beginning in 1949, see http://www.eia.gov/emeu/aer/petro.html. For related information, see http://www.eia.gov/oil_gas/petroleum/info_glance/petroleum.html. Sources: Operable Refineries and Operable Refineries Capacity: 1949-1961Bureau of Mines
Information Circular, "Petroleum Refineries, Including Cracking Plants in the United States." 1962-1977Bureau of Mines, Mineral Industry Surveys, Petroleum Refineries, Annual, annual reports. 1978-1981U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), Energy Data Reports, Petroleum Refineries in the United States. 1982-2008EIA, Petroleum Supply Annual, annual reports. 2009EIA, Refinery Capacity Report (June 2009), Table 1. Gross Input to Distillation Units: 1949-1966Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, "Natural Gas Liquids" and "Crude Petroleum and Petroleum Products" chapters. 1967-1977Bureau of Mines, Mineral Industry Surveys, Petroleum Refineries, Annual, annual reports. 1978-1980EIA, Energy Data Reports, Petroleum Refineries in the United States and U.S. Territories. 1981-2008EIA, Petroleum Supply Annual, annual reports. 2009EIA, Petroleum Supply Monthly (January-December 2009 issues). Utilization: 1949-1980Calculated. 1981-2008EIA, Petroleum Supply Annual, annual reports. 2009Calculated.
145
Table 5.7 Petroleum Net Imports by Country of Origin, Selected Years, 1960-2009
Selected OPEC 1 Countries Saudi Arabia 3 Venezuela Thousand Barrels per Day 84 158 30 128 189 485 461 714 1,229 1,379 1,142 1,354 1,259 1,128 551 336 324 167 685 751 1,064 1,224 1,339 1,796 1,720 1,413 1,402 1,343 1,362 1,407 1,491 1,478 1,571 1,662 1,551 1,774 1,557 1,536 1,462 1,483 R1,529 1,011 910 994 989 1,019 959 1,134 978 702 699 689 644 688 478 403 409 420 544 602 788 801 790 861 1,016 1,020 1,161 1,296 1,322 1,468 1,667 1,758 1,700 1,480 1,530 1,540 1,387 1,364 1,548 1,515 1,392 1,339 R1,162 1,052 1,232 1,438 1,294 1,671 2,044 2,991 3,254 3,599 5,063 6,190 5,747 5,633 4,293 3,315 2,136 1,843 2,037 1,821 2,828 3,055 3,513 4,124 4,285 4,065 4,071 4,253 4,233 3,980 4,193 4,542 4,880 4,934 5,181 5,510 4,589 5,144 5,688 5,567 5,480 5,946 R5,899 4,686 86 297 736 831 1,082 1,294 1,038 824 571 446 359 438 347 358 397 471 547 696 721 765 916 839 843 963 1,005 1,109 1,194 1,260 1,330 1,444 1,451 1,421 1,697 1,717 1,864 1,932 1,980 2,001 2,194 2,266 R2,229 2,241 -2 21 9 -14 -20 -28 -27 29 53 155 291 418 506 497 632 802 714 755 642 585 677 678 666 707 706 809 860 943 1,101 1,178 1,116 1,063 1,015 1,166 1,292 1,395 1,456 1,394 1,450 1,254 R969 912 -12 -11 -1 1 -1 6 1 7 19 117 173 196 169 370 442 374 388 295 342 346 306 206 179 125 219 340 448 369 299 214 239 356 356 311 467 434 366 375 244 268 R219 211 34 45 270 365 428 426 475 484 488 560 436 353 256 169 154 178 184 114 152 158 117 212 213 153 180 175 246 170 262 298 305 284 297 268 224 279 321 317 318 336 307 257 381 843 1,867 2,030 2,475 3,034 2,638 2,248 2,027 2,375 2,255 2,352 2,071 2,086 2,163 2,469 2,679 2,465 2,611 2,859 3,074 3,078 2,876 2,561 2,867 3,365 3,822 3,906 4,305 4,616 4,884 4,978 5,238 5,390 5,958 6,094 6,409 6,982 6,910 6,090 R5,214 5,014 1,613 2,281 3,161 3,701 4,519 6,025 5,892 5,846 7,090 8,565 8,002 7,985 6,365 5,401 4,298 4,312 4,715 4,286 5,439 5,914 6,587 7,202 7,161 6,626 6,938 7,618 8,054 7,886 8,498 9,158 9,764 9,912 10,419 10,900 10,546 11,238 12,097 12,549 12,390 12,036 R11,114 9,700 16.5 19.8 21.5 24.3 27.6 34.8 35.4 35.8 40.6 46.5 42.5 43.1 37.3 33.6 28.1 28.3 30.0 27.3 33.4 35.5 38.1 41.6 42.2 39.6 40.7 44.2 45.5 44.5 46.4 49.2 51.6 50.8 52.9 55.5 53.4 56.1 58.4 60.3 59.9 58.2 R57.0 51.9 76.4 63.0 40.9 45.1 45.2 49.6 55.2 61.6 71.4 72.3 71.8 70.5 67.5 61.4 49.7 42.7 43.2 42.5 52.0 51.7 53.3 57.3 59.8 61.3 58.7 55.8 52.6 50.5 49.3 49.6 50.0 49.8 49.7 50.5 43.5 45.8 47.0 44.4 44.2 49.4 R53.1 48.3 Percent 12.6 12.5 8.8 11.0 12.5 17.3 19.5 22.1 29.0 33.6 30.5 30.4 25.2 20.6 14.0 12.1 13.0 11.6 17.4 18.3 20.3 23.8 25.2 24.3 23.9 24.7 23.9 22.5 22.9 24.4 25.8 25.3 26.3 28.0 23.2 25.7 27.4 26.8 26.5 28.8 R30.3 25.1 Canada Mexico Total OPEC 4 United Kingdom Total Non-OPEC 4 Total Net Imports as Share of Consumption 5 Share of Total Net Imports 6 Share of Consumption 7 Selected Non-OPEC 1 Countries Net Imports From OPEC 1
Persian Gulf 2
Algeria
Nigeria
U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico
Total Net Imports
ENGR 190
Year
1960 1965 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009P
NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 1,215 692 439 502 309 909 1,074 1,529 1,858 1,962 1,833 1,773 1,774 1,723 1,563 1,596 1,747 2,132 2,459 2,483 2,758 2,265 2,497 2,489 2,330 2,208 2,159 R2,368 1,690
(8) (8) 8 15 92 136 190 282 432 559 649 636 488 311 170 240 323 187 271 295 300 269 280 253 196 219 243 234 256 285 290 259 225 278 264 381 452 478 657 663 R548 485
(9) (9) (9) 102 251 459 713 762 1,025 1,143 919 1,080 857 620 512 299 215 293 440 535 618 815 800 703 680 736 637 626 616 693 693 655 896 884 620 866 1,139 1,165 1,111 1,133 R982 793
1 2
Page 13
See "Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)" in Glossary. Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and the Neutral Zone (between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia). 3 Through 1970, includes half the imports from the Neutral Zone. Beginning in 1971, includes imports from the Neutral Zone that are reported to U.S. Customs as originating in Saudi Arabia. 4 On this table, "Total OPEC" for all years includes Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, and the Neutral Zone (between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia); beginning in 1961, also includes Qatar; beginning in 1962, also includes Libya; for 1962-2008, also includes Indonesia; beginning in 1967, also includes United Arab Emirates; beginning in 1969, also includes Algeria; beginning in 1971, also includes Nigeria; for 1973-1992 and beginning in 2008, also includes Ecuador (although Ecuador rejoined OPEC in November 2007, on this table Ecuador is included in "Total Non-OPEC" for 2007); for 1975-1994, also includes Gabon; and beginning in 2007, also includes Angola. Data for all countries not included in "Total OPEC" are included in "Total Non-OPEC." 5 Calculated by dividing total net petroleum imports by total U.S. petroleum products supplied (consumption). 6 Calculated by dividing net petroleum imports from OPEC countries by total net petroleum imports. 7 Calculated by dividing net petroleum imports from OPEC countries by total U.S. petroleum product
supplied (consumption). 8 Algeria joined OPEC in 1969. For 1960-1968, Algeria is included in "Total Non-OPEC." 9 Nigeria joined OPEC in 1971. For 1960-1970, Nigeria is included in "Total Non-OPEC." R=Revised. P=Preliminary. NA=Not available. Notes: The country of origin for refined petroleum products may not be the country of origin for the crude oil from which the refined products were produced. For example, refined products imported from refineries in the Caribbean may have been produced from Middle East crude oil. Net imports equal imports minus exports. Minus sign indicates exports are greater than imports. Data include any imports for the Strategic Petroleum Reserve, which began in 1977. Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Web Page: See http://www.eia.gov/oil_gas/petroleum/info_glance/petroleum.html for related information. Sources: 1960-1975Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, "Crude Petroleum and Petroleum Products" chapter. 1976-1980U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), Energy Data Reports, P.A.D. Districts Supply/Demand, Annual, annual reports. 1981-2008EIA, Petroleum Supply Annual, annual reports. 2009EIA, Petroleum Supply Monthly (February 2010).
141
Figure 8.0
Electricity Flow, 2009 (Quadrillion Btu)
ENGR 190
generation and delivery to the customer) are estimated as 7 percent of gross generation. 6 Use of electricity that is 1) self-generated, 2) produced by either the same entity that consumes the power or an affiliate, and 3) used in direct support of a service or industrial process located within the same facility or group of facilities that house the generating equipment. Direct use is exclusive of station use. Notes: Data are preliminary. See Note, Electrical System Energy Losses, at the end of Section 2. Net generation of electricity includes pumped storage facility production minus energy used for pumping. Values are derived from source data prior to rounding for publication. Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Sources: Tables 8.1, 8.4a, 8.9, A6 (column 4), and U.S. Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-923, "Power Plant Operations Report." U.S. Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Review 2009 225
Page 14
1 Blast furnace gas, propane gas, and other manufactured and waste gases derived from fossil fuels. 2 Batteries, chemicals, hydrogen, pitch, purchased steam, sulfur, miscellaneous technologies, and non-renewable waste (municipal solid waste from non-biogenic sources, and tire-derived fuels). 3 Data collection frame differences and nonsampling error. Derived for the diagram by subtracting the T & D Losses estimate from T & D Losses and Unaccounted for derived from Table 8.1. 4 Electric energy used in the operation of power plants. 5 Transmission and distribution losses (electricity losses that occur between the point of
Table 8.1 Electricity Overview, Selected Years, 1949-2009

Trade Imports Industrial Sector 4 Total 296 334 550 759 1,058 1,535 1,616 1,753 1,864 1,870 1,921 2,041 2,127 2,209 2,251 2,290 2,298 2,244 2,313 2,419 2,473 2,490 2,575 2,707 2,967 3,038 3,074 3,084 3,197 3,248 3,353 3,444 3,492 3,620 3,695 3,802 3,737 3,858 3,883 3,971 4,055 4,065 4,157 R4,119 3,953 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 16 20 26 29 45 41 42 43 40 43 49 38 37 29 33 43 42 50 56 51 2 2 5 5 4 6 7 10 17 15 11 11 20 21 23 25 36 33 39 42 46 41 52 39 26 18 22 28 31 47 43 43 43 40 43 49 39 37 30 34 45 43 51 57 52 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 16 2 2 3 1 2 2 7 12 13 13 16 15 24 22 19 23 20 23 17 (s) (s) (s) 1 4 4 4 3 3 3 5 2 3 1 2 4 3 4 3 3 5 5 6 7 15 16 2 3 4 2 4 3 9 14 14 15 16 16 24 23 20 24 20 24 18 2 2 4 5 (s) 2 4 8 14 13 6 9 17 20 20 21 33 29 35 40 41 36 46 32 11 2 20 25 28 45 39 40 34 26 29 34 22 21 6 11 25 18 31 33 34 43 44 58 76 104 145 150 166 165 177 180 194 197 211 200 216 184 187 198 173 190 158 164 161 222 203 207 212 224 211 229 231 224 221 240 244 202 248 228 266 269 266 264 R246 246 255 291 497 688 954 1,392 1,470 1,595 1,713 1,706 1,747 1,855 1,948 2,018 2,071 2,094 2,147 2,086 2,151 2,286 2,324 2,369 2,457 2,578 2,647 2,713 2,762 2,763 2,861 2,935 3,013 3,101 3,146 3,264 3,312 3,421 3,394 3,465 3,494 3,547 3,661 3,670 3,765 R3,733 3,575 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 109 125 124 134 139 146 151 153 156 161 172 171 163 166 168 168 150 147 159 R173 E166 From Canada Total To Canada Total Total 5 5 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4115 131 133 143 146 151 151 151 154 154 156 157 149 153 155 154 145 148 143 R137 131 Retail Sales 7 Direct Use 8
1
(Billion Kilowatthours)
End Use
1
Net Generation Exports Net Imports

1
ENGR 190
Year
Electric Power Sector 2
Commercial Sector 3
T & D Losses 5 and Unaccounted for 6
Total 255 291 497 688 954 1,392 1,470 1,595 1,713 1,706 1,747 1,855 1,948 2,018 2,071 2,094 2,147 2,086 2,151 2,286 2,324 2,369 2,457 2,578 2,756 2,837 2,886 2,897 3,001 3,081 3,164 3,254 3,302 3,425 3,484 3,592 3,557 3,632 3,662 3,716 3,811 3,817 3,924 R3,906 3,741
1949 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009P
291 329 547 756 1,055 1,532 1,613 1,750 1,861 1,867 1,918 2,038 2,124 2,206 2,247 2,286 2,295 2,241 2,310 2,416 2,470 2,487 2,572 2,704 22,848 2,901 2,936 2,934 3,044 3,089 3,194 3,284 3,329 3,457 3,530 3,638 3,580 3,698 3,721 3,808 3,902 3,908 4,005 R3,974 3,814
NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 4 6 6 6 7 8 8 9 9 9 9 8 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8
Page 15
Electricity transmitted across U.S. borders. Net imports equal imports minus exports. Electricity-only and combined-heat-and-power (CHP) plants within the NAICS 22 category whose primary business is to sell electricity, or electricity and heat, to the public. Through 1988, data are for electric utilities only; beginning in 1989, data are for electric utilities and independent power producers. 3 Commercial combined-heat-and-power (CHP) and commercial electricity-only plants. 4 Industrial combined-heat-and-power (CHP) and industrial electricity-only plants. Through 1988, data are for industrial hydroelectric power only. 5 Transmission and distribution losses (electricity losses that occur between the point of generation and delivery to the customer). See Note, "Electrical System Energy Losses," at end of Section 2. 6 Data collection frame differences and nonsampling error. 7 Electricity retail sales to ultimate customers by electric utilities and, beginning in 1996, other energy
service providers. 8 Use of electricity that is 1) self-generated, 2) produced by either the same entity that consumes the power or an affiliate, and 3) used in direct support of a service or industrial process located within the same facility or group of facilities that house the generating equipment. Direct use is exclusive of station use. R=Revised. P=Preliminary. E=Estimate. NA=Not available. (s)=Less than 0.5 billion kilowatthours. Notes: See Note 1, "Coverage of Electricity Statistics," and Note 2, "Classification of Power Plants Into Energy-Use Sectors," at end of section. Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Web Pages: For all data beginning in 1949, see http://www.eia.gov/emeu/aer/elect.html. For related information, see http://www.eia.gov/fuelelectric.html. Sources: See end of section.
227
Table 8.2a Electricity Net Generation: Total (All Sectors), Selected Years, 1949-2009
Renewable Energy Biomass Wood 7 Solar/PV 9 Wind NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) 2.1 2.8 3.0 2.9 3.0 3.4 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.0 4.5 5.6 6.7 10.4 11.2 14.1 17.8 26.6 34.4 R55.4 70.8 95.2 101.3 116.5 149.6 197.4 251.8 270.4 277.7 277.7 306.9 306.6 290.8 227.7 286.8 287.5 284.7 269.9 317.5 341.7 332.9 295.0 305.5 265.1 238.1 325.3 357.2 357.8 326.9 356.7 336.7 384.8 423.0 433.6 400.4 399.0 356.5 287.7 343.4 355.3 351.5 357.7 385.8 352.7 R381.0 413.2 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 3.8 3.6 4.7 3.7 3.5 3.7 4.1 3.6 3.6 3.6 4.0 4.8 11.9 13.5 14.0 14.2 12.8 13.0 12.2 R11.7 11.1 Total Other 10 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) .3 .4 .5 .4 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .6 .5 .6 .6 .5 .6 R.9 .8 0.4 .4 .3 .1 .3 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 (s) .1 .3 .2 .3 .3 .2 .2 .2 .5 .7 .5 .8 .9 27.2 32.5 33.7 36.5 37.6 37.9 36.5 36.8 36.9 36.3 37.0 37.6 35.2 38.7 37.5 38.1 38.9 38.8 39.0 R37.3 36.2 NA NA NA NA NA .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .1 .2 .2 .1 .1 .2 .4 .6 .7 .7 .7 9.2 13.3 15.7 17.8 18.3 19.1 20.4 20.9 21.7 22.4 22.6 23.1 14.5 15.0 15.8 15.4 15.4 16.1 16.5 R17.7 18.1 NA NA NA (s) .2 .5 .5 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.2 3.6 3.6 3.0 3.9 5.1 5.7 4.8 6.1 7.7 9.3 10.3 10.8 10.3 14.6 15.4 16.0 16.1 16.8 15.5 13.4 14.3 14.7 14.8 14.8 14.1 13.7 14.5 14.4 14.8 14.7 14.6 14.6 R15.0 15.2 Waste 8 Geothermal Total 296.1 334.1 550.3 759.2 1,058.4 1,535.1 1,615.9 1,753.0 1,864.1 1,870.3 1,920.8 2,040.9 2,127.4 2,209.4 2,250.7 2,289.6 2,298.0 2,244.4 2,313.4 2,419.5 2,473.0 2,490.5 2,575.3 2,707.4 2,967.1 3,037.8 3,073.8 3,083.9 3,197.2 3,247.5 3,353.5 3,444.2 3,492.2 3,620.3 3,694.8 3,802.1 3,736.6 3,858.5 3,883.2 3,970.6 4,055.4 4,064.7 4,156.7 R4,119.4 3,953.1
(Sum of Tables 8.2b and 8.2d; Billion Kilowatthours)
Fossil Fuels
ENGR 190
Natural Gas 3 Total 201.0 232.8 433.8 609.0 857.3 1,261.5 1,307.4 1,421.2 1,502.9 1,449.4 1,441.7 1,559.0 1,648.9 1,646.2 1,708.0 1,753.8 1,755.4 1,644.1 1,678.0 1,758.9 1,794.3 1,770.9 1,854.9 1,942.4 2,108.6 2,103.6 2,103.3 2,138.7 2,230.7 2,270.1 2,293.9 2,346.0 2,430.3 2,547.1 2,569.7 2,692.5 2,677.0 2,730.2 2,758.6 2,824.8 2,909.5 2,885.3 2,992.2 R2,926.7 2,734.4 0.0 .0 .0 .5 3.7 21.8 38.1 54.1 83.5 114.0 172.5 191.1 250.9 276.4 255.2 251.1 272.7 282.8 293.7 327.6 383.7 414.0 455.3 527.0 529.4 576.9 612.6 618.8 610.3 640.4 673.4 674.7 628.6 673.7 728.3 753.9 768.8 780.1 763.7 788.5 782.0 787.2 806.4 806.2 798.7 (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6) -3.5 -4.5 -4.2 -4.0 -3.4 -2.7 -3.1 -4.0 -4.5 -6.1 -5.5 -8.8 -8.7 -8.5 -8.5 -6.6 -6.6 -6.9 R-6.3 -4.3 94.8 100.9 116.2 149.4 197.0 251.0 269.5 275.9 275.4 304.2 303.2 286.9 223.6 283.5 283.1 279.2 263.8 312.4 335.3 324.3 284.3 294.0 252.9 226.1 272.0 292.9 289.0 253.1 280.5 260.1 310.8 347.2 356.5 323.3 319.5 275.6 217.0 264.3 275.8 268.4 270.3 289.2 247.5 R254.8 272.1 37.0 44.6 95.3 158.0 221.6 372.9 374.0 375.7 340.9 320.1 299.8 294.6 305.5 305.4 329.5 346.2 345.8 305.3 274.1 297.4 291.9 248.5 272.6 252.8 352.6 372.8 381.6 404.1 414.9 460.2 496.1 455.1 479.4 531.3 556.4 601.0 639.1 691.0 649.9 710.1 761.0 816.4 896.6 R883.0 920.4 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 7.9 10.4 11.3 13.3 13.0 13.3 13.9 14.4 13.4 13.5 14.1 14.0 9.0 11.5 15.6 15.3 13.5 14.2 13.5 R11.7 10.7 Other Gases 4 Nuclear Electric Power Conventional Hydroelectric Power 6
Year
Coal
Petroleum
Hydroelectric Pumped Storage 5
1949 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 198911 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009P
135.5 154.5 301.4 403.1 570.9 704.4 713.1 771.1 847.7 828.4 852.8 944.4 985.2 975.7 1,075.0 1,161.6 1,203.2 1,192.0 1,259.4 1,341.7 1,402.1 1,385.8 1,463.8 1,540.7 1,583.8 1,594.0 1,590.6 1,621.2 1,690.1 1,690.7 1,709.4 1,795.2 1,845.0 1,873.5 1,881.1 1,966.3 1,904.0 1,933.1 1,973.7 1,978.3 2,012.9 1,990.5 2,016.5 R1,985.8 1,764.5
28.5 33.7 37.1 48.0 64.8 184.2 220.2 274.3 314.3 300.9 289.1 320.0 358.2 365.1 303.5 246.0 206.4 146.8 144.5 119.8 100.2 136.6 118.5 148.9 164.4 126.5 119.8 100.2 112.8 105.9 74.6 81.4 92.6 128.8 118.1 111.2 124.9 94.6 119.4 121.1 122.2 64.2 65.7 R46.2 38.8
Page 16
Anthracite, bituminous coal, subbituminous coal, lignite, waste coal, and coal synfuel. Distillate fuel oil, residual fuel oil, petroleum coke, jet fuel, kerosene, other petroleum, and waste oil. Natural gas, plus a small amount of supplemental gaseous fuels. 4 Blast furnace gas, propane gas, and other manufactured and waste gases derived from fossil fuels. 5 Pumped storage facility production minus energy used for pumping. 6 Through 1989, hydroelectric pumped storage is included in "Conventional Hydroelectric Power." 7 Wood and wood-derived fuels. 8 Municipal solid waste from biogenic sources, landfill gas, sludge waste, agricultural byproducts, and other biomass. Through 2000, also includes non-renewable waste (municipal solid waste from non-biogenic sources, and tire-derived fuels). 9 Solar thermal and photovoltaic (PV) energy. 10 Batteries, chemicals, hydrogen, pitch, purchased steam, sulfur, miscellaneous technologies, and,
beginning in 2001, non-renewable waste (municipal solid waste from non-biogenic sources, and tire-derived fuels). 11 Through 1988, all data except hydroelectric are for electric utilities only; hydroelectric data through 1988 include industrial plants as well as electric utilities. Beginning in 1989, data are for electric utilities, independent power producers, commercial plants, and industrial plants. R=Revised. P=Preliminary. NA=Not available. (s)=Less than 0.05 billion killowatthours. Notes: See Note 1, "Coverage of Electricity Statistics," at end of section. Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Web Pages: For all data beginning in 1949, see http://www.eia.gov/emeu/aer/elect.html. For related information, see http://www.eia.gov/fuelelectric.html. Sources: 1949-1988Table 8.2b for electric power sector, and Table 8.1 for industrial sector. 1989 forwardTables 8.2b and 8.2d.
230
Table 8.2c Electricity Net Generation: Electric Power Sector by Plant Type, 1989-2009
Renewable Energy Biomass Wood 7 Solar/PV 9 Wind Total Other 10 Waste 8 Geothermal Total
(Breakout of Table 8.2b; Billion Kilowatthours)
Fossil Fuels
Year Electricity-Only Plants 11 266.9 264.7 267.8 270.9 267.2 299.7 317.4 272.8 291.1 335.9 356.6 399.4 427.0 456.8 421.2 491.2 553.2 618.0 686.3 R683.3 721.8 Combined-Heat-and-Power Plants 12 30.4 44.8 50.0 63.4 75.0 86.0 101.7 105.9 108.5 113.4 116.4 118.6 128.0 150.9 146.1 136.0 130.7 116.4 128.4 R119.0 119.2 0.5 .6 .7 1.2 1.0 1.1 1.9 1.3 1.5 2.3 1.6 1.8 .6 1.7 2.4 3.2 3.8 4.2 3.9 3.2 3.0 39.9 58.7 68.2 87.4 104.2 120.1 137.9 142.7 143.7 149.4 151.2 160.2 165.5 188.5 190.6 180.6 176.2 161.1 173.2 R162.7 157.0 (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) 1.3 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.0 1.6 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.0 1.7 1.6 1.7 1.7 2.1 1.6 2.1 2.0 2.0 R2.0 2.2 0.9 1.1 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.7 2.1 2.3 2.4 2.7 1.7 2.0 1.9 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 2.2 2.6 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.2 3.4 3.6 4.3 4.2 4.1 4.3 3.4 3.7 4.0 2.9 3.4 3.5 3.5 R3.4 3.7 0.3 (s) .4 .5 .4 .2 .2 .2 .1 .2 .1 .1 .6 1.4 1.1 .7 .7 .8 .7 .8 .9 (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) .1 (s) .2 (s) .2 .3 .4 (s) (s) .1 (s) .1 1,979.3 1,942.4 1,931.9 1,938.0 2,009.9 2,031.7 2,037.4 2,084.1 2,164.6 2,274.6 2,293.6 2,408.2 2,392.0 2,421.5 2,445.7 2,522.0 2,619.9 2,607.0 2,705.3 R2,654.6 2,472.4 529.4 576.9 612.6 618.8 610.3 640.4 673.4 674.7 628.6 673.7 728.3 753.9 768.8 780.1 763.7 788.5 782.0 787.2 806.4 806.2 798.7 (6) -3.5 -4.5 -4.2 -4.0 -3.4 -2.7 -3.1 -4.0 -4.5 -6.1 -5.5 -8.8 -8.7 -8.5 -8.5 -6.6 -6.6 -6.9 R-6.3 -4.3 269.2 289.8 286.0 250.0 277.5 254.0 305.4 341.2 350.6 317.9 314.7 271.3 213.7 260.5 271.5 265.1 267.0 286.2 245.8 R253.1 270.2 4.2 5.6 6.0 6.6 7.2 7.6 5.9 6.5 6.5 6.6 7.3 7.3 6.6 7.3 7.4 8.1 8.5 8.3 8.7 R8.6 8.3 6.9 10.4 12.2 14.4 14.9 15.4 16.3 16.1 16.4 17.0 17.1 17.6 11.3 11.2 11.9 11.8 11.7 12.5 12.9 R14.0 14.3 14.6 15.4 16.0 16.1 16.8 15.5 13.4 14.3 14.7 14.8 14.8 14.1 13.7 14.5 14.4 14.8 14.7 14.6 14.6 R15.0 15.2 0.3 .4 .5 .4 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .6 .5 .6 .6 .5 .6 R.9 .8 2.1 2.8 3.0 2.9 3.0 3.4 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.0 4.5 5.6 6.7 10.4 11.2 14.1 17.8 26.6 34.4 R55.4 70.8 297.3 324.3 323.7 290.4 319.8 296.5 344.7 381.8 392.0 359.8 358.8 316.4 252.6 304.3 317.0 314.5 320.3 348.7 317.1 R346.9 379.6 5.9 7.6 7.6 7.6 6.2 6.3 6.0 R6.0 6.2
ENGR 190
Natural Gas 3 Total Other Gases 4 Nuclear Electric Power Conventional Hydroelectric Power 6
Coal 1
Petroleum 2
Hydroelectric Pumped Storage 5
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009P
1,554.0 1,560.2 1,551.9 1,577.1 1,642.1 1,639.9 1,658.0 1,742.8 1,793.2 1,823.0 1,832.1 1,910.6 1,851.8 1,881.2 1,915.8 1,921.1 1,955.5 1,933.7 1,962.0 R1,932.0 1,718.8
158.3 117.6 112.2 90.1 100.6 92.1 62.0 68.5 80.3 115.7 104.8 98.0 113.2 83.3 108.5 109.4 111.2 55.2 56.9 R39.3 31.8
2,805.9 2,840.0 2,863.6 2,843.1 2,935.9 2,965.2 3,052.8 3,137.6 3,181.3 3,303.6 3,374.6 3,472.9 3,410.5 3,504.8 3,525.5 3,624.1 3,721.8 3,742.7 3,828.0 R3,807.4 3,652.7
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009P
8.4 11.9 16.9 20.7 23.4 26.4 28.1 29.2 27.6 27.2 26.6 32.5 31.0 29.4 36.9 36.1 36.5 36.0 36.4 R36.9 30.8
0.7 1.3 .6 2.2 4.8 6.6 6.1 6.3 6.2 6.6 6.7 7.2 6.0 6.5 5.2 5.3 5.3 4.5 4.4 R3.6 4.0
42.3 61.3 71.9 91.3 108.0 123.5 141.5 146.6 148.1 153.8 155.4 164.6 169.5 193.7 195.7 184.3 180.4 165.4 177.4 R166.9 161.6
Anthracite, bituminous coal, subbituminous coal, lignite, waste coal, and coal synfuel. Distillate fuel oil, residual fuel oil, petroleum coke, jet fuel, kerosene, other petroleum, and waste oil. Natural gas, plus a small amount of supplemental gaseous fuels. Blast furnace gas, propane gas, and other manufactured and waste gases derived from fossil fuels. Pumped storage facility production minus energy used for pumping. Through 1989, hydroelectric pumped storage is included in "Conventional Hydroelectric Power." Wood and wood-derived fuels. Municipal solid waste from biogenic sources, landfill gas, sludge waste, agricultural byproducts, and other biomass. Through 2000, also includes non-renewable waste (municipal solid waste from non-biogenic sources, and tire-derived fuels). 9 Solar thermal and photovoltaic (PV) energy. 10 Batteries, chemicals, hydrogen, pitch, purchased steam, sulfur, miscellaneous technologies, and, beginning in 2001, non-renewable waste (municipal solid waste from non-biogenic sources, and tire-derived fuels). 11 Electricity-only plants within the NAICS 22 category whose primary business is to sell electricity to the
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Page 17
public. Data also include a small number of electric utility combined-heat-and-power (CHP) plants. 12 Combined-heat-and-power (CHP) plants within the NAICS 22 category whose primary business is to sell electricity and heat to the public. Data do not include electric utility CHP plantsthese are included under "Electricity-Only Plants." R=Revised. P=Preliminary. = No data reported. (s)=Less than 0.05 billion kilowatthours. Notes: See Table 8.2d for commercial and industrial CHP and electricity-only data. See Note 1, "Coverage of Electricity Statistics," and Note 2, "Classification of Power Plants Into Energy-Use Sectors," at end of section. Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Web Page: For related information, see http://www.eia.gov/fuelelectric.html. Sources: 1989-1997U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), Form EIA-759, "Monthly Power Plant Report," and Form EIA-867, "Annual Nonutility Power Producer Report." 1998-2000EIA, Form EIA-759, "Monthly Power Plant Report," and Form EIA-860B, "Annual Electric Generator ReportNonutility." 2001-2003EIA, Form EIA-906, "Power Plant Report." 2004-2007EIA, Form EIA-906, "Power Plant Report," and Form EIA-920, "Combined Heat and Power Plant Report." 2008 and 2009EIA, Form EIA-923, "Power Plant Operations Report."
232
Table 8.4a Consumption for Electricity Generation by Energy Source: Total (All Sectors), Selected Years, 1949-2009
Renewable Energy Biomass Wood 6 Total 1,431 1,421 1,363 1,610 2,066 2,649 2,839 2,899 2,907 3,232 3,227 3,057 2,416 3,005 3,020 3,014 2,885 3,374 3,661 3,560 3,183 3,303 2,879 2,569 113,665 4,058 4,058 3,752 4,052 3,848 4,318 4,765 4,811 4,450 4,452 3,995 3,320 3,967 4,016 3,723 3,781 4,035 3,699 R3,985 4,283 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 39 36 59 40 34 40 42 37 36 36 41 46 160 191 193 183 173 162 168 R170 159 5 6 14 15 (s) 7 12 26 49 43 21 29 59 67 69 71 113 100 121 135 140 122 158 108 37 8 67 87 95 153 134 137 116 88 99 115 75 72 22 39 84 63 107 112 116 6 5 3 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 (s) 1 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 5 8 5 8 10 11345 442 425 481 485 498 480 513 484 475 490 496 486 605 519 344 355 350 353 R339 318 NA NA NA NA NA 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 4 7 7 7 8 11151 211 247 283 288 301 316 324 339 332 332 330 228 257 249 230 230 241 245 R267 259 NA NA NA 1 4 11 12 31 43 53 70 78 77 64 84 110 123 105 129 165 198 219 229 217 11308 326 335 338 351 325 280 300 309 311 312 296 289 305 303 311 309 306 308 R314 320 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) 113 4 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 5 6 6 5 6 R9 8 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) 1122 29 31 30 31 36 33 33 34 31 46 57 70 105 115 142 178 264 341 R546 697 Waste 7 Geothermal 5 Solar/PV 5,8 Wind 5 Other 9
(Sum of Tables 8.4b and 8.4c; Trillion Btu)
Fossil Fuels
ENGR 190
Other Gases 4 Total 2,979 3,322 5,123 6,565 8,938 13,399 13,893 14,992 15,921 15,418 15,191 16,349 17,446 17,522 18,156 18,567 18,553 17,491 17,754 18,526 18,792 18,586 19,365 20,123 1121,788 21,746 21,723 21,903 22,790 23,233 23,473 24,097 24,890 26,124 26,320 27,567 27,235 27,392 27,525 27,586 28,393 27,954 28,927 R28,218 26,101 0 0 0 6 43 239 413 584 910 1,272 1,900 2,111 2,702 3,024 2,776 2,739 3,008 3,131 3,203 3,553 4,076 4,380 4,754 5,587 115,602 6,104 6,422 6,479 6,410 6,694 7,075 7,087 6,597 7,068 7,610 7,862 R8,029 R8,145 7,959 8,222 R8,161 R8,215 R8,455 R8,427 8,349 1,425 1,415 1,360 1,608 2,059 2,634 2,824 2,864 2,861 3,177 3,155 2,976 2,333 2,937 2,931 2,900 2,758 3,266 3,527 3,386 2,970 3,071 2,635 2,334 122,837 3,046 3,016 2,617 2,892 2,683 3,205 3,590 3,640 3,297 3,268 2,811 2,242 2,689 2,825 2,690 2,703 2,869 2,446 R2,511 2,682 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 90 112 125 141 136 136 133 159 119 125 126 126 97 131 156 135 110 115 115 R97 86 Nuclear Electric Power 5 Conventional Hydroelectric Power 5 Electricity Net Imports 10 569 651 1,194 1,785 2,395 4,054 4,099 4,084 3,748 3,519 3,240 3,152 3,284 3,297 3,613 3,810 3,768 3,342 2,998 3,220 3,160 2,691 2,935 2,709 113,582 3,791 3,861 3,999 4,027 4,476 4,840 4,400 4,658 5,205 5,441 5,818 6,001 6,250 5,736 5,827 6,212 6,644 7,288 R7,087 7,285
Year
Coal 1
Petroleum 2
Natural Gas 3
Total 4,415 4,749 6,500 8,197 11,047 16,293 17,158 18,501 19,788 19,966 20,339 21,547 22,623 23,618 24,021 24,392 24,559 24,096 24,738 25,774 26,191 26,392 27,157 28,387 31,131 31,953 32,329 32,261 33,381 33,968 35,043 36,123 36,451 37,767 38,522 39,586 R38,819 R39,767 39,715 39,753 R40,592 R40,429 R41,356 R40,913 39,008
1949 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009P
1,995 2,199 3,458 4,228 5,821 7,227 7,299 7,811 8,658 8,534 8,786 9,720 10,262 10,238 11,260 12,123 12,583 12,582 13,213 14,019 14,542 14,444 15,173 15,850 1116,359 16,477 16,460 16,686 17,424 17,485 17,687 18,650 19,128 19,417 19,467 20,411 19,789 19,997 20,367 20,376 20,802 20,527 20,842 R20,549 18,325
415 472 471 553 722 2,117 2,495 3,097 3,515 3,365 3,166 3,477 3,901 3,987 3,283 2,634 2,202 1,568 1,544 1,286 1,090 1,452 1,257 1,563 111,756 1,366 1,276 1,076 1,203 1,135 813 888 985 1,378 1,285 1,212 1,347 1,014 1,266 1,248 1,269 668 683 R485 404
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Page 18
Anthracite, bituminous coal, subbituminous coal, lignite, waste coal, and coal synfuel. Distillate fuel oil, residual fuel oil, petroleum coke, jet fuel, kerosene, other petroleum, and waste oil. Natural gas, plus a small amount of supplemental gaseous fuels. Blast furnace gas, propane gas, and other manufactured and waste gases derived from fossil fuels. Values are converted from kilowattthours to Btu using the approximate heat rates in Table A6. Wood and wood-derived fuels. Municipal solid waste from biogenic sources, landfill gas, sludge waste, agricultural byproducts, and other biomass. Through 2000, also includes non-renewable waste (municipal solid waste from non-biogenic sources, and tire-derived fuels). 8 Solar thermal and photovoltaic (PV) energy. 9 Batteries, chemicals, hydrogen, pitch, purchased steam, sulfur, miscellaneous technologies, and, beginning in 2001, non-renewable waste (municipal solid waste from non-biogenic sources, and tire-derived fuels). 10 Net imports equal imports minus exports. See Note 3, "Electricity Imports and Exports," at end of section. 11 Through 1988, data are for electric utilities only. Beginning in 1989, data are for electric utilities,
independent power producers, commercial plants, and industrial plants. 12 Through 1988, data are for electric utilities and industrial plants. Beginning in 1989, data are for electric utilities, independent power producers, commercial plants, and industrial plants. R=Revised. P=Preliminary. NA=Not available. (s)=Less than 0.5 trillion Btu. Notes: Data are for energy consumed to produce electricity. Data also include energy consumed to produce useful thermal output at a small number of electric utility combined-heat-and-power (CHP) plants. This table no longer shows energy consumption by hydroelectric pumped storage plants. The change was made because most of the electricity used to pump water into elevated storage reservoirs is generated by plants other than pumped-storage plants; thus, the associated energy is already accounted for in other data columns in this table (such as "Conventional Hydroelectric Power," "Coal," "Natural Gas," and so on). See Note 1, "Coverage of Electricity Statistics," at end of section. Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Web Pages: For all data beginning in 1949, see http://www.eia.gov/emeu/aer/elect.html. For related information, see http://www.eia.gov/fuelelectric.html. Sources: 1949-1988Table 8.4b for electric power sector, and Tables 8.1 and A6 for industrial sector. 1989 forwardTables 8.4b and 8.4c.
239
Figure 6.0
Natural Gas Flow, 2009
(Trillion Cubic Feet)
ENGR 190
Notes: Data are preliminary. Values are derived from source data prior to rounding for publication. Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Sources: Tables 6.1, 6.2, and 6.5. U.S. Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Review 2009 185
Page 19
Quantities lost and imbalances in data due to differences among data sources. Lease and plant fuel, and other industrial. 3 Natural gas consumed in the operation of pipelines (primarily in compressors), and as fuel in the delivery of natural gas to consumers; plus a small quantity used as vehicle fuel.
Figure 7.0
Coal Flow, 2009
(Million Short Tons)
ENGR 190
Notes: Production categories are estimated; other data are preliminary. Values are derived from source data prior to rounding for publication. Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Sources: Tables 7.1, 7.2, and 7.3. U.S. Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Review 2009 205
Page 20
1 Includes fine coal, coal obtained from a refuse bank or slurry dam, anthracite culm, bituminous gob, and lignite waste that are consumed by the electric power and industrial sectors.
Table 9.2 Nuclear Power Plant Operations, 1957-2009

Nuclear Share of Total Electricity Net Generation Percent (s) (s) (s) .1 .2 .3 .3 .3 .3 .5 .6 .9 1.0 1.4 2.4 3.1 4.5 6.1 9.0 9.4 11.8 12.5 11.3 11.0 11.9 12.6 12.7 13.5 15.5 16.6 17.7 19.5 17.8 19.0 19.9 20.1 19.1 19.7 20.1 19.6 18.0 18.6 19.7 19.8 20.6 20.2 19.7 19.9 19.3 19.4 19.4 19.6 20.2 0.1 .1 .1 .4 .4 .7 .8 .8 .8 1.7 2.7 2.7 4.4 7.0 9.0 14.5 22.7 31.9 37.3 43.8 46.3 50.8 49.7 51.8 56.0 60.0 63.0 69.7 79.4 85.2 93.6 94.7 98.2 99.6 99.6 99.0 99.0 99.1 99.5 100.8 99.7 97.1 97.4 97.9 98.2 98.7 99.2 99.6 100.0 100.3 100.3 R100.8 100.8 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 53.5 47.8 55.9 54.7 63.3 64.5 58.4 56.3 58.2 56.6 54.4 56.3 58.0 56.9 57.4 63.5 62.2 66.0 70.2 70.9 70.5 73.8 77.4 76.2 71.1 78.2 85.3 88.1 89.4 90.3 87.9 90.1 89.3 89.6 91.8 R91.1 90.5 Million Kilowatts Percent Net Summer Capacity of Operable Units 1 Capacity Factor 2
Nuclear Electricity Net Generation
Year
Billion Kilowatthours
ENGR 190
1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009P
(s) .2 .2 .5 1.7 2.3 3.2 3.3 3.7 5.5 7.7 12.5 13.9 21.8 38.1 54.1 83.5 114.0 172.5 191.1 250.9 276.4 255.2 251.1 272.7 282.8 293.7 327.6 383.7 414.0 455.3 527.0 529.4 576.9 612.6 618.8 610.3 640.4 673.4 674.7 628.6 673.7 728.3 753.9 768.8 780.1 763.7 788.5 782.0 787.2 806.4 806.2 798.7
Page 21
At end of year. See "Generator Net Summer Capacity" in Glossary. See "Generator Capacity Factor" in Glossary. R=Revised. P=Preliminary. NA=Not available. (s)=Less than 0.05. Note: See Note 2, "Coverage of Nuclear Energy Statistics," at end of section. Web Page: For related information, see http://www.eia.gov/fuelnuclear.html.
Sources: Nuclear Electricity Net Generation and Nuclear Share of Electricity Net Generation: Table 8.2a. Net Summer Capacity of Operable Units: 1949-2008: Table 8.11a. 2009U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), Monthly Energy Review (MER) (April 2010), Table 8.1. Capacity Factor: EIA, MER (April 2010), Table 8.1. Annual capacity factors are weighted averages of monthly capacity factors.
277
Table 10.1 Renewable Energy Production and Consumption by Primary Energy Source, Selected Years, 1949-2009
Consumption Biomass Geothermal 6 Solar/PV 7 Total 1,549 1,562 1,424 1,320 1,335 1,431 1,432 1,503 1,529 1,540 1,499 1,713 1,838 2,038 2,152 2,476 R2,596 R2,663 R2,904 R2,971 R3,016 R2,932 R2,875 R3,016 R3,159 R2,735 R2,782 R2,932 R2,908 R3,028 R3,101 R3,157 R3,105 R2,928 R2,963 R3,008 R2,622 R2,701 R2,807 R3,010 R3,117 R3,277 R3,503 R3,852 3,883 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) 55 60 63 64 66 69 70 71 70 70 69 66 65 64 64 65 66 72 81 R97 109 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) 22 29 31 30 31 36 33 33 34 31 46 57 70 105 115 142 178 264 341 R546 697 1,549 1,562 1,424 1,320 1,335 1,429 1,430 1,501 1,527 1,538 1,497 1,711 1,837 2,036 2,150 2,474 2,496 2,510 2,684 2,686 2,687 2,562 2,463 2,577 2,680 2,216 2,214 2,313 2,260 2,324 2,370 2,437 2,371 2,184 2,214 2,262 2,006 1,995 2,002 2,121 2,136 R2,109 R2,098 R2,044 1,891 NA NA NA NA NA 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 88 119 157 208 236 263 289 315 354 408 440 473 479 515 531 577 551 542 540 511 364 402 401 389 403 R397 R413 R436 447 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 13 R34 R63 R77 R93 R107 R123 R124 R125 R111 R128 R145 R169 R188 R200 R143 R184 R201 R209 R236 R253 R303 R404 R500 R577 R771 R991 R1,372 1,545 Wind 8 Wood 9 Waste 10 Biofuels 11 NA NA NA 1 4 11 12 31 43 53 70 78 77 64 84 110 123 105 129 165 198 219 229 217 317 336 346 349 364 338 294 316 325 328 331 317 311 328 331 341 343 343 349 R360 373
(Trillion Btu)
Production 1
Biomass
ENGR 190
Total Renewable Energy 4 2,974 2,978 2,784 2,929 3,398 4,076 4,268 4,398 4,433 4,769 4,723 4,768 4,249 5,039 5,166 5,485 R5,477 6,034 R6,561 R6,522 R6,185 R6,223 R5,739 R5,568 R6,391 R6,206 R6,237 R5,992 R6,261 R6,153 R6,701 R7,165 R7,177 R6,655 R6,678 R6,257 R5,312 R5,892 R6,139 R6,235 R6,393 R6,774 R6,706 R7,381 7,761 1,425 1,415 1,360 1,608 2,059 2,634 2,824 2,864 2,861 3,177 3,155 2,976 2,333 2,937 2,931 2,900 2,758 3,266 3,527 3,386 2,970 3,071 2,635 2,334 2,837 3,046 3,016 2,617 2,892 2,683 3,205 3,590 3,640 3,297 3,268 2,811 2,242 2,689 2,825 2,690 2,703 2,869 2,446 R2,511 2,682 Hydroelectric Power 5
Year
Biofuels 2
Total 3
Total Renewable Energy 2,974 2,978 2,784 2,929 3,398 4,076 4,268 4,398 4,433 4,769 4,723 4,768 4,249 5,039 5,166 5,485 R5,477 6,034 R6,561 R6,522 R6,185 R6,223 R5,739 R5,568 R6,391 R6,206 R6,238 R5,992 R6,261 R6,153 R6,703 R7,166 R7,175 R6,654 R6,677 R6,260 R5,311 R5,888 R6,141 R6,247 R6,406 R6,824 R6,719 R7,366 7,744
1949 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009P
NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 13 R34 R63 R77 R93 R107 R123 R124 R125 R111 R128 R145 R169 R188 R198 R141 R186 R202 R211 R233 R254 R308 R402 R487 R564 R720 R978 R1,387 1,562
1,549 1,562 1,424 1,320 1,335 1,431 1,432 1,503 1,529 1,540 1,499 1,713 1,838 2,038 2,152 2,476 R2,596 R2,663 R2,904 R2,971 R3,016 R2,932 R2,875 R3,016 R3,159 R2,735 R2,782 R2,932 R2,908 R3,028 R3,099 R3,155 R3,108 R2,929 R2,965 R3,006 R2,624 R2,705 R2,805 R2,998 R3,104 R3,226 R3,489 R3,867 3,900
1 2 3
Page 22
Production equals consumption for all renewable energy sources except biofuels. Total biomass inputs to the production of fuel ethanol and biodiesel. Wood and wood-derived fuels, biomass waste, and total biomass inputs to the production of fuel ethanol and biodiesel. 4 Hydroelectric power, geothermal, solar thermal/photovoltaic, wind, and biomass. 5 Conventional hydroelectricity net generation (converted to Btu using the fossil-fueled plants heat rate). 6 Geothermal electricity net generation (converted to Btu using the geothermal energy plants heat rate), and geothermal heat pump and direct use energy. 7 Solar thermal and photovoltaic (PV) electricity net generation (converted to Btu using the fossil-fueled plants heat rate), and solar thermal direct use energy. 8 Wind electricity net generation (converted to Btu using the fossil-fueled plants heat rate). 9 Wood and wood-derived fuels. 10 Municipal solid waste from biogenic sources, landfill gas, sludge waste, agricultural byproducts, and other biomass. Through 2000, also includes non-renewable waste (municipal solid waste from
non-biogenic sources, and tire-derived fuels). 11 Fuel ethanol (minus denaturant) and biodiesel consumption, plus losses and co-products from the production of fuel ethanol and biodiesel. R=Revised. P=Preliminary. NA=Not available. (s)=Less than 0.5 trillion Btu. Notes: Most data for the residential, commercial, industrial, and transportation sectors are estimates. See notes and sources for Tables 10.2a and 10.2b. See Section 8, Tables 8.2a-d and 8.3a-c, for electricity net generation and useful thermal output from renewable energy sources; Tables 8.4a-c, 8.5a-d, 8.6a-c, and 8.7a-c for renewable energy consumption for electricity generation and useful thermal output; and Tables 8.11a-d for renewable energy electric net summer capacity. See Note, "Renewable Energy Production and Consumption," at end of section. See Table E1 for estimated renewable energy consumption for 1635-1945. Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Web Pages: For all data beginning in 1949, see http://www.eia.gov/emeu/aer/renew.html. For related information, see http://www.eia.gov/fuelrenewable.html. Sources: Biofuels: Tables 10.3 and 10.4. All Other Data: Tables 10.2a-c.
283
HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC STUDIES LEADING TO NUCLEAR POWER

History of the Scientific Discoveries and the Development of the Application of Nuclear Energy for the Benefit of Civilization
The understanding of the structure of matter, consisting of atoms, only began with the hypothesis of Dalton in 1805 in England. This was also the year that the Lewis and Clark Expedition reached the Pacific Ocean. Subsequent developments saw great discoveries about the atom, and particularly the nucleus. Essentially all of these discoveries were made in Europe up until the time of World War II, when a crash program was initiated in the United States to harness this new nuclear energy to make a highly destructive bomb that brought -a quick end to the war. Simultaneous these early discoveries came at a time when the United States of America was being settled from east to west, and the Industrial Revolution was occurring, involving the use of machinery that harnessed chemical energy. The ultimate discovery of the difference between chemical (atomic) energy and nuclear energy showed a huge factor. The energy that could be obtained by manipulating the nucleus was the order of one million to several hundred million greater than that obtained from chemical reactions involving the exchange of electrons (in orbit) between atoms. Why History? This historical review shows the steps which are key to the understanding and the development of nuclear power. This harnessing of the energy derived from the fissioning of the uranium atom (and plutonium) results in a vast reserve of energy available from the earths crust, the order of 50,000 times more energy that is available from all of the coal, natural gas (methane), and petroleum in the earths crust. Environmental Effects Because of the tremendous difference in nuclear energy compared to chemical energy, the consequences to ultimate safety, environmental effects, and benefits to mankind are very much different. Environmentally, waste products from the nuclear processes are much, much smaller than from chemical processes, but these small product amounts are very dangerous. The challenge is to protect from the danger, while taking advantage of the minimal overall environmental effects of nuclear energy. Tile Challenges Today Nuclear (fission) power represents a virtually inexhaustible source of energy, for hundreds of thousands of years. The nations of the world are working together to further harness this energy in various ways, not only to produce power, but to treat disease, to make new types of materials, and to make life healthier and more productive. The waste products are so small in volume that these can be easily confined safely. However, nuclear energy also represents the horrendous destructive potential of nuclear bombs. The challenge is to prevent the use of such bombs in warfare, and perhaps the key to such a goal is the prevention of any type of warfare between nations or among terrorist organizations.
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NUCLEAR ENERGY VS. CHEMICAL ENERGY One fission of a uranium or plutonium nucleus = 200,000,000 eV One carbon atom burning = 4.1eV Geological data of the Earths Crust shows that the concentration of carbon is ~300 ppm (parts per million) by weight and about 2.7 ppm by weight for uranium plus about 9 ppm for thorium. Note that uranium and thorium have a mass that is about 20 times that of carbon. Hence, there are about 500 times more carbon atoms in the earths crust than Uranium and Thorium The carbon resource also includes oil and natural gas adding about 30% to the pure carbon values, which would raise the 500 atoms of carbon to one uranium atom to about 650. Therefore, the nuclear resource is about (200,000,000 / [4.1 x 650]) = ~75,000, the ratio of the nuclear energy resource in the earths crust to the fossil fuel resource. The discovery of this huge nuclear energy capability per atom occurred in Germany in 1938, and the data was made known to scientists throughout the world. The experiments of Hahn, Strassmann, and Meitner in Germany were repeated within a year at about 100 universities in the USA, in 1939. However, this was also the beginning of World War II, in 1939, and the USA and British scientists decided to no longer publish the results of their research on uranium fission. A number of scientists of Jewish heritage left Italy and Germany, escaping for their lives to the USA. Many of them, such as Enrico Fermi, became key individuals in the development of the nuclear bomb (atomic bomb) in the USA during the war.
INITIAL DEVELOPMENT BUILDING A BOMB The initial development of nuclear power was to build a weapon a bomb. The Issues and Concerns: Are there enough neutrons released per fission to maintain a chain reaction? Answer: ~2.5 neutrons released per fission. The speed of these reactions is about a nanosecond to a microsecond. How can this be done safely? Answer: It was determined that about 2/3% of the total neutrons produced in a fission are delayed by about 12 seconds. Can a chain reaction be produced and controlled? Answer: This was done on December 2, 1942 at the University of Chicago with a large reactor (26' x 28' x 28') made of natural uranium rods (about 1" diameter) inserted in pure graphite blocks.
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How can a bomb be made? Answer: Pure fissile material must be used: either U-235 or Pu-239. Both projects were launched - the pure U-235 to be made at Oak Ridge, TN and the Pu-239 to be made at Richland, WA Will the bomb be effective? Answer: The first bomb (pure Pu-239) was tested near Alamogordo, NM on July 16, 1945. The Pu bomb required special construction using shaped charges of chemical explosives to force the supercritical configuration to be developed in very short time period, and held into place while the reaction developed to enormous power levels. The Hiroshima bomb (Aug. 5, 1945) was made of U-235 and did not require the extensive shaped charges that were used on the Pu bomb. It was called Little Boy because it easily fit into the bomb bay of the B-29. The bomb was delivered to the island by the battleship Indianapolis, which was sunk a few days later. The Enola Gay took off from Tinian Island and dropped the bomb over Hiroshima about 8 AM on Aug. 5. The Nagasaki bomb (Aug 8) was Pu-239. Both released about 15,000 tons of TNT equivalent. Each bomb killed an estimated 75,000 people; many immediately, many others died horrible deaths within weeks from thermal burns or from radiation exposure. Note: In February of 1945, shortly after the USA developed the airstrip on Tinian Island, the USA relentlessly bombed Tokyo with incendiary bombs, destroying much of the city and killing an estimated 350,000.
THE EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS

(Information extracted from EG&G charts, which were derived from The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, USAEC, edited by Samuel Glasstone - 1956. Other data obtained from Eisenbud, Environmentally Radioactivity)
Effects of a one Megaton blast at the earths surface: Crater depth (ft.) 100 115 142 Crater radius (miles) 0.4 0.18 0.24
In West Soil In Hard Rock In Dry Soil The Fireball Radius would be about 0.7 miles
Maximum Overpressure (psi) Maximum Wind Speed (mph)
Surface Burst 46 150
Air Burst 74 230
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Thermal and Ionizing Radiation: Distance from center of blast 1 mile 2 miles 5 miles 10 miles 20 miles Thennal Radiation (cal/cm) 1000 200 22 5 1 2 to 4 cal/cm 4 to 8 7 to l2 Direct Dose (Rem) 20,000 18 Less than l Negligible Negligible
Note: First degree burns are the result of a minimum of Second degree burns Third degree burns
The range depends on the intensity and duration of the blast. The higher values would be the requirements for the supermegaton blasts. The solar constant at the earths surface for perpendicular incidence is 0.032 cal/sec/cm. A 10 minute exposure to the sun gives the skin a dose of 19 cal/cm, which will redden the skin, possibly giving a sun burn that might peel. For ionizing radiation: 350 Rem without medical treatment, the result is 50% will die. On March 1, 1954, a large (probably about one megaton) nuclear bomb test was conducted at the Bikini Atoll in the Pacific. The natives were not evacuated from the most distant islands, because it was felt the fall out doses would not be severe. Many days after the blast the instruments on these islands were recovered to determine the fallout doses, which were worse than expected. Also, by mistake, a Japanese fishing boat was in the restricted area, only 80 miles from the blast in the downwind direction for fallout. Thirteen days later it reached port in Japan, at which time it was clear that most of the crew were ill. Island name Rongelap Rongerik Alinginac Utrik Japanese fishing boat Distance (in miles) 105 160 75 300 80 # Persons exposed 64 28 18 157 23 Time after blast fallout began 4to6 7 4 to 6 22 4 Exposure duration 50 hrs 30 50 60 ~2 days Whole body dose (Rem) 175 78 69 14 200 to 500 Thyroid dose(Rem) 100 50 ----
Note: a thyroid dose of 50 Rem is probably not clinically serious. Total yield of atmospheric nuclear tests by the 7 or 8 nuclear powers has been about 600 MT, 2/3 fusion.
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CONCEPTS FOR POWER PLANTS FOLLOWING WORLD WAR II Following the end of World War, scientists/engineers considered what type of reactor would be best to produce electricity. The following six concepts were the ones that were selected: 1. Natural uranium graphite moderated, CO2 cooled United Kingdom and France opted for this concept. 2. Light water moderated and cooled, using enriched uranium the USA chose this, since the U.S. already had enrichment plants. 3. Organic-cooled reactor, requiring enriched uranium. Prototype units were built for Italy and one in the USA. However, the organic coolant experienced radiation damage, causing it to polymerize, and requiring continual cleanup and replenishment. 4. Natural uranium, heavy-water moderated, light-water cooled Canada opted for this, and has successfully built and operated these with 48 still operating around the world, 22 of these in Canada. 5. Fast breeder reactor, cooled by liquid Na or NaK mixture. The USA opted for this reactor for development. The fast spectrum made it possible to breed more fuel than the reactor consumes. 6. A liquid uranium chemical fueled reactor, with the uranium chemical being the coolant, i.e. it carries the energy to heat exchangers to produce steam. This type was deferred from development until the 1960s, when one was built and successfully operated at Oak Ridge National Laboratory the Molten Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE). The first two peaceful use reactors were put into operation in Idaho, at the National Reactor Testing Station in Idaho, in 1952 the MTR (Type 2 above) and EBR-1 (Type 5 above). Meanwhile, the idea of nuclear submarines reached reality, with the first unit, the Nautilus, going to sea in 1954. The prototype nuclear plant for that reactor was built and tested at the National Reactor Testing Station. The Atomic Energy Commission funded the construction of several reactor plants for connection into utility systems Shippingport, a 60 MW PWR built by Westinghouse, near Pittsburgh, and Dresden, a 200 MW BWR built by General Electric near Chicago. These were followed by a number of other prototype reactors, mostly funded by the federal government through the Atomic Energy Commission. The first commercial utility nuclear electric power plant, built without government funding, bid in competition with coal in 1965, and General Electric won the fixed price bid. That Oyster Creek plant (550 MW) was completed and connected to the grid in November 1969 in New Jersey (by General Electric Co.), a 4.5 year construction time. In the next 10 years, to 1979, approximately 200 nuclear plants were constructed or planned for construction. However, with the advent of the Three Mile Island accident, and a significant effort for electric power conservation, only 104 of those reactors were eventually completed. Most of these 104 plants now in operation have been completely paid for, and hence the cost of electricity produced by them is as cheap or cheaper than that from coal plants.
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PRESSURIZED AND BOILER WATER REACTORS Commercial Nuclear Reactors that produce electricity in the USA are designated as Light Water Reactors (LWR). Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR) Approximately 2/3 of the plants in the United States are of this type. In this design the reactor core is maintained at a high pressure, so that the water coolant in the primary cooling system never boils. Typical operating pressures are 2250 psia. Core exit temperatures are rarely higher than 620 F. Steam for the turbines is produced by steam generators that transfer heat from the primary system water to the secondary water/steam system. Principal suppliers of this type of reactor were: Westinghouse, Combustion Engineering (now part of Westinghouse-Toshiba), and Babcock and Wilcox (now part of AREVA). Current suppliers are: Toshiba-Westinghouse, Mitsubishi, and AREVA.
Boiling Water Reactors (BWR) Approximately 1/3 of the plants in the USA are of this type. In this design, the water flowing upward through the core is permitted to turn to steam. The water-steam mixture then flows upward through dryers that collect the water and deliver it back into the main water coolant stream, allowing the dried steam to pass onward to the turbines. Principal suppliers: General Electric-Hitachi and Toshiba.
Steam Turbine and Generator Systems In both systems, there are usually one high pressure turbine, and two or three low pressure turbines, with steam re-heaters in between. All of the turbines are on the same shaft, which drives the generator. These generators are highly efficient, converting ~98% of their rotational mechanical energy into electricity. The coolant for the generators is gaseous hydrogen, which is recycled by depositing the heat through a heat exchanger to a cooling water circuit.
Condenser Cooling System The condenser is cooled by a separate system of water flowing through tubes in the condenser. This water, incoming at about 90 F and outgoing at about 120 F either comes from and goes to a lake, an ocean, or to a large natural draft cooling tower. These cooling towers are typically about 550 feet high. Clouds of water vapor (low temperature steam) emerge from the tops of these towers at a temperature of about 100 to 115 F.
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Just pump system of a boiling water reactor (courtesy General Electric Co.).
BWR module containing four fuel assemblies and a cruciform control rod (courtesy General Electric Co.).
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WORLD LIST OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Courtesy of the American Nuclear Society (ANS)
Notes on the 2010 World List of Nuclear Power Plants ............................................................................. 34 World List of Nuclear Power Plants ........................................................................................................... 35 Maps of Commercial Nuclear Power Plants Worldwide ............................................................................ 51 U.S. Power Reactor License Renewal ........................................................................................................ 57 New Power Reactor Projects in the United States ...................................................................................... 58 U.S. Power Reactors Ownership/Operator Changes ................................................................................... 59 Nuclear Power Plants No Longer in Service .............................................................................................. 60 Abbreviations .............................................................................................................................................. 61
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, !
Notes on the 20 I 0 World List of Nuclear Power Plants

The following is a summary of changes and developments that occurred during 2009 and an update on the status of pending projects, with explanations of judgment calls on what has (or has not) been included. In some cases, information from early 2010 has been incorporated. Because some plants have changed ownership, the work done by a previous owner is attributed to that organization in the "Participants" column. In some cases, the current owner has been responsible for a great deal of the work on a project (for instance, acting as its own architect-engineer and constructor), and where this is the case, the word "owner" is included in the "Participants" column. Argentina: Nucleoelectrica Argentina announced on January 13 that work on Atucha-2 is to be finished this year, with fuel loading scheduled for November. This list now shows initial criticality in December and commercial operation in 2011. Canada: New Brunswick Power Corporation's generating assets are to be acquired by Hydro Quebec during 2010, except for Point Lepreau, which will be acquired after the refurbishment of the reactor has been completed, perhaps in early 2011. Both utilities remain listed separately here, each with its own power reactor (Point Lepreau and Gentilly-2, respectively). China: Every year there are numerous announcements of development plans and new joint ventures, but based on what we have seen, we are adding only four new reactors to the list: Ningde-3 and -4 and Chiangjiang-l and -2. We will await further developments before deciding on the Shidaowan HTR, Tianwan-3 and -4, and the dozens of other projects that have been proposed. France: Phenix ceased electricity production in March 2009 and has been removed from the list, along with its owner, Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique. India: Rajasthan-7 and -8 and Kakrapar-3 and -4 have been added to the list; some equipment contracts for these projects have been announced, but no significant construction had taken place by the end of 2009. Construction has been completed on Rajasthan-S and -6. Rajasthan-S went commercial on February 4, 2010, but it is not shown as commercial in the list or the numerical tables because of our December 2009 cutoff. Rajasthan-6 is expected to go commercial before midyear. The PFBR reactor vessel was installed on December 5, and BHAVINI has stated that the project is on schedule. Iran: Bushehr is essentially complete. Fuel has been delivered, and startup is expected during 20 IO. Japan: Tomari-3 went critical last March and began commercial operation on December 22. The Japan Atomic Energy Agency finished its system function tests at Monju during 2009, and although startup testing was planned for the first quarter of 2010, we are still listing its commercial operation date as "indefinite" because of the many di~culties this project has encountered over the years. We do not cO~~lder any of the pending new reactor projects in Japan to have advanced to (he point where we can include them in the list, but t e closest are Japan Atomic Power Company's Tsuruga-3 and -4, and Tokyo Electric Power Company's Fukushima Daiichi-7 and -8 and Higashidori-l and -2 (not to be confused with the Higashidori-l already being operated by Tohoku Electric Power Company). Lithuania: Ignalina-2 closed on December 31,2009, as a condition of Lithuania's entry into the European Union. The reactor was the only one in service in Lithuania, so both the reactor and the listing for Lithuania have been removed from the list. Pakistan: Although there were reports in 2009 of subtier contracts placed in China for work related to the third and fourth reactors planned for Chashma, we have not seen enough to persuade us to add these proposed reactors to the list. Russia: Fuel loading began at Rostov-2 on December 19,2009. Electricity production was expected to begin in February, with commercial operation to follow later in 2010. The Kalinin-4 containment dome was installed in early January 2010; commercial operation is now scheduled for 2011. Rostov-3 and -4 have been added to the list because of announcements of equipment purchases for the project; none of the other planned reactors in Russia have reached the point of being added to the list. The shipborne power reactors previously referred to as Severodvinsk are now referred to as Vilyuchinsk, named after the location in Kamchatka where they will be put in service upon completion. Balakovo-f and Kursk-5 have been removed from the list because Rosatom no longer refers to them as active projects. Taiwan, China: Taiwan Power Company has announced that it intends to load fuel later this year in Lungrnen-I and begin initial power operation in December, with commercial operation to begin in 2011. We are listing commercial dates of 2011 and 2012 for Units 1 and 2, although the utility has acknowledged that the already delayed project may not adhere to this schedule. United Arab Emirates: Contracts have been signed with a South Korean consortium for the construction and, to some extent, operation of four power reactors, so these reactors (and this country) have been added to the list. At this writing, the sites for the two two-unit plants had not been announced; a decision was expected in February 2010. Emirates Nuclear Energy Corporation has declared its intent to put the first unit in service in 2017 and the others by 2020, so until more detailed schedules become available, we are listing 2017 for one reactor and 2020 for the others. We are listing Doosan as the-reactor vendor because it has filled this role for the APR-1400s in South Korea and is a member of the consortium, but this also may be subject to change as the projects come into sharper focus. United States: The third and fourth units at the South Texas Project site have been added to the list, based on an engineering, procurement, and construction contract signed by STP Nuclear Operating Company and Toshiba in February 2009. TVA Nuclear has informed us that Watts Bar-2 was 80 percent complete as of the end of 2009 and that schedules are being met "to bring the unit on line before the end of 20 12." We are therefore now using 2012 as a commercial operation date, although the previous estimate of 2013 remains possible.
NEWS
46
NUCLEAR
March
2() 1()
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Nuclear Ne","s
World List of Nuclear Power Plants
Operable, Under Construction, or on Order as of December 31, 2009
Operation
c:
=g~
Reactor Net MWe Type Model
m
.~
~-",
~~
0_
'" E
E't: o~
U(/)
U(/)
Reactor
Supplier
Major Participants
Argentina
Nucleoelectrica Argentina SA 935 + 692 [
= 1627] =
100. 95 1174 12/10 6174 111 Siemeris Siemens Siemens OwnerlSiemens
:I.i:\.
Atucha (Lima, Buenos Aires) 335 + 692 1027) [ _Unit 1 335 PHWR (two-loop) Unit 2 PHWR (two-loop) 692 Embalse -' -Unil1 (Rio Tercero, Cordoba) 600
IB
600) [
PHWR CANDU-6 100 3/83 1/84 AECL Ansaldo, Italimpianti
Armenia
Ministry of Energy, Department of Atomic Energy 1 l 1 2A "11 1@fk "I.)I'WMW -Unit 2
""'t'i"6W'DlCt<I
376 PWR VVER-440N270 100 1/80 5/80 MTM Electrosila, AEP, Armgidroenergostroi
Belgium
Electrabel [ 5801 ) 1 2 3 4 1 392 433 1006 985 962 1008 1015 PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR (two-loop) (two-loop) (three-loop) (three-loop) (three-loop) (three-loop) (three-loop) 100 100 100 100 7174 8175 6/82 3/85 2175 12/75 10/82 7/85 10175 6183 9/85 ACECOWEN ACECOWEN FRAMACECO ACECOWEN ACLF FRAMACECO ACECOWEN Tosi, TEE, Franki/Engema, MHI Tosi, TEE, Franki/Engema, MHI Aistom, TEE, AMGC Aistom, TEE. TVBB. Siemens
Ilmrllltpluf1.immmlt-{:ull
3A
-Unit - Unit -Unit -Unit . -Unit -Unit -Unit
Tihange (Huy, Liege) [2985]'
.
100 2175 100 10/82 100 6/85 Aistom, TEE. others Aistom, TEE, MHI, others Brown Boveri, Alstom, TEE, Siemens, others
2
3
Brazil
Eletronuclear-Eletrobras Termonuclear 626 1275 1275 SA PWR PWR PWR (two-loop) (four-loop) (four-loop) 100 100 10 3/82 7/00 indef. 1/85 12100 indef. G&H. Furnas, Nuclep Owner Owner
~WlQf!6t.li'E';"*fJki,miiJ1leHlnt*fait4'
.4A
-Unit 1 -Unit 2 Unit 3 W KWU KWU
Bulgaria
Natsionalna Elektricheska Kompania EAD[ 1906 + 2000
= 3906]
AES-92 AES-92 0 114 115 ASE ASE Parsons E&C Europe Parsons E&C Europe
- ....I.:rnmj:mm,[jU'4im,Jlt~UIlUI 'S'A: Unit 1 1000 PWR

Unit 2
l
1000
PWR
a
100 100
I;W@i[filJljW@i"ltfll'S\lljl
-Unit -Unit 5 6 953 953 PWR PWR VVER-1000N320 VVER-l000N320 11/87 12/88 AEE/OKG AEE/OKG Gidropress Gidropress 5/91 12/93 Electrosila, TEP/Moskva, Promishleno Stroiteltsvo/Montaji Electrosila. TEP/Moskva. Prom ish Ieno Stroiteltsvo/Montaji
58
- Units in commercial operation
Green: Operating
Capacity Orange: Forthcoming Capacity
Blue: Operating and Forthcoming Capacity
CONTINUED
March 2010
Copyright
2010 by (he American
Nuclear Society. Inc. Unauthorized
printed
or electronic
reproduction
or dissemination
prohibited.
47
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World List of Nuclear Power Plants, cont'd

NelMWe Type
<:
.Q
Operation
Reactor Model
urn
'u ~~ ... - ~ Q; rn -", L~ E E't: ~g =.-== o.l'l 0_ "20

urn
rn
Reactor
Supplier
Major Participants
Canada
Bruce Power
l:jjiBjt;il,lfliUWftJI",
Unit 1 (Block Unit 2 (Block Unit 3 (Block Unit 4 (Block Unit 5 (Block Unit 6 (Block Unit 7 (Block Unit 8 (Block A) A) A) A) B) B) B) B) 769 769 750 750 790 822 806 790 PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR CANDU CANDU CANDU CANDU CANDU CANDU CANDU CANDU 100 12/76 7f76 100 11177 100 100 12/78 100 11/84 100 5/84 100 1/86 100 2/87 9177 9177 2/78 1/79 3/85 9/84 4/86 5/87 AECL AECL AECL AECL AECL AECL AECL AECL OH, PARS TG OH, PARS TG OH, PARS TG OH, PARS TG OH, GE Can OH, GE Can OH, GE Can OH, GE Can
6A
Hydro-Ouebec
_68.
:L:.
Gentilly -Unit 2
(Becancour,
Que.) [ 635] 635 PHWR CANDU-6 100 9/82 10/83 AECL Owner, GE, CTL
New Brunswick
Power Corp. PHWR CANDU6 100 7/82 2/83 AECL Owner, PARS TG, CTL
Point Lepreau (Bay of Fundy, N.B.) 635] [
ft2~"- Unit
635
Ontario Power Generation [ 7648] Darlington .' -Unit 1 -Unit 2 -Unit3 -Unit4 -Unit 1 (Block A) - Unit 2 (Block A) -Unit3 (Block A) - Unit 4 (Block A) - Unit 5 (Block B) - Unit 6 (Block B) - Unit 7 (Block B) - Unit 8 (Block B) (Clarington, Onl.) [3524] 881 881 881 881 515 515 515 515 516 516 516 516 PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR CANDU CANDU CANDU CANDU CANDU CANDU CANDU CANDU CANDU CANDU CANDU CANDU 100 10/90 11/92 100 11/89 10/90 100 11/92 2/93 100 3/93 6/93 7f71 100 2171 100 9/71 12171 100 4/72 6/72 6/73 100 5/73 100 10/82 5/83 100 10/83 2/84 100 10/84 1/85 100 12/85 2/86 AECL AECL AECL AECL AECL AECL AECL AECL AECL AECL AECL AECL OH,ABB OH,ABB OH, ABB OH, ABB OH, OH, OH, OH, OH, OH, OH, OH, PARS PARS PARS PARS PARS PARS PARS PARS TG TG TG TG TG TG TG TG
.'ilG3l!.!i1iIGmmrnUfiJt.p1
.6E
China
China Guangdong Nuclear Power Co. [ 3764 + 19 200 Guangdong) 944 944 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
= 29 964]
CPY/M31a CPY/M31a CPR1000 CPR1000 CPR-1000 CPR-1000 CPR-1000 CPR1000 CPY/M310 CPY/M310 CPR1000 CPR-1000 CPR1000 CPR1000 CPRl000 CPRtoOO EPR EPR 100 100 7/93 1/94 2/94 5/94 /16 /16 /12 /14 /14 /15 2/02 8/02 5/02 12/02 12/10 /11 /12 /14 /14 /15 /14 /15 Fra Fra. CNNC CNNC GEC, Aistom, HCCM GEC, Aistom, HCCM
;.7 Jf.... :~:(i:"J

78 ,,;'.
Daya Bay (Shenzhen, -Unit 1 - Unit 2 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit Unit Unit Unit 1 2 3 4
1888] [
PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR
. ~'.!iihH;,(S,J4WiliUlt!'9"9"GW8$'61,"i3JJ'jltUI
a 0
'j[,],ti'kiijTJ,.mm!6!i,ii,IUII,I,I"
f~7c.
30 5 5 a 100 100 80 70 20 15 5 CNNC CNNC CNNC CNNC Fra Fra CNNC CNNC CNNC CNNC CNNC
.', li!ilSl!iUi'*'Wfi!.!UlI":fjft4'r.!,D!:tl!l Q
7D
-Unit 1 -Unit2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit Unit Unit Unit 1 2 3 4 938 938 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1600 1600 Aistom, C23/Huaxing Aistom, C23/Huaxing
1'.'.-'
:IWj!W!iIljlI@!itijII!EljJICIr"1r1
a
CNNC
Areva Areva
7E
7F
.. 'Mm'MM'6UHmut!lJtW11
Unit 1 Unit 2 5 a
48
NUCLEAR
NEWS
March 2010
ENGR 190
Page 36
.~
s:::
Operation
g~ ~~
S~
(f)~ 000
~ 'zs Q; <a - '-' ~t =~ 02 "c: U 000

Ol._
<a
Reactor Supplier
Major Participants
mmWldiWiliNNi,!!r;;mCI'N"
7G
Unit Unit Unit Unit 1 2 3 4 1000 1000 1000 1000 PWR PWR PWR PWR 570 ] CPR1QOO CPR-1000 CPR-l000 CPR1000 20 10 0 0 /13 114 /15 116 CNNC CNNC CNNC CNNC
China National Nuclear Corp. [ 4930 + 8540
7H 71
= 13 ltf11' 1,.lft',IIWI""E"''GNi6!i'E',
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 1 Unit 2 Fuqing (Fuqing, Unit 1 Unit 2 Qinshan (Haiyan, 6tO 610 1000 1000 Fujian) [2000 1000 1000 310 610 610 610 610 700 700 1100 1100 1000 1000 Corp. 1100 1100. PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR
CNp600 CNp600 CPR-1000 CPR-1000
0 0 10 10
/14 /15 /14 /14 /16 116
CNNC CNNC CNNC CNNC
'tl,[.jIWmlilUVliLltWWllt1'l,1"
I
PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PHWR PHWR CPR-1000 CPR-1000 5 5 CNNC CNNC MHI CNNC CNNC CNNC CNNC AECL AECL W SBF, CNNC CNNC CNNC CNNC CNNC Hitachi, Bechtel, CNNC Hitachi, Bechtel, CNNC MHI MHI
1,'71'"
Zhejiang) [2930 + 1220
= 4150 I
CNP-300 CNP-600 CNP-600 CNP-600 CNp600 CANDU-6 CANDU6 AP1000 AP1000 AES91 AES91 12/91 4/94 100 4/02 100 11/01 100 3/04 6/04 3/11 70 9/11 70 100 9/02 12/02 100 4/03 7/03 10 10 100 100 12/05 /07 8/13 /14 5/07 8/07
;>', -Unit I-I

-Unit 7~';;- Unit , Unit Unit -Unit -Unit II-I 11-2 113 11-4 111-1 111-2
Sanmen Unit 1 Unit 2
(San men, Zhejiang)
2200 I [
PWR PWR PWR PWR
W
ASE ASE
IEI,""k',lt!Ei"WtUWt'Ej,jWltj,I,II'
7M
_ Unit 1 - Unit 2 China Power Investment
ijSWiWWflmpJt.r1.r,.
7N
Unit 1 Unit 2 AP1000 AP1000 10 0 /14 /15 (30 040 MWe).
W W
PHWRs: 2 operating (1400 MWe). PWRs: 9 operating
(7294 MWe), 30 forthcoming
Czech Republic
CEZ, a.s. (Czech Power , "-Unit SA:. -Unit -Unit -Unit 1 2 3 4 Co.) 3574] [
Dukovany (Trebic, Jihomoravsky)

412 412 412 412 963 963
[1648]
PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR VVER440IV213 VVER-440IV213 VVER440IV213 VVER-440IV213 VVERl0001V320 VVER-l0001V320 100 100 100 100 100 100 2/85 1/86 10/86 6/87 10/00 3/02 8/85 9/86 5/87 12/87 10/04 10/04 Skoda Skoda Skoda Skoda Skoda Skoda EGP, VSIVJET EGP, VSIVJET
S8
'..'Rmt'RtGln,(.ji}13TU'J!1I1'
-Unit 1 -Unit2
Finland
Fortum Corp.
9A
'WIMI!mR'/ttiI"WJ'W"
-Unit "_ -Unit 1 2 488 488 PWR PWR Power Co., Ltd.) VVER-440IV213 VVER-440IV213 100 100 1177 10/80 5177 1/81 AEE AEE Imatran Voima Imatran Voima Voima Oyj (Industrial 860 860 1600
Teollisuuden
"""1!mnm!itW!f!-;mm:mpJltfl'D'M'PUl!I
95
-Unit 1 -Unit 2 Unit 3 BWR BWR PWR BWR 75 BWR 75 EPR 100 100 60 10/79 m8 10179 7182 /13 /13 (1600 MWe). ASEA-Atom ASEA-Atom Areva SL, Atomirakennus SL, Tyoyhtyma, Jukola Siemens, Bouygues, Heitkamp BWRs: 2 operating (1720 MWe). PWRs: 2 operating (976 MWe), 1 forthcoming
Green: Operating Capacity
Orange: Forthcoming
Capacity Blue: Operating and Forthcoming NEWS
Capacity
CONTINUED
March 2010
NUCLEAR
49
ENGR 190
Page 37

Net MWe Type
Operation
"" "e
Q)
Reactor Model
ucn
E"t:: o!!!
Reactor Supplier
Major Participants
France
Electricilli de France [63 130 + 1600 1 1310 1310
= 64
730 PWR PWR
I
P'4 P'4 100 100 9/87 5/88 6/88 1/89 Fra Fra Alstom, GTM Alstom, GTM
lOA
l' '
1:!)l'G'V'oo:mlmlmlMllmt42'1!1
-Unit -Unit
.mmaOOLJ-rnIlM!"
-Unit 1 -Unit2 -Unit 3 -Unit 4 910 910 910 910 PWR PWR PWR PWR CPl CPl CPl CPl CPO CPO CPO CPO P'4 P'4 P'4 P'4 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 5/81 6/82 7/83 5/83 4/78 8/78 2/79 7/79 12/81 2183 11/83 10/83 Fra Fra Fra Fra Alstom, Alstom, Alstom, Alstom, Alstom, Alstom, Alstom, Alstom, SB/Oumez SB/Oumez SB/Oumez SB/Oumez
lOB
Bugey (Layettes, Ain) [ 3580 I

910 910 880 880 PWR PWR PWR PWR 3/79 3/79 7/79 1/80 Fra Fra Fra Fra Bouygues/Bruyeres Bouygues/Bruyeres Bouygues/Bruyeres Bouygues/Bruyeres
...
-Unit -Unit -Unit -Unit Bl B2 B3 B4 81 82
..
1300 1300 1300 1300
PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR
"
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
10/86 '8/87 2190 5/91 10/82 9/83 9/86 10/87
4/87 2188 2191 1/92 2184 8/84 3/87 4/88
Fra Fra Fra Fra Fra Fra Fra Fra
Alstom, Alstom, Alstom, Alstom,
OumeziSB/SAE Oumez/SB/SAE OumeziSB/SAE OumezlS8/SAE GTM GTM GTM GTM
Chinon (Chinon, Indre-el-Loire) [ 3620 I

905 905 905 905 CP2 CP2 CP2 CP2 Alstom, Alstom, Alstom, Alstom,
Chooz (Chooz, Ardennes) [30001
nOFj _ Unit . r. _ Unit 'lOG

;., -Unit -Unit
1500 1500
PWR PWR
N4 N4
100 100
4/96 12/96
5/00 9/00
Fra Fra
Alstom, Bouygues Alstom, Bouygues
Civaux (Civaux, Vienne) [2990 I

1 2 1495 1495 PWR PWR N4 N4 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 9/97 9/99 4/83 8/84 4/84 10/84 3/80 12/80 1/81 8/81 3/77 6/77 1/02 4/02 4/84 4/85 9/84 2185 9/80 2/81 5/81 11/81 12177 3/78
_
Fra Fra
_
Alstom, Fougerotte/CM Alstom, Fougerotte/CM Alstom, Alstom, Alstom, Aistom, Alstom, Alstom, Alstom, Alstom, CoB CoB CoB CoB
..',
,1 QI;f
- Unit 1 _ Unit 2 -Unit3 - Unit 4 -Unit 1 -Unit 2 -Unit3 -Unit 4
915 915 915 915 890 890 890 890
CP2 CP2 CP2 CP2 CPl CPl CPl CPl CPO CPO
Fra Fra Fra Fra Fra Fra Fra Fra Fra Fra
Dampierre (Ouzouer, Loirel) [ 3560I

CM/SeB/Baliot CM/SeB/Baliot CM/SeB/Battot CM/SeB/Battot
.. _~J i9,jdHi.,IIi4iig,jP:WO jJi1G)II-t4sll 34i ,IO(j _Unit 1 PWR 880 PWR 880 >; - Unit 2
Flamanville (Flamanville, Manche) [2660 + 1600
,c
Alstom, CoB Alstom, CoB
= 4260 I
P4 P4 EPR P'4 P'4 CPl CPl CPl CPl CP1 CPl 100 100 40 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 9/85 12186 6/86 3/87 /12 /13 4/90 5/93 2180 8/80
11180
IO~ - Unit 21 . .~: - Unit

Unit 3 Unit 1 -Unit2
1330 1330 1600 1310 1310 910 910 910 910 910 910
PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR
Fra Fra Areva Fra Fra Fra Fra

Fra
Alstom, OTP/SCREGISGE Alstom, OTP/SCREG/SGE Aistom, Bouygues Aistom, Fougerotte Aistom, Fougerotte Alstom, Alstom, Aistom, Alstom, Alstom, Alstom, SGE/OTP/SCREG SGE/OTP/SCREG SGE/DTP/SCREG SGE/OTP/SCREG SGEIOTP/SCREG SGE/OTP/SCREG
i,lO( -
2/91 3/94 11/80 12180

6181
-; 1h1f1(tJ'EWllIiMjlr;yl1 "P
'"},;,ci_UnitBl - Unit B2 TOM _ Unit B3 ."-::' - Unit B4
tl1"
PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR 5/81 8/84 7/85 9187 10/88 10/81 1/85 10/85 2188 5/89 Fra Fra Fra Fra
Fra
<...:'
Unit 85 . Unit 86
'fON' -Unit 1
-Unit2
1310 1310
PWR PWR
P'4 P'4
100 100
Alstom, C-BIQuiliery Aistom, C-B/Quittery
50
NUCLEAR
NEWS
March 2010
ENGR 190
Page 38
c:
.Q
Operation c;;
OJ
Reactor NetMWe Type Model
u~ 2~
-",
~~
8Cii
100 100 100 100
= :! .- .. .!::o
m.~
.~ .~ <Q
E
019 orn
E1::
Reactor Supplier Major Participants
':maa'wmm
100 -Unit 2
-Unil3 -Unit 4 -Unill
iigi,IjI1'f@W
1330 1330 1330 1330
lt4"
PWR PWR PWR PWR P4 P4 P4 P4 5/84 2185 8/84 12/85 8/85 2186 3/86 6/86 Fra Fra Fra Fra Aistom, Aistom, Aistom, Aistom, CM/BalioliChag CM/BalioliChag CM/BalioliChag CM/BalloliChag
lOp
1:mm.ma~rn!il'4'bh"itIf_mmtmJt+I1'1
-Unit 1 -Unit 2 1330 1330 1335 1335 915 915 915 915 915 915 PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR P'4 P'4 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 4/90 12190 1/92 11/92 8/85 6/86 1/81 5/81 5/86 3/87 Fra Fra Fra Fra Aistom, CM/BalioliChag Aistom, CMlBalioliChag Aistom, Bouygues/Bruyeres Aistom, Bouygues/Bruyeres
10Q -Unit 1
'-. -Unit
. t11i1i1jW1ittlMJmt42'it1 m
2 P4 P4 Saint-Laurent Unit Bl (Saint-Laurent-des-Eaux,
tolr-et-cher) [ 1830I
CP2 CP2 CPl CPl CPl CPl 8/83 8/83 Fra Fra Fra Fra Fra Fra Aistom, GTM Aistom, GTM Aistom, Aistom, Aistom, Aistom, CoB CoB CoB CoB
'lOR' _
\ .,::
- Unit B2
Tricastin (Pierrelatte, '. _ ,--- -Unit 1 JOS -Unit 2 "":);'1,1 _ Unit 3 ~,.;. - Unit 4
Drome) [3660] 2180 12180 7/80 12180 11/80 5/81 5/81 11/81
Germany
E.ON Kernkraft GmbH [ 7668] (Brokdorf, S.-H_)[1410] 1410 1275 PWR PWR (lour-loop) (lour-loop) (four-loop) 100 100 100 100 100 100 10/86 12/81 9/84 12/86 6182 2/85 KWU KWU KWU KWU KWU KWU 1 1
dlA
Brokdorf -Unit -Unit
I-'B ''W'GiDttMlmG';13d'OOrnmmmrUI,ml I Ie
0li1j1jt1I!$"hMjljTJ1,IGU'fW'
- Unit 1 1360 878 1400 1345 GmbH 785 1269 AG PWR PWR (three-loop) Konvoi 100 100 5/76 12/88 12/76 4189 KWU KWU KWU KWU PWR BWR PWR PWR 1 BWR-69 Konvoi (four-loop) 11177 188 / 9/78 3/79 4/88 9/79 KWU KWU KWU KWU Arge/Kernkraftwerk Unterweser GmbH
, ,'I!j!lI!4-1MtUtl!!Ult1@1
I, 10 _ Unit
.E
- Unit 1 EnBW Kernkraft KWU , - Unit 2
.) [2054] ~:r:-'I~mmJ~mtliW4i"mi!!Q
:Il.f~Unit ,
1 - Unit 2
EnBW Kraftwerke
"lijmp,'iii.MMt)lli.a; .-W.) [2282]

II~ Unit 1 - Unit 2 Gundremmingen 890 1392 GmbH ngen, 8a.) [ 2572] BWR BWR BWR-72 BWR-72 100 100 3/84 10/84 7/84 1/85 KWU KWU Hochtief Hochtiel 1284 1288 GmbH PWR BWR PWR BWR-69 (four-loop) 100 100 3/79 12/84 2/80 4/85 KWU KWU KWU KWU Kernkraftwerk
'G'iQ,j,ii.Iw'G'H"i.,H
.I H,
-Block B , - Block C Lippe-Ems Kernkraftwerk
II
liIittimm't!4I!@8ltmiUW'
, - Unit 1 1329 Konvoi 100 4/88 7/88 KWU KWU
RWE PowerAG
l:fti1!!]!:fti1!a!!i!f-lMdlt{1tti
IIJ
'. J
-BlockA -Slock S
1167
1240
PWR PWR
(four-loop) (four-loop)
100 100
7n4 3/76
2/75 1177
KWU KWU
Hochtief
Hochtief
Vattenfall
Europe Nuclear Energy GmbH [ 2117] 1 771 BWR 6/76
., f~';!iihWl1GjG":UMM'Miffi.,iUtID
s
-Unit BWR-69 100 2177 KWU KWU KWU
I I'L Il1i'i$"hMM!;ma!fliftIIE!1I
- Unit 1 1346 BWR BWR-69 BWRs: 6 operating (6457 MWe),PWRs: 11 operating (13 972 MWe). - Units in commercial operation 100
9/83
3/84
KWU
Green Operating Capacity Orange' Forthcoming Capacity Blue: Operating and Forthcoming Capacity NUCLEAR NEWS
CONTINUED
March 2010
51
ENGR 190
Page 39
World List of Nuclear

Power Plants,
Hungary
Hungarian Power Companies, Ltd.
Operation
cont'd
Type
'" gReactor Model
-", c co
Cl)cn 0_
2~
~ 'v Q;
(ij
(ij
- u co._ ~.'t:'
E Et::
Net MWe
uen
u en
o.s
Reactor Supplier
Major Participants
":mOI:mprnWII:tN
12A
-Unit 1 -Unit 2 Unil3 -Unit 4 470 443 443 473 PWR PWR PWR PWR VVER-4401V213 VVER-440!V213 VVER-440!V213 VVER-440!V213 100 100 100 100 12/82 8/83 8/84 11/84 9/86 12/86 8/87 11/87 AEE/Skoda AEE/Skoda AEE/Skoda AEE/Skoda GVM, GVM, GVM, GVM, Eroterv Eroterv Eroterv Eroterv
India
Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Ltd. Tamil Nadu) [ 500] 500 LMFBR 55 9/11 3/12 Owner/L&T/BHEL Owner, BHEL
:1(l~,
~iIi
PFBR (Kalpakkam, Unit 1
Nuclear Power Corporation
of India Ltd. [ 3732 + 5000

.t,
= 8732 ]
(four -loop) (four-loop) (four-loop) (four-loop) (four-loop) (four-loop) 100 100 100 97.1 100 100 0 0 100 100 9/00 11/00 9/99 3/00 5/07 /07 /10 5/10 9/92 1/95 Owner/others Owner/others Owner/others Owner/others Owner/others Owner/others Owner/others Owner/others Owner/others Owner/others Owner, Owner, Owner, Owner, BHEL BHEL BHEL BHEL
:I:
PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR
'11'1,
-Unit -Unit -Unit Unit
1 2 3 4
202 202 202 202 202 202 640 640 (Kalpakkam, 155 202 (Kudankulam, 917 917 202 202.
II
.~
:
-Unit 1 +",l.Unit2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Kalpakkam
PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PWR PWR PHWR PHWR
5/93 9/95 /14 /15 1/84 3/86
Owner, BHEL, HCC Owner, BHEL, HCC Owner, L&T Owner, L&T Owner, BHEL, EEC Owner, BHEL, EEC
Tamil Nadu) [ 357 ] (eight-loop) (eight-loop) 7/83 8/85
~13t;ii -
Unit 1 - -Unit 2 Kudankulam Unit 1 Unit 2
Tamil Nadu)[1834] AES-92 AES-92 (four-loop) (four-loop) 94.2 854 100 100 /10 /10 9/10 3/11 ASE ASE
13E;
. ':/
::'~6'/.I6Ijniljf.l!!trtlmGiPI'\ln
13F:, _ Unit 1
.,;,'~~: - Unit 2 3/89 10/91 1/91 7/92 Owner/others Owner/others Owner, BHEL, HCC Owner, BHEL, HCC Owner, BHEL, HCC Owner, BHEL, HCC Owner, BHEL Owner, BHEL Owner, BHEL Owner, BHEL Owner, L&T Owner, L&T Bechtel Bechtel Owner, BHEL Owner, BHEL, others (3166 MWe). PWRs: 2 forthcoming (1834 MWe).
oo!m!,mEl1i!;m;u,*jD'*P"l@01
.Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 6 Unit 7 Unit 8 90 187 202 202 202 202 640 640 PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR [1280 ] BWR BWR PHWR PHWR BWR-1/Mark II BWR-l/Mark II (two-loop) (two-loop) 100 100 CANDU CANDU (four-loop) (four-loop) (four-loop) (four-loop) 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 0 8/72 2/73 10/80 4/81 12/99 6/00 11/00 12/00 11/09 2/10 4/10 1/10 /14 /15 AECUDAE AECUDAE Owner/others Owner/others Owner/others Owner/others Owner/others Owner/others
Tarapur (Tarapur, Maharashtra) '... - Unit 1 :I31;-1-, _ Unit 2 . - Unit 3 - Unit 4 150 150 490 490
2169
2/69 100 5/06 100 3/05
10/69 10/69 8/06 9/05
GE GE Owner/others Owner/others
BWRS: 2 operating (300 MWe).LMFBRs: 1 forthcoming
(500 MWe). PHWRs: 15 operating (3432 MWe), 7 forthcoming
Iran
Nuclear Power Production Bushehr (Bushehr, and Development Company Bushehr) 915 [915 ] PWR VVER-1000 99 /10 /10 ASE ASE of Iran/Atomic Energy Organization of Iran
Japan
Chubu Electric Power Co" me,
Hamaoka (Omaezaki, Shizuoka)
[3473] BWR BWR BWR-5 BWR-5 100 100 11/86 12/92 8/87 9/93 Toshiba Toshiba Toshiba Hitachi, Kajima/Tak/Shim/others Hitachi, Kajima/Tak/Shim/others Hitachi, Kajima/TakiShim/others
.'SA
.Unit3 '", .,' -Unit 4
1056 1092
.Unit 5
1325
8WR
A8WR
100
3/04
1/05
52
NUCLEAR
NEWS
March 2010
ENGR 190
Page 40
,g~
Reactor Net MWe Chugoku Electric Power Co., Inc. Type Model
c:
Operation
(Q
2~ -",
"'0> U<n
c'"
0_
c;; co .~
.~
'0
4;
=~ :Su
~-:::
U<n
o~
Reactor Supplier
Major Participants
fiDi"Fi,iitmmM"fii'f'Di"fii,IM'trJ:Detrft1U'u
158
-Unit 1 -Unit 2 Unit 3 439 789 1373 BWR BWR BWR BWR-3 BWR5 ABWR 100 100 76.7 6/73 5/88 3/74 2/89 12/11 Hitachi Hitachi Hitachi KajimalTaisei/Goyou/MaedaiKum Kajima/ShimlOkumura
Hokkaido Electric Power Go., Inc.
1,J"fi1il")"E'I;.,illf8iG'aWmIIIWII
15c
Hokuriku -Unit 1 -Unit2 -Unit3 Electric Power Co. Shika (Shika-machi, Ishikawa) 505 1304 [1809] BWR BWR BWR5 ABWR 100 100 11/92 5/05 7193 3/06 Hitachi Hitachi Kajima Kajima 550 550 866 PWR PWR PWR (two-loop) (two-loop) (three-loop) 100 100 100 11/88 7/90 3/09 6189 4/91 12109 MHI MHI MHI MAPI, Taisei/Obay/Shim MAPI, TaiseilObay/Shim MAPI, Taisei/Obay/Shim
I.~~,!
~'-
Ohma (Ohma, Aomori) [1383] Unit 1 1383 BWR ABWR
o . ----- 11/14
100 4/94 indel.
Toshiba/Hitachi
Japan Atomic Energy Agency
<-" :"';
ISF
Monju FBR (Tsuruga, Unit 1
Fukui) [246] 246 LMFBR ToshibalHitachi/MHl/Fuji Owner, FBEC, Obay/Taisei/Kajima
Japan Atomic
Power Co. [2512] Ibaraki) [1056] 1056 341 1115 BWR BWR PWR BWR-5 100 100 100 1178 10/69 5/86 11178 3/70 2/87 GE GE MHI Ebasco, Shim/Kajima Ebasco, TaklKum MAPI, Obay/Tak/Tobishima/ Shim/Kum/MaedalHaz
J.5G,
"
Tokai (Tokai-mura,
- .:! - Unit 2
fiiiii[.mM'iii!6fiQlgn3MIG-~M
ISH
-Unit 1 -Unit2 BWR2 (four-loop)
Kansai Electric Power Co., Inc.[ 9284]
.'ffin'Ei"E"lln'fii"6*SiP!@W'lfp1
151 - Unit 1 - Unit 2 - Unit 3
320 470. 780 1120 1120 1127 1127 780 780 830 830 PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR Fukui) [3220 ] PWR PWR PWR PWR (three-loop) (three-loop) (three-loop) (three-loop] 100 100 100 100 3174 11174 12174 11175 4/84 1/85 10/84 6/85 (two-loop) (two loop) (three-loop) (four-loop) (four-loop) (four -loop) (tour-loop] 100 100 100 7170 4172 1176 12177 9178 5/91 6/92 11170 7172 12176 W MHI MHI W W MHI MHI MHI, Owner, Gilbert, MaedaiKumlObay Owner, MAPI, Maeda/KumlObay Owner, MAPI, Haz/Tak MHI, Owner, Gilbert, Kum/Obay MHI, Owner, Gilbert, KumlObay Owner, MAPI Owner, MAPI
1 -1.~J:l-Unit2 - Unit 3 - Unit 4
, i>~ _ Unit
: I'Jnn'JmiT!!#!1(j1!!lf!~m
tOO 100 100 100 3179 12179 12/91 2/93
Takahama (Takahama-cho,
~.," -:
15K
s' -~-0<;
Unit 1 _ Unit 2
W
MHI MHI MHI
- Unit 3 - Unit 4 Kyushu -
MHI, Owner, Gilbert, Maeda/Haz/Taisei Owner, MAPI, MaedalHaz/Taisei Owner, MAPI, MaedalHaziKum/TakiObay/Taisei Owner, MAPI, MaedalHaziKum/TakiObay/Taisei
Electric Power Co., Inc. [ 5004] Genkai (Genkai, Saga) [3312] ; -Unit 1 -Unit 2 -Unit 3 -Unit 4 -Unit 1 -Unit 2
1St
529 529 1127 1127 846 846 Power Co., Inc. Ehime) [1922) 538
PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR
(two-loop) (two-loop) (four-loop) (four-loop) (three-loop) (three-loop)
100 100 100 100 100 100
1175 5/80 5/93 10/96
10175 3/81 3/94 7/97
MHI MHI MHI MHI MHI MHI
MAPI,Obay MAPI.Obay MAPI, Obay/ShimlTak MAPI, Obay/Shim/Tak MAPI, Taisei MAPI, Taisei
. '.:.>
15M
"'!''''-:~
fmml'B'h&B4."Nptf[+1DIIIMJ
8/83 3/85 7/84 11/85
Shikoku Electric
Ikata (Ikata-cho,
ISN-
-Unit 1 ci - Unit 2 -Unit 3
538
846
PWR PWR PWR
(tWO-lOOp) (two-loop) (threeloop)
100 100 100
1177 7/81 2/94
9177 3/82 12194
MHI MHI MHI
MAPI, TaiseilTaklKajima MAPI, Taisei/KajimalOkumura MAPI, Taisei/Nish/Haz/Okumura
Green: Operating Capacity Orange: Forthcoming Capacity Blue: Operating and Forthcoming Capacity NUCLEAR NEWS
CONTINUED
March 2010
53
ENGR 190
Page 41

JAPAN, cont'd Net MWe Type Tohoku Electric Power Co., Inc. [3157]
Operation
Reactor Model Reactor Supplier Major Participants
150
Higashidori -Unit 1
(Higashidori,
Aomori) [ 1067] BWR BWR-5 100 1/05 12105 Toshiba KajimalObay
1067
IJ,E'rWkl(j,6t,EUEPltl'iju.
ISp
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 498 796 796 BWR BWR BWR BWR-S BWR5 BWR5 100 100 100 10/83 11/94 4/01 6/84 7/95 1/02 Toshiba Toshiba Toshiba Kajima Kajima/Haz/Nish Hitachi, KajimalHazJNish
Tokyo Electric Power Co. [ 16779] 'f'1mni'H,lj$i1f{,lnali"6Nf'1mDI(i!.11!J Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 ,. Unit 4 J Unit 5 . Unit 6 Fukushima 439 760 760 760 760 1067 BWR BWR BWR BWR BWR BWR [4268 ] BWR-5 BWR-5 BWR-5 BWR-5 Niigata) [7965] BWR-5 BWR-5 BWR-5 BWR-5 BWR-5 ABWR ABWR 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 12/84 9/85 11/89 9/90 10/92 8/93 11/93 8/94 7/894/90 1219511/96 11/96 7197 Toshiba Toshiba Toshiba Hitachi Hitachi ToshibalGE Hitachi/GE Kajima Kajima Kajima Tak/Shim Tak/Shim Hitachi, KajimalHazlKum Toshiba, Shim/TakiMaeda 100 100 100 100 6/81 4/83 10/84 10/86 4/82 2184 6/85 8/87 Toshiba Hitachi Toshiba Hitachi Kajima Kajima Kajima Tak/Shim . BWR-3 BWR-4 BWR-4 BWR-4 BWR-4 BWR-5 100 100 100 100 100 100 3/71 7174 GE GE Toshiba Hitachi Toshiba GE Ebasco, Kajima Ebasco, Kajima Kajima Kajima Kajima Ebasco, Kajima
10170
5/73
ISQ
:.
.:,)
9174 1178
8/77 3/79
3176 10178 4178

10/79
Oaini (Naraha, Fukushima) 1067 1067 1067 1067 BWR BWR BWR BWR
'iSR
.Unit 1 .Unit2 .Unit 3 .Unit4 Kashiwazaki
Kariwa-1 (Kashiwazaki, 1067 1067 1067 1067 1067 1315 1315
Unit _ ""1.\. Unit Unit \.... ,.. Unit .Unit5 .Unit6 -Unit
~rs\si
1 2 3 4
BWR BWR BWR BWR BWR BWR BWR
BWRs: 30 operating (27 843 MWe), 2 forthcoming (2756 MWe). LMFBRs: 1 forthcoming
(246 MWe). PWRs: 24 operating (19 291 MWe).
Mexico
Comision Federal de Electricidad 680 680 BWR BWR BWR-5 BWR-5 100 100 11/88 9/94 7/90 4/95 GE GE MHI, Owner, Ebasco MHI, Owner, Ebasco
I 6A _ Unit 1 Unit 2
W'ii'E'mPttt!$iij,eumt:l94f'ii'flJ'em'
Netherlands
N.V. Elektriciteits-Produktiemaatschappij 485 Zuid - Nederland PWR (two- loop) 100 6/73 10173 KWU/RDM Stork, KWU/Bredero Borssele (Borssele, Zeeland) [485]
Pakistan
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission [ 425 + 300
= 725]
1
'\ ""I"EH,jiiijOO6'ti',Nblllj1Ij1tWl1t"HgIII'W,.I 1
ISA:
Unit 1 Unit 2 300 300 PWR PWR CNP-300 CNP-300 100 50 5/00 9/00 9/11 CNNC CNNC GE Can CNNC CNNC Hitachi
Unit 1 125 PHWR CANDU 100 8171 12172 PHWRs: 1 operating (125 MWe). PWRs: 1 operating (300 MWe), 1 forthcoming (300 MWe).
Romania
Societatea Nationala "Nuclearelectrica" S.A.
'H@IMHaW@IMNFJ@!]1!i1JIP'fDI:W,DWlfJ
Unit 1
I 9A
- Unit
Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5
706 706 620 620
620
PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR
CANDU-6 CANDU-6 CANDU-6 CANDU-6 CANDU6
100 100
4/96 5/07
12196
10107
/16 /17 indef.
AECUVickers AECUVickers
GE,AAC GESUA, General Turbo-Romania, ISPE
23
12 8
54
NUCLEAR
NEWS
March 2010
ENGR 190
Page 42
c
-.:;0
Operation
ro
~~
-dl
t: <u 0_ (.)(J)
~- n;.~ ro
"'en
'0 ;;;
=~ "c(3
E Et:
(.)(J)
o~
Reactor Supplier
Major Participants
Russia
Rosenergoatom [21 743
T
9210
= 30 953 )
950 950 950 950
1
':E1mai'l f:mma'lII'lfm\iI?If!:!JI.1
20A
-Unit Unit -Unit -Unit 1
2
3 4
PWR PWR PWR PWR LMFBR LMFBR 44 ] [ LGR LGR LGR LGR
VVER1000N320 VVERl000N320 VVERl000N320 VVERl000N320 BN600 BN800 EGP6 EGP-6 EGP-6 EGP6
100 100 100 100 100 12 100 100 100 100
12185 10/87 12/88 3/93 2/80
5/86 1188 4189 4/93 11/81 112 4174 2175 2176 1177
MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM OKMB MTM MTM MTM MTM
KTl, KTl, KTl, KTZ,
AEP, AEP, AEP, AEP,
MPS MPS MPS MPS
208
':fj1I'!Ilili.j3t!$E,j,I'J"fD m3Jf1,j,DfUltiil1'
-Unit 3 Unit 4 Bilibino (Bilibino, 560 750 Chukotka) 11 11 11 11 Kalinin (Udomlya, Electrosila, AEP, MPS
12/73 12174 12175 12/76
Tver) [2850 + 950 950 950 950 950 411 411 411 411 925 925 925 925
= 3800
]
VVER-l000N338 VVER-l000N338 VVER-l000N338 VVER-l000N338 VVER-440N230 VVER440N230 VVER-440N230 VVER-440N230 100 100 100 70 100 100 100 100 .4/84 11/86 11/04 6/85 3/87 11105 111 12173 2175 12182 12184 MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM AEP AEP KTl, KTl, KTl, KTl, AEP, MPS AEP, MPS AEP, MPS AEP, MPS AEP, AEP, AEP, AEP, MPS MPS MPS MPS
.',
'2001
-Unit 1 _ Unit 2 -Unit3 Unit 4 Kola (Polyarnyye
Zori, Murmansk) [1644] 6173 11174 2181 10/84 Electrosila, Electrosila, Electrosila, Electrosila, KTl, KTl, KTl, KTl,
'."b;ii - Unit 3
-Unit -Unit
. . ;:~~ - Unit 1 "20E." -Unit 2 .. , 4
'm3!i1!!iil;mmatm31ft1.\I,
20F -Unit
-Unit -Unit -Unit -Unit 1 2 3 4 1.1 12 LGR LGR LGR LGR RBMK-l000 RBMK-l000 RBMK-l000 RBMKl000 RBMK-l000 RBMKl000 RBMK-l000 RBMK-l000 AES-2006 AES-2006 VVER-440N230 VVER-440N230 VVER-l000N320 AES-2006 AES2006 100 10176 10012178 100 8/83 10/85 100 10177 8/79 3/84 2/86 AEP, MPS AEP, MPS AEP, MPS AEP, MPS
'$9,lhl.!li!fIt.iNMWt1:Ii1jfi,:mtmPltM'Cf!,I,p;!\II"
20G -Unit 1-3
-Unit 1-4 Unit 11-1 Unit 11-2 Novovoronezh ~'~':;';: - Unit i-Unit ." . -Unit 'i"~'::;< Unit 1-3 1-4 1-5 11.1 925 925 925 925 1150 1150 (Novovoronezh, 385 385 950 1150 1150 LGR LGR LGR LGR PWR PWR Voronezh) PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR 100 91731/74 1 2176 100 5175 100 9179 6/80 8181 100 12/80 113 20 0 116 100 12/71 100 12/72 100 4180 30 0 12/71 12/72 4/80 112 115 KTl, KTl, KTl, KTl, MPS MPS MPS MPS
\11-
1720 + 2300 = 4020 ] [

MTM MTM MTM AEP AEP KTl, AEP, MPS KTZ, AEP, MPS KTl, AEP, MPS
.2.01-.
Unit 11-2
"2"0' i-Unit
I
1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4
950 950 950 950
PWR PWR PWR PWR
VVER-l000N320 VVER-l000N320 VVER-l000N320 VVER-l000N320 RBMK-l000 RBMK-l000 RBMK-l000 (ship-borne) (ship-borne)
100 100 0 0 100 100 100 40 40
2/01
12101 /10 114 116
MTM MTM AEP AEP MTM MTM MTM OKBM OKBM
KTl KTZ
I-SA3"1fiI\o!!Ii.j&SA31fflt1
20J - Unit 1
- Unit 2 - Unit 3 925 925 925 30 30 LGR LGR LGR PWR PWR 9/82 4/85 12189 9/83 7/85 1/90 112 112 KTZ, AEP, MPS KTl, AEP, MPS KTZ, AEP, MPS
flU'lttij1!j@3-j1!j@IPiE'!:tlJW
20k
Unit 1 Unit 2 Owner Owner LGRs: 15 operating (10 219 MWe), LMFBRs: 1 operating (560 MWe), 1 forthcoming (750 MWe), PWRs: 15 operating (10964 MWe), 10 forthcoming (8460 MWe)
Slovakia
Siovenske Elektrarne, a.s. [ 1705 + 810 = 2515)
1:!iljt!U1tQjii,EW+iMPkiMII:m
21 A
Unit 3 _ Unit 4 408 425 PWR PWR VVER-440!V213 VVER-440!V213 100 100 8/84 8/85 2/85 12/85 Skoda Skoda EGP, Hydrostav EGP, Hydrostav CONTINUED Units in commercial operation Green: Operating Capacity Orange; Forthcoming Capacity Blue: Operating and Forthcoming Capacity
March 2010
NUCLEAR
NEWS
ss
Page 43
ENGR 190
(~
!!
il'
;

SLOVAKIA. conrc Siovenske Elektrarne, a.s., cont'd -Unit 1 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Net MWe Type
c:
Operation
Reactor Model
g~ ~~
-", <n""
8Ci5
c '"
co .~ 'u 4:; co E (ij .~ E"l:: o.s
~15 ucn
Reactor
Supplier
Major Participants
1~1r;;,[l!l;;jfOr;;,tWdi,~n'jEI'H_II:ttD:J-IlnM;YJ
436 436 405 405 PWR PWR PWR PWR VVER440IV213 VVER-440IV213 VVER-440IV213 VVER440IV213 6/98 100 100 12/99 40 30 10/98 4100 indef. indet. Skoda Skoda Skoda Skoda EGP, EGP, EGP, EGP, Hydrostav Hydrostav Hydrostav Hydrostav
21B -Unit
Slovenia
Nuklearna Elektrarna Krsko Vrbina) [ 66] 6 666 PWR (two-loop) 100 9/81 1/83
22A
Krsko (Krsko, -Unit 1
Gilbert
South Africa
Eskom Koeberg (Melkbosstrand, 900 900 Cape) [1800] PWR PWR (two-loop) (two-loop) 100
\71,~'i Unit . ~. -Unit
1 2
1 QO
3/84 7/85
8/84 11/85
Fra Fra
Aistom, W, Framateg Aistom, W, Framateg
South Korea
Korea Hydro &Nuclear Kori (Gijang, -Unit 1 -Unit 2 -Unit 3 -Unit4 Power Co. [16 810 + 9600 556 605 895 895 1000 1000 1400 1400 1400 1400 PWR PWR PWR PWR
= 26 410
] 4178 7/83 9/85 4186 GEC, Gilbert GEC, Gilbert GEC, Bechtel, Hyundai GEC, Bechtel, Hyundai KOPEC, HyundaiiDaelim/SK KOPEC, Hyundai/Daelim/SK KOPEC, Hyundai, SK KOPEC, Hyundai, SK KOPEC KOPEC
Busan) [2951] (two loop) [two-loop] (three-loop) (three-loop) 6/77 100 4/83 100 1/85 100 100 10/85 W W W W Doosan Doosan Doosan Doosan Doosan Doosan
il
,I
:I
,1 :1
;,'~
,f'mm@wN:iitf'iJlf:i,It'
Unit Unit Unit Unit 1 2 3 4 PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR OPR-l000 OPR-l000 APR-1400 APR1400 APR-1400 APR1400 OPR-l000 OPR-1000 93 93 44 44 110 111 113 114 115 116 12110 12/11 9/13 9/14 12115 12/16
2~B,
"~"";'lilmmllmj11jllllm""'L!4ibWWiIfl1Il1!fr:ufJ:!'\l1
24'(:.. ~~:/:j~' .
Unit 1 Unit 2 0 0
.:." M1WCR%!WlUllIW'.U'ilIltftillfj!l11t1 1
'2.lt~}
;:..,{~~~ Unit 1 Unit 2 (Ulchin-gun, 1000 1000 PWR PWR 65 65 100 100 100 100 100 100 111 112 2188 2/89 12/97 12/98 11/03 12/04 3/12 1/13 9/88 9/89 8198 12/99 7104 6105 4/83 7/97 7/98 10/99 Doosan Doosan Fra Fra Hanjung/C-E Hanjung/C-E Doosan Doosan KOPEC, Daewoo/Samsung/LG KOPEC, Daewoo/Samsung/LG Aistom, Dong Ah/Hanjung Aistom, Dong Ah/Hanjung GE, KOPEC/S&L, Dong Ah/Hanjung GE, KOPEC/S&L, Dong Ah/Hanjung KOPEC, Dong Ah/Doosan/Samsung KOPEC, Dong Ah/Doosan/Samsung NEI-P GE, AECL, KOPEC, Hyundai GE, AECL, KOPEC, Daewoo GE, AECL, KOPEC, Daewoo Ulchin Gyeongsangbuk-do) 920 920 960 960 960 960 (Gyeongjiu-si, 629 650 650 650 900 900 950 950 950 950 PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR
5680 J [
CPl CP1 System 80 System 80 OPR-1000 OPR-1000
. c;': -Unit 1 V~",t~o" Unit 2 _ 2~l:~ Unit 3 _ -Unit4 -UnitS -Unit 6 Wolsong
Gyeongsangbuk-do)
[2579 J
CANDU-6 CANDU-6 CANDU-6 CANDU-6 (three-loop) (three-loop) OPR-l000 OPR1000 OPR-1000 OPRl000 100 100 100 100 11/82 1197 2198 4/99 AECL AECUHanjung AECUHanjung AECUHanjung
24: :~~::~
-Unit -Unit 3 4 - Unit 1 - Unit 2
1'l.I,I'GNki,[.iDUWki,[.O!M&H.),I,Ei"IJf';till
24G _ Unit 3
-Unit4 -UnitS - Unit 6 PHWRs: 4 operating PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR 100 1/86 8/86 100 10/86 6/87 100 10/94 3/95 100 7/951/96 10011/015/02 100 9/02 12/02
W W
Hanjung/C-E Hanjung/C-E Doosan Doosan
Bechtel, Hyundai Bechtel, Hyundai GE, KOPEC/S&L, Hyundai GE, KOPEC/S&L, Hyundai KOPEC, HyundaiiDaelim KOPEC, Hyundai/Daelim
(2579 MWe).PWRs: 16 operating (14 231 MWe), 8 forthcoming
(9600 MWe).
Spain
Almaraz-Trillo, A.l.E. [ 2897 J 1 947 950 PWR PWR
25A _ Unit
"'I'ik'fifJitl1i@UM!MlMl":!i1l
- Unit 2 (three-loop) (three-loop) 100 100 4/81 9183 10/81 2/84
W W
ENothers ENothers
NUCLEAR
NEWS
March 2010
ENGR 190
Page 44
Operation
Reactor Net MWe Type Model Reactor Supplier Major Participants
258
Trillo (Trillo, Guadalajara) -Unit 1
(1000) PWR (three-loop) 100 5/88 8/88 KWU/ENSA ENB. EAlothers
1000
Asociacion Nuclear Asco-Vandellos II, A.l.E. [ 3033]
25c
250
tMMi;iE'i6'Wfim:,
-Unit 1 -Unit 2 Vandellos (Vandellos, -Unit 2
996
992 Tarragona) 1045
PWR PWR [1045] PWR
(three-loop) (three-loop)
100 100 100
6/83 12/84 9/85 3/86 11/87 3/88
W W
ENB. Bechtel, Initec, lyP, Fra, Siemens ENB. Bechtel. Initec. lyP. Fra, Siemens
(three-loop)
ENB. Initec/Bechtel. VANEA
Iberdrola, S.A.
25E
Cofrentes -Unit 1
(Cofrentes,
Valencia) [1063] 1063 BWR BWR-6 100 8/84 3/85 GE EAlSener/G&H, EyT
Nuclenor, S.A.
.t::'.~-Unit
,25F
Santa Maria de Garona (Santa Maria de Garona, Burgos) 446] [ 1 446 BWR BWR-3 100 11170 5171 GE Ebasco
BWRs: 2 operating (1509 MWe). PWRs: 6 operating (5930 MWe).
Sweden
Forsmark Kraftgrupp AB ABS-Atom ASS-Atom ASB-Atom AAlSV/SL AAISV/SL AA/SV/SL
.:';')ti"eUI'i"ti"fiiiiIJU+f'mf'ftJ
-Unit 1 -Unit 2 -Unit 3 OKG Aktiebolag 1011 951 1190 BWR BWR BWR BWR 75 BWR 75 BWR 75 100 100 100 4/80 11/80 10/84 12180 7/81 8/85
l'mm,Ei,!i,I('mm,fl"i'8mlt1'fD
268
-Unit -Unit -Unit 1 2 3 467 602 1160 BWR BWR BWR BWR 75 100 100 100 12170 3174 12/84 2/72 1/75 8/85 ABB-Atom ABB-Atom ABB-Atom AA, SL, Armerad-Betong SL, VBB, Owner. Armerad-Betong AAlSUOwnerNBB. ABV/SCG/Boliden-WP-Contech
Ringhals AB
ljl1jTilj111tlW,mi'Niffi11ffitilJfWt1
26c _ Unit
- Unit 1 2 830 875 BWR PWR (three-loop) - Unit 3 915 PWR (three-loop) - Unit 4 915 PWR (three-loop) BWRs: 7 operating (6211 MWe). PWRs: 3 operating (2705 MWe). 100 100 100 100 8/73 6/74 7/80 5/82 1176 5/75 9/81 11/83 ABS-Atom
W W
W
EE. AAlSV SV/G&HISL SL, VBB-TE, Fra, Siemens, SV VSS-TEISL. SV
Switzerland
BKW FMB Energie AG
27A
Muehleberg - Unit 1
(Muehleberg, 355
Bern) [ 355] BWR AG 100 1179 11179 BWR-4 100 3/71 11172 GETSCO BBC/E&B/GETSCO
Kernkraftwerk
Goesgen-Daeniken 970
278
Goesgen (Daeniken, Solothurn) [970] _ - Unit 1 PWR (three-loop) KWU KWU
Kernkraftwerk
Leibstadt AG (Leibstadt, Aargau) [1165] 1165 Kraltwerk AG BWR BWR-6 100 3/84 12184 GETSCO BBC/GETSCO/EWI 1
27c
Leibstadt -Unit
Nordostschweizerische
Beznau (Doetlingen, Aargau) [ 730 ]
270'
-Unit 1 - Unit 2
BWRs: 2 operating (1520
365 365 MWe).PWRS:
PWR PWR
3 operating
(two-loop) (two-loop) (1700 MWe).
100 100
6/69 10171
12/69 3172
W
W
ABB. G&H/BBC, Zschokke ABS. G&H/BBC, Zschokke
Taiwan, China
Taiwan Power Co. [ 4884 + 2500= 7484]
28A _ Unit
-
ltli1lj1jW1il!rii1lj1j
1 604 604 - Unit 2
n1'l:1
BWR BWR BWR-4 BWR-4 100 100 10177 12178 11/78 7/79 GE GE W. Ebasco, Owner W, Ebasco, Owner CONTINUED Green: Operating Capacity Oranqe: Forthcoming Capacity Blue: Operating and Forthcoming Capacity NUCLEAR NEWS
Units in commercial operation
Mnrrh
?nln
57
ENGR 190
Page 45

TAIWAN, CHINA, conrd Taiwan Power Co., cont'd Net MWe Type
Reactor Model
~2~
uw
Operation
cn~ ~",
0_
;;
m .~ .~ m 'E " m.5::?

;:
Et
oS
uw
Reactor Supplier
Major Participants
..' ''im.!,[@mrlr!o8Wnm,.,II*ljI
-Unit 1 -Unil2
2813
948
948
BWR BWR
BWR6 BWR-6
100 100
2181 3/82
12/81 3/83
GE GE
W, Bechtel, Owner W, Bechtel, Owner
-; -.'~\,"'hi,hrIij"lii!liliUQI4J!$Ilftunl
2ac
Unit 1 Unit 2 1300 1300 BWR BWR ABWR ABWR 95 85 100 100 3/84 2/85 /11 /12 GE GE MHI, S&W, Owner MHI, S&W, Owner
780 ":
Unit 1 - Unit 2
890 890
PWR PWR
7/84 5/85
W W
GE, Bechtel, Owner GE, Bechtel, Owner
BWRs: 4 operating (3104 MWe), 2 forthcoming (2600 MWe). PWRs: 2 operating (1780 MWe).
Ukraine
Energoatom [ 13 095 + 2850
= 15 945]
Khmelnitsky) [1900 + 1900 = 3800] 950 950 950 950 361 384 950 950 950 950 950 950 PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR Nikolaev) PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR , PWR PWR PWR VVER-l000N320 VVERl000N320 VVER-l000N320 VVER-l000N320 VVER-440N213 VVER-440N213 VVER-l000N320 VVER-l 000N~20 [ 2850 950 + 100 100 30 15 100 100 100 100 ] 100 100 100 12/82 10/83 12/84 4/85 9/89 12189 indef. MTM MTM MTM MTM KTZ, KTZ, LMZ, LMZ, AEP, MPS AEP, MPS AEP, MPS AEP, MPS . 100 100 100 100 100 100 11/84 4185 6/85 10/85 12/86 1/87 12187 1/88 6/89 10/89 10/95 9/96 MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM KTZ, KTZ, KTZ, KTZ, KTZ, KTZ, AEP, AEP, AEP, AEP, AEP, AEP, MPS MPS MPS MPS MPS MPS 12187 104 .... 8/88 12105 indef. indef. 9/81 7/82 5/87 4106 MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM MTM LMZ, LMZ, LMZ, LMZ, KTZ, KTZ, LMZ, LMZ, AEP, AEP, AEP, AEP, AEP, AEP, AEP, AEP, MPS MPS MPS MPS MPS MPS MPS MPS
Khmelnitsky -Unit 1 -Unit2 Unit 3 Unit 4
(Neteshin,
Rovno (Kuznetsovsk, -Unit 1 -Unit 2 -Unit3 -Unit4 -Unit 1 ;29c~_ Unit 2 ,,-,.; -Unit 3 Unit 4 Zaporozhye -Unit ;;-. -Unit 2,9q -Unit . ,'"'' ,; - Unit -Unit -Unit 1 2 3 4 5 6 (Energodar, "",
Rovno) [2645] 12180 12181 11/86 10/01
South Ukraine (Konstantinovka,
= 3800
VVERl000N302 VVER-l000N338 VVER-l000N320 VVER-l000N320 [ 5700] VVER-l000N320 VVER-l000N320 VVER-l000N320 VVER-l000N320 VVER-l000N320 VVER-l000N320
Zaporozhye) 950 950 950 950 950 950
United Arab Emirates

Emirates Nuclear Energy Corp. [ 600 ] 5 Plant A (site to be determined) 1400 1400 Plant B (site to be determined) [2800 J PWR PWR [ 2800 ] PWR PWR APR-1400 APR-1400 APR-1400 APR-1400
o o
117 120
Doosan Doosan
KOPEC, Hyundai, Samsung, W KOPEC, Hyundai, Samsung, W
~30B;
?;!Jg~
British
Unit 1 Unit 2
1400 1400
o
o
/20 120
Doosan Doosan
KOPEC, Hyundai, Samsung, W KOPEC, Hyundai, Samsung, W
United Kingdom
Energy Group pic [ 9568] Dungeness (Lydd, Kent) [1110] 555 555 (Hartlepool, 605 605 (Heysham, Lancashire) GCR GCR [1210] AGR AGR 100 100 6/83 8/83 9/84 10/84 NNC GCR GCR [ 400 J 2
GCR AGR Unit Bl
:iJ IA. 3 fe"
;~ _:~: - Unit B2 Hartlepool -Unit 1
AGR AGR
100 100
12182 4/85 12185 12185
APC APC
CAP CAP GEC GEC
Cleveland)
ioLd~: Unit 2
Heysham -UnitAl -UnitA2 -Unit 81 Unit 82
NNC
NNC
575
575
625 625 610

610
GCR GCR GCR
AGR AGR
100 100 100
AGR
AGR AGR
100
100 100
4/83 7/83 6/84 10/84 6/88 7/88 11/88 11/88
GEe
GEC NEI, CEGB NEI, GEGS
NNC NNC
NNC
Hinkley Point (Hinkley POint, Somerset) [1220J

3;1,0' Unit B 1
- Unit B2 GCR GCR
.
9/76 10/78 2/76 9/76 NPC
NPC
AEI/GEC AEI/GEC
58
NUCLEAR
NEWS
March 2010
ENGR 190
Page 46
Operation
.S:!
ti;e
'"
~~
~ 'u t
(ij
ro
urn
(;)~ (ij .~ :,;::;::: "'ro 0_
:So
zm
1/76
~!:: 0.$ urn
Reactor Supplier
Major Participants
31E
'jWrmm.-il1ljlilWU"RI"
-UnitB1 -Unit 82 -Unit B 595
595
llBB
GCR GCR
AGR AGR
100 100
6/76 3177
TNPG TNPG
CAP CAP
j I F 1f14WA"~4f14Wml-m'mI311'f;U1
PWR (tour-loop) 100 1/95 5/95 PPP GEC, NNC, JL
31G
'1oI/,lMj!l!!!j1m:m'!ilIjl!ffi1J't+111
-Unit 1 -Unit 2 625 625 GCR GCR AGR AGR 100 100 9/87 12/88 5/88 2/89 NNC NNC GEC GEC
Magnox North Ltd. [ 1414] Old bury (Old bury, Avon) [ 434]
3 'Hi
.~~
, "; leu Ill nz

Wylfa (Anglesey, - Unit 1 - Unit 2
-Unit
217 217 Wales) [ 980] 490 490
GCR GCR
Magnox Magnox
100 100 100 100
B/67 12/67 12/69 9/70
12/67 9/68 11171 1/72
TNPG TNPG EE/B&WITW EEJB&WITW
AEI/CAP, McAlpine AEIICAP, McAlpine EE/BPLITW EEJBPLITW
GCR GCR
Magnox Magnox
GCRs: 18 operating (9794 MWe). PWRs: 1 operating (1188 MWe).
United States
AmerenUE Callaway (Fulton, - Unit 1 Arizona Public Service Co. Palo Verde (Wintersburg, Ariz.) [ 4003] PWR PWR PWR System 80 System BO System BO 100 100 100 5/85 4/86 10/87 l/B6 9/86 1/88 C-E C-E C-E GE, Bechtel GE, Bechtel GE, Bechtel Mo.) [1228] 1228 PWR SNUPPS 100 10/84 4/85
GE, Bechtel, Daniel
.... 2:;:-; ,
Unit 1
1333 1336 1334
- Unit 2 - Unit 3
Constellation
Nuclear [4031.3] 1
Calvert Cliffs (Lusby, Md.) [1690]
'3"\
-Unit -Unit2
845
..
"c"
B45
N.Y.) [585] 585 613 1143.3 Mich.) [1150] 1150 [6088.5] Wis.) [ 574J 1 1
PWR PWR
(two-loop) (two-loop]
100 100
10/74 11/76
5/75 4177
C-E C-E
GE, Bechtel GE, Bechtel
Ginna (Ontario,
"
-Unit
PWR BWR BWR
(two-loop) BWR-2 BWR-5
100 100 100
11/69 9/69 5/87
7170 12/69 4/88
W GE
GE
Gilbert, Bechtel
NiMo, S&W
;~~;J Unit 2 .. ~~ -Unit Dominion
.S '~i_ Unit
S&W
Detroit Edison Co.
.6- .
Fermi (Newport, 2
BWR
BWR-4
100
6/85
1/88
GE
Alstom, Owner, Daniel
Generation
,-7,,,,
.
Kewaunee 1
(Carlton,
",," -Unit -Unit -Unit
574
(Waterford, 883.5 1229 913 913 788 788
PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR
(two-loop) (two-loop) (four-loop) (three-loop) (three-loop) (three-loop) (three-loop)
100
3/74
6/74
W
C-E W W W W W
Pioneer GE, Bechtel GE, S&W S&W S&W S&W S&W
Millstone
Conn.) [2112.5] 100 100 100 100 100 100 10/75 12/75 1/86 4/86 4/78 6/80 6/78 12/80
"8'1
.:.,
2 3 1 2
;.,; ~.>,1~r;;ii!.',iIElt~!il,Ikimlll:k1'
.... 9ji -Unit
'.' -Unit
._:rr~f1i'ii'l_'~m;.'lfti'
19-;' - Unit 1 ; . ;;::,;~ - Unit 2
Duke Power Co. [ 7308] 7172 12172 3/73 5/73
'f'.!;'.!;;, _ Unit 1
"'if - Unit 2
12,'
Catawba (Clover, S.C.) [ 2290I 1145 1145 1180 1180 PWR PWR PWR PWR (four-loop) (four-loop) (four-loop) (four-loop) 100 100 100 100 1/85 5/86 6/85 8/86
.
W W W
W GE, Owner GE, Owner Owner Owner CONTINUED
Unit 1 eUnit2
B/Bl 12/B1 5183 3/84
Green: Operating Capacity Orange: Forthcoming Capacity Blue: Operating and Forthcoming Capacity NUCLEAR NEWS
March 2010
S9
ENGR 190
Page 47
World List of Nuclear
Operation
.!!!
Power Plants,
UNITED STATES, cont'd Duke Power Co., cont'd
cont'd
Net MWe Type
Reaclor Model
~
E
Et:
U
oS
(J)
Reactor Supplier
Major Participants
,,131,144M4,'4*+111It141:1
13 - Unit 1 - Unit 2 - Unit 3
,M
PWR PWR PWR (two- loop) (two-cop) (two-loop) 100 100 100 4173 11173 9174 7173 9/74 12174 B&W B&W B&W GE, Bechlel, Owner GE, Bechtel, Owner GE, Bechtel, Owner
886
886 886
Energy Northwest
14
Entergy
"'Wmrll;1tiQt!W!l'imiU"fiC'
-Unill [ 10312] 1 2 850 1032 (Scriba, N.Y.) [ 816) 816 1279 BWR Miss.) [ 1279] BWR BWR-6 100 8/82 7/85 GE Allis, Bechtel BWR-4 100 11174 7175 GE S&W PWR PWR (two-loop) (two-loop) 1153 BWR BWR-5 100 1/84 12/84 GE W, B&R, Bechtel
~.''.lnlfj,tftj~m;.mt;tif.ii4'ml"ln"lf:f:tJ ,.
151" _ Unit ,,'<:;':, - Unit .. 16 .
17
, 100 100 8/74 12178 12/74 3/80 B&W C-E W, Bechtel GE, Bechtel FitzPatrick
. ;~,,;;~ - Unit 1
Grand Gulf (port Gibson, 1
, "" -Unit
Indian Point (Buchanan, N.Y.) [2083] -Unil2 -Unil3 1035 1048 PWR PWR (four-loop) (four-loop) 100 100 100 5/73 4/76 5171 8174 8/76 12171
W W
C-E
GE, UE&C, Wedco UE&C, Wedco W, Bechtel
."9.. Palisades ";,,,0;:1: -Unill

Pilgrim . -Unill
(South Haven, Mich.) [ 805] 805 PWR (two-loop)
(Plymouth,
Mass.) [ 690 ] 690 BWR BWR-3 100 6172 12172 GE Bechtel
'2 f_ljII'GJ:m'i-i,iif1rli@!IMD.
-Unill 967 BWR BWR PWR BWR-6 BWR-4 100 100 100 10/85 3172 6/86 11172 GE S&W Ebasco W, Ebasco
22,'Wil,[.j,lf:1jlmfBi,[,I,WJ0f
-Unit 1 617 (Taft, La.) [ 1173] 1173 [ 17 652] 1187 1155 III.) [2342 PWR PWR PWR PWR BWR (four-loop) (four-loop) (four-loop) (four-loop) 100 100 100 100 W W W S&L, Com Ed S&L, ComEd S&L, ComEd S&L, Com Ed (two-loop) 3/85 9/85 C-E GE
21
Waterford -Unil3
Exelon Generation
l_,
24
-."~.{~.I:mm'WI,,.lt:rm'w,'I'M'lttltJ
-Unit 1 .~ - Unit 2 Byron (Byron, 5/87 3/88 2/85 1/87 7/88 10/88 9/85 8/87
J
W
GE
1187 1155 Clinton (Clinton, III.)[1062] 1062
BWR-6 BWR-3 BWR-3
100 100 100
4/87 1170 1/71
11/87 6170 11171
S&L, Baldwin
,27:. _ Unit
867 867 1154 1154 1191 1191 650 1138 1138
, - Unit 3
BWR BWR
GE GE
S&L, UE&C S&L, UE&C S&L, ComEd S&L, ComEd Bechtel Bechtel B&R Bechtel Bechtel
LaSalle (Seneca, III.) [ 2308]
'281 _ Unit 1
-Unit2
BWR BWR BWR BWR BWR BWR BWR
BWR-5 BWR-5 BWR-4 BWR-4 BWR-2 BWR-4 BWR-4
100 100
6/82 1/84 3/84 10/84
GE GE GE GE GE GE GE
29
l.i,'i4i'dOOilij'ti',IWUUtit:tJ
-Unit 1 -Unit2 1 12/84 100 100 8/89 100 100 100 2/86 1/90
, 3oItmG'ltmnl3!QW';hWWJl\j.111
" _ -Unit 5/69 12/69 7174 9/73 817412174
., ..... ,IMi':tilBiIttM1lIMltf!d
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32
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-Unit -Unit 1 2 866 871 BWR BWR BWR-3 BWR-3 100 100 10/71 4172 2/73 3/73 GE GE B&W S&L, UE&C S&L,UE&C GE, Gilbert, UE&C, Areva 6174 9/74
iMWntilSm'lmr:yr:!1!1i1JDD":iHI 33
-Unit 1 819 PWR
(two-loop)
100
60
N U C L E A
N E W
March 2010
ENGR 190
Page 48
.9 13Reactor
Net MWe Type
<=
Operation
2C
Model
o um
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co
<a<> '" E Et:: :~~ 0'" Cu
J2 ~
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Major Participants
FirstEnergy
Nuclear Operating
Co.[ 3991 ] 911 904 PWR PWR
34
-Unill - Unit 2
100 100
5/76 10176 8187 11/87
W W
B&W GE
S&WIDuquesne S&W/Ouquesne
.3 5,,1.Ji'tIJI3{IIU(m:Jjffiffi1jJ.ljlTilJ_
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.36 iilliiiJw;nljl:24ii'l!1lli!JJmEI
6/8611/87 Florida Power & Light Co., NextEra Energy Resources) [ 6063.91 ) 621.9
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Arnold (Palo, Iowa) [ 621.9) BWR

.11
BWR-4 (two-loop) (two-loop) (four-loop)
100 100 100
3/74
2175
GE
Bechtel
522 522 Seabrook (Seabrook, 1246
PWR PWR
11170 '12170 5172 10172
W W W
C-E C-E
Bechtel Bechtel
N.H.) [ 1246) PWR 100 6/89 4176 6/83 8/90 12176 8/83 GE,UE&C
856 PWR -Unit 1 PWR 856 '''' -Unit 2 Turkey Point (Florida City, Fla.) [ 1440] .iU~!"l\\:";1
(two-loop)
(two-loop)
100 100
W, Ebasco W, Ebasco
r~I'1~ . 3 ~'i;;I.:'i'~ Unit ;~:.l!-Umt4
720 720 Power Co.
PWR PWR
100 100
10/72 6/73
12172 9/73
W
W
W, Bechtel W, Bechtel
tndiana Michigan
I!I!E3l:llli1iliilililll'illiJfllD 42. . _ Unit 1 1084

, -Unit 2 1107 Luminant Power
PWR PWR
100 100
1175 3/78
8/75 7/78
W
W
GE, Siemens, Owner BBC, Owner
.lljiljjljlj'I3i'fC1'iEl:J~H1!IiI 43
-Unit -Unit 1 2 1150 1150 815 BWR 1672] [ W, B&R PWR PWR (four-loop) (four-loop) 100 100 4/90 3/93 8/90 8193
W W
Allis, G&H, Brown Allis, G&H, Brown
Nebraska
Public Power District Cooper (Brownville,
44 ..
Northern
Nebr.)[815) BWR-4 100 2174 7174 GE
1.;;;:1 - Unit 1
Monticello (Monticello,
State Power Co.-Minnesota -Unit 1
Minn.) [ 600 ] 600 BWR BWR-3 100 100 100 12170 12/73 12/74 6/71 12/73 12/74 GE W W Bechtel Pioneer Pioneer
45'3
',~w..-
Prairie Island (Red Wing, Minn.) [ 1072]
46
-Unit -Unit
1 2
536 536
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(two-loop) (two-loop)
Omaha Public Power District . "":",-Unit
47
Fort Calhoun 1
(Fort Calhoun, 502
Nebr.) [ 502) PWR (two-loop) 100 9/73 9/73 C-E GE,G&H
Pacific Gas and Electric Co .
.. llmi]~~Jml1I
48.
-Unit 1 -Unit2 LLC
1138 1151
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100 100
4/84 8/85
5/85 3/86
W
W
Owner Owner
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Wl!liliEIll1Eiilltm!.l
49.
Progress -Unit 1 Unit 2 1235 1235 BWR BWR BWR-4 BWR-4 100 100 9/82 5184 6183 2185 GE GE Bechtel, Siemens Bechtel, Siemens Energy [4529.7 + 2200 = 6729.7)
SO.'
.
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Unit 3
N.C_) [1963] 983 980 BWR BWR BWR-4 BWR-4 100 100 100 10176 3177 3175 11175 1177 3177
GE
GE B&W.
UE&C, Brown UE&C, Brown Siemens, Gilbert, Jones CONTINUED
51
rystal River (Red Level, Fla.) [ 860 860 PWR (two-loop)
Units in commercial operation
Green: Operating Capacity Grange: Forthcoming Capacity Blue: Operating and Forthcoming Capacity NUCLEAR NEWS
March 2010
61
ENGR 190
Page 49
~,

UNITED STATES, cont'd Progress Energy, cont'd Net MWe Type
Operation
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53 54
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a a
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/16 /16 3171
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55
-Hope Creek -Salem-l -Salem-2 Electric 1228.1 1169 1181 & Gas Co. 972,7 1100 1100 Edison Co. Calif.) [ 2150 ] PWR PWR (two-loop) (two-loop) 100 100 7/82 8/83 8/83 4/84 C-E C-E Bechtel, GEC/Alstom, MHI Bechtel, GEC Aistom 1/84 /16 /19 GE, Gilbert, Daniel Shaw/S&W Shaw/S&W BWR PWR PWR BWR-4 (four-loop) (four-loop) 100 100 100 6/86 12/86 12/76 6177 8/80 10/81 GE W W Bechtel Owner, UE&C, Siemens Owner, UE&C, GE, Siemens South Carolina \~
{'l.illulum-1'1llft -Unit 1 Unit 2 ,-, Unit 3 '
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California
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57
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-Unit2 -Unit 3 Nuctear Operating
1070 1080
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(three-loop) (three-loop) 100 100 8177 12177 7/81 5/81 W W Owner, Bechtel, Daniel Owner, Bechtel, Daniel
-Unit -Unit
59
'mrnit!:!13t1t!Mlltij'
-Unit -Unit 1 2 BWR BWR BWR-4 BWR-4 100 100 100 100 9/74 7178 12/75 9/79 6/87 5/89 /16 116 GE GE Owner, Bechtel Owner, Bechtel Owner, GE, Bechtel Owner, GE, Bechtel Shaw/S&W Shaw/S&W
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60
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PWR PWR PWR PWR
(four-loop) (four-loop) AP1000 AP1000
a
0
3/87 3/89
W W W W
STP Nuclear Operating . -Unit 1 -Unit2 Unit 3 Unit 4
South Texas (Palacios,
Tex.) [2501.2 + 2700 1250.6 1250.6 1350 1350 PWR PWR BWR BWR
= 5201.2]
(four-loop) (four-loop) ABWR ABWR 100 100
61
a a
3/88 8/88 6/89 3/89 /15 /16
W W Toshiba Toshiba
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TVA Nuclear -Unit -Unit -Unit
[6839 + 1177 1 2 3
= 8016]
1120 1120 1120 1173 1151 1155 1177 BWR BWR BWR BWR-4 BWR-4 BWR-4 (four-loop) (four-loop) (four-loop) (four-loop) 100 100 100 100 100 100 80 8/74 8/73 7174 3/75 8/76 3177 7/80 11/81 2/96 7/81 6/82 5/96 /12 GE GE GE W W W W Owner Owner Owner Owner Owner Owner Owner/Bechtel
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BWRs: 35 operating (34 696,3 MWe), 2 forthcoming (2700 MWe). PWRs: 69 operating (68 104.1 MWe), 7 forthcoming (7777 MWe),
Green: Operating Capacity Orange: Forthcoming Capacity Blue: Operating and Forthcoming Capacity
62
NUCLEAR
NEWS
March 2010
ENGR 190
Page 50
Nuclear NelMs Maps of COlJ1lJ1ercial Nuclear. Power Plants .~ WorldwIde ! )l

(As of December 31,2009. Plants are identified by numbers that correlate to information printed in the adjoining World List.)
~
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2010 by the American Nuclear Society, lnc. Unauthorized
printed or electronic reproduction
or dissemination prohibited.
March 2010
NUCLEAR
NEWS
63
ENGR 190
Page 51
ENGR 190
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Nuclear New!i;
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March 2010
ENGR 190
Page 56
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8/22109 10/31/06 8/22129 NIn.~'MiI~PfJint-2 10/31/26 5/27/04 10/31/06 10/31/46 North Ailna-l 4/1/18 5/29/01 3/20/03 4/1/38 North Anna-2 8/21/20 5/29/01 3/20/03 8/21/40 12120/33 Oconee-l 2/6113 717/98 5/23/00 2/6133 6/28/34 9~?_n~t.~,;, 10/6113717198 ,.5/23/00 1016/33 7/2/36 Oconee-3 ' 7/19/14 717/98 5/23/00 7/19/34 "0~ysterlcreB1('!''i'sti'i\>'';''\''{l\/'09 ~~";P:'71' 9' 1 2""'[0"5" "1'8'" '9-"!'"\04/9''/29""" ':'H': 0 " t~~4~J~~~Uit:~iA'~~:'<$:~~~~;t ~,.!.~.~~~1~~1'x\'~)~;~:~A',~~I(;~:i\.~ i: , \\~~:i[L~t~~.;~., ,.-~:;;,-i}.I: . -.' 12/27/34 Palisades 3/24/11 3/31105 1117/07 3/24/31
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Bold type indicates reactors with renewed licenses. Bold italic indicates reactors for which renewal applications areunder review by the NuclearRegulatory Commission. Italic indicates reactors for which renewal applications are formally planned, with projected application dates. Normal type indicates reactors for which renewal applications have not yetbeen submitted orannounced publicly, Two organizations-Exelon and the StrategiC Teaming and ResourceSharing (STARS)alliance-have notified the NRC of plans formore renewal applications, but the specific reactors for these applications have not been made public,
March 2010
NUCLEAR
NEWS
69
ENGR 190
Page 57
-J
ENGR 190
NEW POWER REACTOR PROJECTS IN THE UNITED STATES (APPLICATIONS DOCKETED BY THE NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION THROUGH DEC.
31, 2009)
Commercial request Forgings procured Status
License Applicant Reactor(s) Licensing

'}:;z. . .
location' Status U.S. EPR Indefinite~

~~~ ~.~~:[0.";.!~;j!;.~'~:.--:-::;:~:. ~~::':: ,:.-:;'. .; ..
ModeF . -: SCispendedaf applicant's
Startup Target
AmerenUE North Anna-3 Fermi-3

OJ
Callaway-2 Mineral, Va. (R) ESBWR

1":~~.'~.:"-" ' -.
Dominion
:,Ji.~:~~: ~.~*~;.;-,,';'-., ... ~, .' . .
(TBD)
Detroit Edison,' lee-1, -2 River send-a

. .:~
2017 Draft EIS, SER/OI; COl target 2011 (E) Vendor bids under review . .,~~~~ :~~~;-f;-"'-1~:"'=-;"z~:;~' ':::~-Y~~::7.:~;;:.~:7.~ 2018'Q(I.~le(~~1"~~,~~gLt(~.rge~ '2_012:"'~:.:-='' ~" Vendor negotiations 2021 (Unit 1) .S.uspendedat:appJicant's
:;t."~,.. :_:tr;-.~~.:-Z2:~:;'f~.;-,~~, .
Duke Energy St. Francisville; ~a: (R)

--f'
AP1000 O(TBD) AP1000 U~-APWR 2020,2022 Awaiting review schedule

,> ',' ~
COl target 2013 request
Vendor negotiations Vendor bids under review Vendor negotiations Term sheet with vendor
Entergy
"r~;:~._; .
FPl Energy
Turkey Point-6, -7
Florida City, Fla. (R)
z
South Texas-3, -4 ABWR 2016,2017
tuminant COl target 2012
c n
NRGlSTPNOC
EPC contract signed
rn
;t>
NuStartiEntergy
Grand Gulf-3
(TBD)
:;<:l
Vendor bids under review; ESBWR forgings procured Indefinite 2018 2018 or later Awaiting site technical data Vendor negotiations Vendor negotiations Vendor negotiations EPC contract signed EPC contract signed EPC contract signed
z
Bellefonte-3 Bell Bend Harris-2, -3 levy-1, -2 summer-a, -3 levy County, Fla. (G) AP1000. Waynesboro, Ga. (R) AP1000 U.S. EPR U.S. EPR AP1000 New Hill, N.C. (R) AP1000 .Berwick; Pa:O(R) U.S. EPR Scottsboro, Ala. (C) AP1000
NuStartlTVA
rn
::E
PPl
U>
Progress Energy
SCANNSantee Cooper-,
Southern Nuclear Calvert Cliffs~3 Nine Mile Point-3
Vogtle-3, -4
Term sheet with vendor Vendor negotiations

specific to the South Texas license application. AP LOOO: Westinghouse pressurized water reactor, design certified by the NRC but later amendments under extensive review by the agency. ESBWR: GE Hitachi boiling water reactor, design certification application under review by the NRC. US-APWR: Mitsubishi pressurized water reactor, design certification application under review by the NRC. U.S. EPR: Areva pressurized water reactor, design certification applicauon under review by the NRC. Other abbreviations: COL: Combined construction and operating license. E: Early site permit issued. EIS: Environmental pact statement. EPC: Engineering, procurement, and construction. TBD: Reactor model 10 be determined. im-
UniStar Nuclear
a site where a plan I was canceled, but a construction permit had previously been approved. G indicates greenfield, with no reactor siting ever before considered. R indicates a site where reactors are now ill operation. This table considers Levy greenfield (it is about eight miles from Crystal River) bUI Bell Bend an existing reactor site (its land is adjacent to Susquehanna). Summer is also treated as an existing reactor site, although the new reactors would be built on nearby hardrock terrain.
'c indicates
Page 58
'ABWR: Boiling water reactor available from either GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy or Toshiba; South Texas-J and -4 are by Toshiba. The GE Hitachi design has been certified by the NRC, and the Toshiba design has been presented as a variation
U.S. Power Reactor Ownership/Operator
Changes
The following list traces changes forpower reactors in service now,in which a completely different organization took over ownership,operation, or both. Instances in which specific plant operation companieswere created by what were essentiallythe reactors' Original owners (suchas at Wolf Creek)are not included. 1994 River Bend is acquired by Entergy aspart of the utility's merger with the reactor's original owner, Gulf States Utilities. 1998 FirstEnergy Nuclear Operating Company (FENOC)acquires Davis-Besse from Toledo Edison. PECo Energy becomes operator of Clinton. 1999 AmerGen Energy Company, created as apartnership of PECo Energy and British Energy, assumes ownership and operation of Clinton and Three Mile Island-l from Illinois Power and GPU Nuclear, respectively. Entergy buys Pilgrim from Boston Edison Company. FENOCacquires Beaver Valley from Duquesne Light. 2000 Commonwealth Edison parent company Unicom merges with PECoEnergy to form Exelon, unifying the ownership and operation of Braidwood, Byron, Dresden, LaSalle, Limerick, Peach Bottom, and Quad Cities. Exelon also becomes part-owner of AmerGen, which during the year acquires Oyster Creek from GPU Nuclear. Entergy acquires FitzPatrick and Indian Point-S from New York Power Authority. Nuclear Management Company (NMC) is created to form a single operational entity for Arnold, Kewaunee, Monticello, Point Beach, and Prairie Island, which remain owned byfour unrelated companies. 2001 Dominion Generation, created as aparent company for Virginia Power, buys Millstone from Northeast Utilities. Constellation Energy, created as a parent company for Baltimore Gas& Electric, buys Nine Mile Point from Niagara Mohawk Power. Entergy buys Indian Point-2 from Consolidated Edison. NMC takes over as operator of Palisades. 2002 FPL Energy, created as a parent company forFlorida Power & Light, buys Seabrook from Public Service Company of New Hampshire. Entergy buys Vermont Yankee from Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Corporation. 2003 The merger of Carolina Power & Light Company and Florida Power Corporation creates Progress Energy, adding Florida Power's Crystal River-3 to the ownership that already held Carolina Power's Brunswick, Harris, and Robinson-2. 2004 Constellation buys Ginna from Rochester Gas & Electric. Exelon buys out British Energy to become the sole owner of AmerGen and its reactors. 2005 Dominion buys Kewaunee from its original owners in Wisconsin and replaces NMC as operator. Exelon is contracted by PSEG Nuclear to operate Hope Creek and Salem in anticipation of a merger that was later canceled; Exelon's contract as operator expired in 2009. 2006 FPL buys the controlling 70 percent shareof Arnold from Alliant Energy and replaces NMC as operator. NRG Energy buys Texas Genco's share of South Texas Project and becomes in effect the controlling owner, with the company's nuclear operating company kept intact. 2007 Two more NMC-operated plants change hands as Entergy buys Palisades from CMS Energy and FPL acquires Point Beach from We Energies. In both cases, NMC is replaced as operator. 2008 NMC's remaining three reactors-Monticello and Prairie Island-l and -2-are all owned by Xcel Energy. Xcel absorbs NMC, with its personnel essentially continuing with their current work but doing so as employees of Xcel's subsidiary, Northern States Power Company-Minnesota. 2009 In early January, Exelon fully absorbs AmerGen, establishing Clinton, Oyster Creek, and Three Mile lstsnti-i as Exelon reactors. FPL's nuclear plants outside Florida-Arnold, Point Beach, and Seabrook-are transferred to a new subsidiary, NextEra Energy Resources.
ENGR 190
Page 59
Nuclear Power Plants No Longer In Service

Net MWe Type started closed Bohunice 1 (Trnava, Zapadoslovensky) Bohunice 2 (Trnava, Zapadoslovensky) 440 408 408 408 408 216 250 540 70 210 480 1200 310 38 38 70 233 480 515 PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PHWR PHWR GCR GCR GCR GCR LMFBR PWR GCR GCR GCHWR LMFBR GCR GCR 10m 10/74 11/75 1/81 6/82 9/68 5172 7172 2/64 2165 8/66 1/86 4/67 4/59 4/60 6/68 7174 6/69 11/71 2189 12/02 12102 12/06 12/06 5/84 6177 6/94 4/73 6/85 6/90 12/98 10/91 2/80 6/84 7/8~ 3/09 4/90 5192 Net MWe 408 408 142 480 615 600 950 950 950 950 138 138 123 123 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 250 225 225 235 235 160 160 210 210 195 195 92 Type PWR PWR BWR GCR BWR BWR LGR LGR LGR LGR GCR GCR GCR GCR GCR GCR GCR GCR GCR GCR GCR GCR LMFBR GCR GCR GCR GCR GCR GCR GCR GCR GCR GCR HWLWR started 4/80 1/81 2/69 8/72 7/75 9177 5/78 5/79 6/82 4/84 11/62 11/62 8/62 12162 10/56 3/57 4/59 5/59 3/59 8/59 12/59 3/60 8/76 12/65 12/65 4/65 5/65 3/64 9/64 3/66 9/66 3/65 4/65 2168 11/65 8/64 12/63 7/60 8/64 7/64 8/66 1/79 1/68 11/63 7/66 8/63 1/63 11/69 12172 6/71 7/66 6/67 11/63 4/75 1/68 12157 12/78 5/76 10/57 7/61 12/73 9/74 closed 12/06 12108 4/06 10/89 12/99 5/05 11/96 8/91 12/00 4/86 3/89 10/88 3/02 3/02 3103 3/03 3/03 3/03 6/04 6/04 6104 6/04 3/94 12106 12/06 5/00 5/00 3/90 12/89 12106 12106 2/91 2191 9/90 8197 6/68 1167 10178 9/94 2168 11/72 8/89 12196 9164 2188 7/76 10/74 4187 8/97 8/98 10/67 11/74 1166 6/89 t1/92 10/82 5/89 3/79 11/92 12/63 9/91
1198
Armenia
Metzamor -1 (Metsamor, Armenia)
Bulgaria
Kozloduy-l Kozloduy-2 Kozloduy-3 Kozloduy-4 (Kozloduy, (Kozloduy, (Kozloduy, (Kozloduy, Vratsa) Vratsa) Vratsa) Vratsa)
Spain
Jose Cabrera (Zorita, Guadalajara) Vandellos-l (Vandellos, Tarragona)
Sweden
Barsebaeck-l (Barsebaeck, Malmohus) Barsebaeck-2 (Barsebaeck, Malmohus)
Canada
Douglas Point (Tiverton, Ont.) Gentilly-l (Becancour, Que.)
Ukraine
Chernobyl-1 Chernobyl-2 Chernobyl-3 Chernobyl-4 (Pripyat, (Pripyat, (Pripyat, (Pripyat, Kiev) Kiev) Kiev) Kiev)
France
Bugey-l (Loyettes, Ain) Chinon AI (Chinon, Indre-et-Loire) Chinon A2 (Chinon, Indre-et-Loire) Chinon A3 (Chinon, Indre-et-Loire) Creys-Malville (Bouvesse, Isere) Chooz A (Chooz, Ardennes) Marcoule G2 (Marcoule, Gard) Marcoule G3 (Marcoule, Gard) Monts d'Arree (Brenilis, Finistere) Phenix (Marcoule, Gard) Saint-Laurent AI (Saint-Laurentdes-Eaux, Loir-et-Cher) Saint-Laurent A2 (Saint-Laurentdes-Eaux, Loir-et-Cher)
United Kingdom
Berkeley-1 (Berkeley, Gloucester) Berkeley-2 (Berkeley, Gloucester) Bradwell-1 (Bradwell, Essex) Bradwell-2 (Bradwell, Essex) Calder Hall-1 (Seaside, Cumbria) Calder Hall-2 (Seaside, Cumbria) Calder Hall-3 (Seaside, Cumbria) Calder Hall-4 (Seaside, Cumbria) Chapelcross-1 (Annan, Dumfriesshire) Chapelcross-2 (Annan, Dumfriesshire) Chapelcross-3 (Annan, Dumfriesshire) Chapelcross-4 (Annan, Dumfriesshire) Dounreay PFR (Dounreay, Highland) Dungeness AI (Lydd, Kent) Dungeness A2 (Lydd, Kent) Hinkley Point AI (Hinkley Point, Somerset) Hinkley Point A2 (Hinkley Point, Somerset) Hunterston AI (Ayrshire, Strathclyde) Hunterston A2 (Ayrshire, Strathclyde) Sizewell Al (Sizewell, Suffolk) Sizewell A2 (Sizewell, Suffolk) Trawsfynydd-1 (Gwynedd, Wales) Trawsfynydd-2 (Gwynedd, Wales) Winfrith SGHWR (Winfrith Heath, Dorset)
Germany
Gundremmingen A(Gundremmingen, BA.) 237 Lingen (Lingen, Nied.) 256 Muelheim-Kaerlich 1219 (Muelheim-Kaerlich, R.-P.) Neideraichbach (Landshut, Ba.) 100 Nord-: (Lubmin, Mecklenburg-West Pomerania) 408 Nord-2 (Lubmin, Mecklenburg-West Pomerania) 408 Nord-3 (Lubmin, Mecklenburg-West Pomerania) 408 Nord-4 (Lubmin, Mecklenburg-West Pomerania) 408 Nord-5 (Lubmin, Mecklenburg-West Pomerania) 408 Obrigheim (Obrigheim, B.-W) 340 Rheinsberg-l (Rheinsberg, Brandenberg) 70 Stade (Stade, Nied.) 630 THTR-300 (Hamm-Uentrop, N.W) 296 Wuergassen (Lauenforde, Nied.) 640 BWR BWR PWR GCHWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR PWR HTGR BWR BWR BWR GCR PWR HWLWR BWR BWR GCR LMFBR LGR LGR BWR LGR LGR PWR PWR LGR LGR LGR LGR
LGR
4/67 10/68 10/87 1/73 7174 4/75 5/78 11/79 11/89 4/69 10/66 5172 6/87 12172 12/81 6/64 1/64 1/65 3/79 3/76 3/76 7/66 7/73 12183 8/87 1/69 4/64 12169 12/64 4170 9/58 12/59 12160 12/61 12/62 12/63 1/66
12172
1/80 5/79 6101 8/74 12190 2190 2/90 6/90 11/89 5/05 10/90 11/03 10/89 5/95 6190 3/82 12187 6/90 3/03 1/09 1/09 3/98 4/99 12/04 12109 3/97 183 1/90 2/88 8/90 189 189 189
11/90
United States
Big Rock Point (Charlevoix, Mich.) BONUS (Rincon, P.R.) CVTR (Parr, S.C.) Dresden-I (Morris, 111.) EBR-II (Idaho Falls, Ida.) Elk River (Elk River, Minn.) Fermi-1 (Monroe, Mich.) Fort SI. Vrain (Platteville, Colo.) Haddam Neck (Haddam Neck, Conn.) Hallam (Hallam, Neb.) Hanford-N (Richland, Wash.) Humboldt Bay-3 (Eureka, Calif.) Indian Point-t (Buchanan, N.Y.) LaCrosse (Genoa, Wis.) Maine Yankee (Wiscasset, Me.) Millstone-I (Waterford, Conn.) Pathfinder (Sioux Falls, S.D.) Peach Bottorn-t (Delta, Pa.) Piqua (Piqua, Ohio) Rancho Seco (Clay Station, Calit.) San Onofre-l (San Clemente, Cali!.) Shippingport (Shippingport, Pa.) Shoreham (Brookhaven, N.Y.) Three Mile Island-2 (Londonderry Twp., Pa.) Trojan (Prescott, Ore.) Vallecitos (pleasanton, Cali!.) Yankee (Rowe, Mass.) Zion-1 (Zion, 111.) Zion-2 (Zion, 111.) 67 BWR 72 BWR 17 PHWR BWR 200 20 LMFBR 23' BWR 61 LMFBR HTGR 330 582 PWR 75 LMGMR LGR 860 BWR 63 257' PWR 50 BWR PWR 860 660 BWR BWR 59 40 HTGR 12 OCR 913 PWR 436 PWR 60 PWR/LWBR BWR 809 PWR 792 PWR 1095 BWR 5 175 PWR 1040 PWR 1040 PWR
Italy
Caorso (Caorso, Piacenza) Garigliano (Sessa Aurunca, Campania) Latina (Borgo Sabotino, Latina) Trino Vercellese (Trino, Vercelli) 860 150 153 260 148 515 806 159 135 1187 1185 55 102 146 265
Japan
Fugen ATR (Tsuruga, Fukui) Hamaoka-l (Omezaki, Shizuoka) Hamaoka-2 (Omezaki, Shizuoka) Tokai-l (Tokai-Mura, Ibaraki)
Kazakhstan
Aktau (Aktau, Mangyshlak)
Lithuania
Ignalina-l (Ignalina, Visaginas) Ignalina-2 (Ignalina, Visaginas)
Netherlands
Dodewaard (Dodewaard, Gelderland)
Russia
Beloyarsk-l (Zarechnyy, Sverdlovsk) Beloyarsk-2 (Zarechnyy, Sverdlovsk) Novovoronezh-1 (Novovoronezh, Voronezh) Novovoronezh-2 (Novovoronezh, Voronezh) Troitsk A (Troitsk, Chelyabinsk) Troitsk B (Troitsk, Chelyabinsk) Troi\sk C (Troitsk, ChelyabinSk) Troitsk D (Troitsk, Chelyabinsk) Troitsk. E (Troitsk., Ghelyabin5k) Troitsk F (Troitsk, Chelyabinsk) VK-50 (Dimitrovgrad, Ulyanovsk)
336
100 100 100 100
100
..
100 50
104
LGR BWR GCHWR
11/90 11/90 1/89

5/79
1/98
Slovakia
Bohunice Al (Trnava, Zapadoslovensky)
7?
, Including output from fossil-fired superheaters. The Shoreham unit achieved criticality and produced power, but closed before it could begin commercial operation.
N U C
L E
A R
NEW
March 2010
ENGR 190
Page 60
'j
NUCLEAR Nation 1# Units (in Argentina Armenia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada China Czech Finland France Germany Hungary India Iran Japan Mexico Republic Net operation) MWe
POWER
UNITS Nation
BY
NATION 1# Units (in NetMWe operation)
# Units
3 1 7 3 4 22 41 6 5 59 17 4 27 1 57 2
NetMWe (total)
Units
Net (total)
MWe
2 1 7 2 2 22 11 6 4 58 17 4 17 0 54 2
935 376 5801 1901 1906 15164 8694 3574 2696 63130 20429 1829 3732 0 47134 1360
1627 376 5801 3176 3906 15164 38734 3574 4296 64730 20429 1 829 9232 915 50136 1360
Netherlands Pakistan Romania Russia Slovakia Slovenia South South Spain Sweden Switzerland Taiwan, Ukraine United United United TOTALS Arab Emirates China Africa Korea
1 2 2 31 4 1 2 20 8 10 5 6 15 0 19 104 439
TYPE, WORLDWIDE
485 425 1 412 21743 1705 666 1800 16810 7439 8916 3220 4884 13095 0 10 982 102800.4 375043.4
1 3
485 725 3272 30 953 2515 666 1800 26410 7439 8916 3220 7484 15945 5600 10982 113277.4 464974.4
5
42 6 1 2 28 8 10 5 8 18 4 19 113 532
Kingdom States
NUCLEAR Reactor Type
POWER
UNITS
BY
REACTOR
# Units
(in light-water reactors reactors all all types types reactors reactors (LGR) (LMFBR) (PWR)
Net operation)
MWe
# Units
(total)
Net
MWe
Pressurized Boiling Gas-cooled Heavy-water Graphite-moderated
light-water reactors, reactors,
(BWR)
light-water fast-breeder
ttqutd-metal-cocied
TOTALS
265 92 18 48 15 1 439
244703.1 84720.3 9794 25047 10219 560 375043.4
338 98 18 59 15 4 532
319364.1 92776.3 9794 30765 10219 2056 464974.4
Abbreviations used in this list

AA: ASEA-Atom (Sweden) MC: AECUAnsaido (Romania) ABB: ASENBrown Boveri (Sweden, Switzerland) ABWR: advanced boiling water reactor ACEC: Ateliers de Constructions Electriques de Charleroi SA (Belgium) ACECOWEN: ACEC/COPlWestinghouse ACLF: ACEC/COP/C-UFralWestinghouse (Belgium) (France) CNNC: China National Nuclear Corporation Com Ed: Commonwealth Edison (US) COP: Cockeril Ougree-Providence (Belgium) CTAFMC: CFElTravauxiAstrobel General Contractors/Francois et Fils/Maurice Delens/Campenon-Bernard (France) CTL: Can atom Ltd. (Canada) 0005an: Doasan Heavy Industries Company, Ltd. (South Korea) and Construction
Hitachi: Hitachi Ltd. (Japan)
OH: Ontario Hydro (Canada) reactor yTecnologia PARS TG: Parsons Turbine Generators (Canada) PH: Philip Holzman (Genmany) PHWR: pressurized heavy-water reactor Pioneer: Pioneer Services & Engineering PPP: PWR Power Projects (UK) PWR: pressurized (Iight-) water reactor Canada, Ltd.
Hoch: Hochtief AG (Germany) HWLWR: heavy-watermght-water
Initec: Empresa Nacional de Ingeneria SA (Spain) ISPE: Institute for Power Studies (Romania) lyP: Inform as. y
and Design
ADF: Auxeltra-Delens-Francols (Belgium) AECL: Alomic Energy of Canada Ltd. AEE: Atomenergoexport (USSR) AEG: Allgemeine Elektricitaets-Gesellschaft, AEG Telefunken (Germany) AEI: Associated Electric lndustrtes Ltd. (UK) AEP: Atomenergoproject (Russia) AGR: advanced gas-cooled reactor Allis: Allis-Chalmers (US) AMGC: Associalion (Belgium) AMN: Ansaldo
APe: Atomic
Proisctas SA (Spain)
DTP: Dragages Travaux Publiques Duquesne: Duquesne Light Co. US) ( & Berger (Switzerland) EA: Empresarios Agrupados (Spain) ECC: Engineering Construction Corp. (India) EDF: Electricite de France EE: English Electric Co., Ltd. (UK) EEC: English Electric Co., Ltd. (Canada) ENB: Empresa Nacional Bazan (Spain) ENSA: Equipos Nucleares SA (Spain)
E&B: Emch
JL: John Laing Construction Ltd. (UK) J-S: Jeumont-Schneider (France)

Kajima: Kajima Corp. (Japan)
R&C: Richardson & Cruddas (tndia) ROM: Rotterdamse Drookdok Maatschappij (Nellleriands) RW: Richardsons Westgarth Ltd. (UK) S&L: Sargent & Lundy Engineers (US) S&W: Stone & Webster Engineering Corp. (US) SAE: Societe Auxiliaire d Entreprise (France) SB: Spie Batignolles SA (France) SBF: Shanghai Boiler Factory (China) SC Electrosila: StocK Company Electrosila Petersburg, Russia)
KEPCO: Korea Electric Power Corporation KHIC: Korea Heavy Industries and Construction Co. KOPEC: Korea Power Engineering Co., Ltd. KTZ: Kharkovsky Turbinny Zavod (Ukraine) Kum: Kumagai Gumi Co. (Japan) KWU: Kraftwerk Union AG (Genmany) L&T: Larson & Toubro (India) LGR: light-water-cooled, graphite-moderated reactor LMFBR: liquid metal fast breeder reactor LMGMR: Liquid-metal-cooled gas-moderated reactor LMZ: Leningradsky Metalichesky Zavod (Russia) LOAEP: Filial Leningradense de Atomenergoprojekt (USSR/Cuba) LWBR: light-water Maeda: breeder reactor
Momentanee
de GenieCivil
Meccanico
Nucleare SpA (Italy)

Ltd. (UK)
Power Construction
Arge: Dyckerhoff & Widmann AGlWayss AGIHedgkamp (Germany) ASE: Atomstroyexport (Russia)
& Freitag
EPDC: Electric Power Development Co.,Ltd. (Japan) EROTERV: Power Station and Network Engineering Company (Hungary) EW: Electrowatt Ltd. (SWitzerland) EyT: Entrecanales y Tavora (Spain) FBEC: FBR Engineering FECNE: Nucelar (Romania) Co., Ltd. (Japan) Factory
(Saint
B&R: Burns and Roe, Inc. (US) B&W: The Babcock & Wilcox Co. (US) BAM: Bataafsche Aanneming Maatschappij (Netherlands) BBC: Brown Boveri et Cie. (SWitzerland) BBR: Babcock-Brown Boveri Reaklor GmbH (Germany) Bech: Bechtel Corp. (US) BHEL: Bharat Heavy Electrical Ltd. (Indial BPL: Babcock Power Ltd. (UK) Brown: Brown & Root, Inc. (US) BWR: boiling water reactor CAP: C.A. Parsons & Co., Ltd. (UK) CoB: Campenon-Bernard (France) CdA: Gonaone a Acqua (Italy) C-E: Combustion Engineering, Inc. (US) CEGB: Central Electricity Generating Board (UK) CEI: Cleveland Electric illuminating Co. (US) CEM: Compagnie Electro Mechanique (France) CFE: Cie. d'Enterprises CFESA (Belgium) Chag: Chagnaud (France) Chuba EPGO: Chuba Electric Power Co., Inc. CITRA: Compagnie Industrielle de Iravaux (France) C-L: CreusoHoire (France) CM: Chantiers Moderoes (France) CNIM: Constructions Navales et Industrielles de la Mediterranee (France)
SCG: SKansKa Cementgjuteriet (Sweden) SCREG: Societe Chimique et Houtiere d Entreprise Generale (France) SeB: Saiorapt et Brice (France) SGE: Societe General d'Enterprises SHI: Sumttomo Shim: Shimizu SL: Stat-Laval SV: Statens Heavy Industries Corp. (Japan) Turbin AB(Sweden) (Sweden) (France)
Power Plant Equipment
Ltd. (Japan)
Fou: Fougerolle (France) Fra: Framatome ANP (France) FRAMACECO: Framatome/ACEC/COP (Belgium) FUE: Power Equipment Factory (Romania) G&H: Gibbs & Hill, Inc. (US) G&HE: Gibbs & Hill Espanola SA (Spain) GCR: gas-cooled reactor (lncludes advanced cooled reactors in the United Kingdom) GE: General Elecbic Co. (US) GE Can: GE Canada GEC: General Electric Co. (UK) GETSCO: General Electric Technical Services (US) Goyou: Penta-Ocean Construction GTM: Grands Travaux GVM: GANZ Villamos de Marseille (France) MureK (Hungary) Co.
Maeda Corp. (Japan) Power Industries, Inc.
Vattenfallsverk
MAPt: Mitsubishi Atomic (Japan)
<
gas-
MECO: Montreal Engineering Co. (Canada) MEL: Mitsubishi Etectric Corp.(Japan) MHI: Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. (Japan) MPS: Ministry of Power Stations (RUSSia) MTM: Mintyazhmash (Russia) NCC: Nuclear Civil Constructors (UK)
Tak: Takenaka Corp. (Japan) TEE: Tractabel Energy Engineering
(Belgium)
TNPG: The Nuclear Power Group (UK) Toshiba: Toshiba Corp. (Japan) Tosi: Franco Tosi SpA (Belgium) TVB8: Tijdelijke Vereniging Burgerlijke (Belgium)
TW: Taylor Woodrow construction
Bouwkunde
Ltd. (UK)
Corp. (Japan)
NEI: Northern Engineering Industries (UK) NiMo: Niagara MohawK Power Gorp. (US) NIRA: Nucleare ltaliana Reattori Avanzati (Italy) Nish: Nishimatso Construction Co., Ltd. (Japan) NNC: National Nuclear Corporation NPCIL: Nuclear Power Corporation (UK) of India, Ltd.
UE&C: United Engineers &Constructors (US) UKAEA: United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority VBB: AB Vattenbyggnadsbryan W: Westinghouse Wedco: Electric (Sweden)
Haz: Hazama Gumi Co. (Japan) HCC: Hindustan Construction Co. (India) HCCM: Huaxing (China)/China Construction Engineenng Corp. (China)/Gampenon-Bernard (France)/Maeda (Japan)
NSP: Northern States Power Co. (US) Nucten: Nuclebras Engenaria SA (Brazil) Obay: Obayashi Gumi Co. (Japan) OCR: Organically cooled reactor
Corp. (US) (US)
a subsidiary of Westinghouse
WIL: Walchandnagar
Industries Ltd. (Indial (Russia)
ZAES: Zarubezhatomenergostroy
March 2010
N U C LEA
NEW
73
,j
I
I
ENGR 190
Page 61
NEUTRON CROSS SECTIONS In order to calculate the rate at which neutrons interact with the fuel and other materials in the reactor, one needs to know something about the apparent size of the nucleus of each material. This size is designated as the cross section, and is stated in units of cm according to long time custom. The unit of 10-24 sq. cm is known as the barn. Note: some authors are trying to convert these to the metric system of square meters. Convention seems to continue, to use the units as barns, and to make all reactor calculations for input to computer programs using dimensions of cm. The microscopic cross section is designated with the symbol , with units of 10-24 sq. cm. However, a useful unit for comparison is the macroscopic cross section, = , where N = the atom density of the material, in atoms/cm = [6.022E23/atomic weight] x [density of the material in the reactor core in gm/cc] There are several types of cross sections designated, the most important being: Scattering cross section Absorption cross = fission cross section + capture cross section Fission cross section splitting of the atom into two (or more) parts plus several neutrons Capture cross section usually results in emission of a gamma ray At thermal energies (0.025 eV, neutron velocity = 2240 meters per second) the scattering cross section is generally somewhat related to a physical size of the nucleus. However, the absorption cross section varies significantly for most materials, as a function of energy (and hence of temperature). Most absorption cross sections vary inversely proportional to the velocity, and hence inversely proportional to the square root of the energy of the incoming neutron. The energy of neutrons in equilibrium with the surroundings is referred to as the thermal energy, which is proportional to the square root of the temperature of the material in which the neutron is bouncing around.
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Some materials, including common ones used in nuclear reactors, have rather unusually large cross section in the slowing down range of energies, from 0.1 MeV down to about 1 eV. At specific energies, a resonance for absorption occurs, and can be described similar to resonance vibrations in a structure. At these specific energies the cross section for absorption is extremely high. Figure (2.18) shows the cross sections for U-238 in this slowing down energy range.
The cross section graph for U-235 is shown in figure (2.19). The following page lists the thermal cross sections (both microscopic and macroscopic) for both absorption and scattering, for all of the stable elements in the periodic table, plus the normal density and nuclear density (x1024). The symbol refers to the slowing down capability of the element. This capability is known as the average logarithmic energy decrement, or logarithm of the average ratio of energy, before collision to that after collision. I.e. = [ln (1 /2 )] .
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NEUTRON FLUX Neutron flux in a nuclear reactor is an important concept in the design and operation of these systems. The flux is usually designated with the Greek letter phi, (), and is usually designated with the cgs units of (neutrons per second) per square centimeter of area, i.e. n/(sec cm). One important quantity is the fission power generated per unit volume, and is equal to =
with units of [cm2][atoms/cm3][n/(cm2sec)] = (fissions per second) per cm3. Multiplying by the volume involved, results in the total fissions in that volume. The flux in the reactor tends to peak at the center, and drops off to zero at the edge of the reactor (the edge where there is vacuum beyond). Expressions for the shape of the flux in the three basic geometrical forms for a reactor: For rectangular coordinates: Cosine[x/H] where H is the effective height (or width) of the reactor. For cylindrical coordinates in the radial direction: Jo[2.405 r/R] where R = effective radius of the reactor cylinder. For spherical coordinates: sin[r/R]/r where R is the effective radius of the sphere. The Buckling is a term that is used in the equation that describes the leakage of neutrons from the reactor for each of these three basic configurations. The larger the reactor, the smaller the Buckling (see chart below), and the lower is the leakage. Geometry Sphere Rectangular parallelepiped Finite Cylinder
Buckling and Flux Distribution in Bare Reactors Buckling Critical Flux Distribution
Functions for determination of neutron flux distribution
(2.405/)2 + (/)2
2 2 2 + +
(/)2
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sin cos cos cos 2.405 0 cos
Minimum Critical Volume

3 161/ (for a = b = c) 3 148/ (for H = 1.847R)
3 130/
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Neutron flux also determines the rate at which a particular isotope will burn-up. Just as radioactive decay is expressed by exp(-t), the rate of burn-up is expressed by exp(-t). These two terms are multiplicative, i.e. the rate of loss of the isotope, N(t) = No[exp(-t) exp(-t)].
MAKING A REACTOR CRITICAL The Four-Factor + Leakage Formula Though most reactor calculations are now done by computer programs, a conceptual understanding of the factors involved in designing a reactor. These factors help to obtain an appreciation for what factors are positive and those that are negative in helping achieve a critical assembly. = Number of neutrons produced per neutron absorbed in the fuel. This has a value of 2.06 for U-235 thermal fission, 2.18 for fast fission ofU-235, and 133 for thermal fission involving natural uranium. = A small advantage that is produced by fast fissions that occur in the U-238 present in reactors. This value is approximately 1.05 for natural uranium-fueled reactors, and is 1.00 for highly enriched reactors, such as the ATR. = Resonance escape probability. This is the probability (a number 1.00), giving the probability of a neutron escaping capture in the U-238 resonances while slowing down. = Thermal utilization. This is the ratio of the macroscopic absorption in the fuel to the macroscopic absorption in the entire reactor core (including that in the fuel).
Non-Leakage Probability from the reactor: This is usually defined as two terms, first for the leakage during slowing down, and then for leakage of the neutrons while they are migrating around at thermal energies. Finally, the simplified equation representing the multiplication factor from one generation of neutrons to the next is: keff = pf [Non-Leakage Probability) = pf [1 - fast leakage prob.] [1 - thermal leakage prob.] If keff is exactly equal to 1.000, the reactor is said to be critical. If keff is less than 1.0000, the reactor will lose power. If keff is greater than 1.0000, the reactor will increase in power with time. Of the above factors, leakage depends on size of the reactor, and hence can be easily varied. The other factors over which the designer has significant control are p and f. The former can be optimized by
f=
+ +
= fraction of neutrons absorbed in the fuel.
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appropriately separating the fuel into lumps inserted in the moderator, thus shielding much of the U-238 from resonance capture. The thermal utilization, f, is the main factor that the reactor designer has the ability to adjust, even during reactor operation by the insertion of control rods consisting of a neutron poison or neutron absorber. Most moderators have absorption characteristics which make the selection of the amount of moderator to amount of fuel and important consideration However, skimping on the amount of moderator increases the path length for slowing down of the neutrons, and therefore will increase the leakage during slowing down, as well as the resonance capture probability. The designer needs to be careful to establish a balance between these two characteristics, p and f. The designer can control by specifying the enrichment of the uranium. Todays light water reactors have enrichment of ~4.5% U-235 (by law, they are limited to no more than 5%).
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If Isd p f g
= = = = = = =
Neutrons produced per fission. Factor to account for U-238 fast fission neutrons created ( > 1.0). Escape fraction as a fast neutron. Escape fraction while slowing down neutrons. Resonance Escape Probability (< 1) Thermal utilization of fuel (< 1) Thermal absorption ratio of U-235 in the U fuel (< 1)
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REACTIVITY AND TIME BEHAVIOR OF A REACTOR Symbols Consider the total number of neutrons, as symbol N, and study their variation with time as a function of the multiplication factor k. If k = 1 the power will remain steady. Reactivity = (k - 1)/k Fraction of neutrons that are delayed, = 0.0065, i.e. 0.65% of the total neutrons emitted. Note: The delayed neutrons are of lower energy than the prompt, hence they slow down sooner, and on small reactors a smaller percentage of delayed neutrons leak out compared to prompt neutrons. The result is an effective that is greater than 0.0065. In some very small reactors such as the AGN-201, effective may be as high as 0.0075.) Prompt neutron lifetime = L(or l lower case script) which typically has values between 10-3 for the large graphite reactors (like Chernobyl) to as short as 10-6 seconds for small fast reactors such as EBR-I and II. There are nominally six delayed neutron groups that have been used since the early days of nuclear engineering. However, more detailed study has broken these up into additional groups. The decay constant for the delayed neutron groups is designated as i, where the index i is for each group. Characteristics of the Delayed Neutrons The delayed neutrons arise from some of the fission products which spontaneously emit neutrons with a mean life of 1/. There are a number of fission products that behave in this manner, and in general six such fission products have been identified, each producing a separate group of delayed neutrons. Each of these fission products are referred to as precursors of the delayed neutrons, each having a distinct half life, and hence decay constant = (0.693/t1/2) (sec-1). Essentially six groups of fission product delayed neutron precursors have been identified. These same precursor groups occur with all types of fissions, whether at thermal energies or fast energies, and for each of the three main types of nuclear fissile species, U-235, Pu- 239, or U-233. However, the fast fission values will be slightly different from the thermal values, but not significantly. Because these differences are slight, the following table can also be applied to any U-235 reactor. Note: The values for Pu-239 are significantly different, with the delayed neutron fraction totaling only 0.0020, though the same precursor fission product groups, same set of decay constants are identified as for U-235. If a reactor has a significant amount of Pu-239 as its fissile material, the delayed neutron fraction and the resulting time behavior should be modified accordingly - generally using a weighted average value for each of the delayed neutron group fractions. Similarly, the delayed neutron fraction for U-233 is much less, 0.0026. Each of the delayed groups can be represented with a subscript i, with i varying from 1 to 6. Decay Constants and Yields of Delayed-Neutron Precursors in Thermal Fission of Uranium-235.
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t1/2 (sec) 55.7 22.7 6.22 2.30 0.61 0.23
i (sec-1) 0.0124 0.0305 0.111 0.301 1.1 3.0
i 0.00021 0.00141 0.00127 0.00255 0.00074 0.00027 0.00645
i/i 0.0171 0.0463 0.0114 0.0085 0.0007 0.0001 Avg. -= 0.084
Total delayed neutron fraction
Note, in the above table the average has been calculated by weighting the decay constants of each of the groups according to the following formula average = / [ (i/i)] where the summation, is from i = 1 to 6. Writing the differential equations for the neutrons, N, and the precursors (six groups) C: 1. 2. dN/dt = [(k - 1 - )/L] N + i Ci dCi/dt = [i/L] N - i Ci for which the summation is from 1 to 6. There will be six of these precursor equations.
Each of the above equations has a form similar to the radioactive decay equation, except for the sign of the main term on the right side of the equation. Hence, one can postulate that the solution to these seven simultaneous differential equations have the form 3. 4. N(t) = No et Ci(t) = Co et where No and Co represent the initial values of these variables.
From equations (1), (3), and (4) it is found that 5. Coi = [i/(L( + i))] No
Assuming that k is approximately equal to 1.0, equation (1) can be written in terms of the reactivity, , defined above. 6. dN/dt = [( - )/L] N + i Ci
Substituting the solutions (3) and (4) into differential equation (6), and using equation (5), one obtains the following relationship 7. L = - + [ii /( + i)]
By inserting the inside the summation term as each of the i and rearranging, one obtains 8. = L + [i /( + i)]
Equation (8) gives the relationship of the reactivity (and hence the multiplication factor, k) to the inverse reactor period , because the time behavior of the neutrons will be described by an equation (9). ENGR 190 Page 71
9.
N(t) = Aoe0 t + A1e2 t + A2e3 t +A6e6 t
where the 0 through 6 are the seven roots of equation (8). For a positive reactivity, 0 is positive and all of the other roots are negative. For a negative reactivity all the roots are negative. Reactor operators use equation (8) to determine the reactivity as a function of the stable reactor period, defined as T = 1/ where is the 0 term in equation (9). By stable period (occurs only for a positive reactivity) is meant the rate of rise of the neutron flux or the power by a factor of e after all of the other terms with negative have essentially died out (become negligible). Usually this requires a wait time of about 100 seconds. If one considers only one delayed group, described by the average values in the bottom line of the table of delayed neutron constants (above), the one obtains 10. = L + [ /( + )]
By appropriate algebraic manipulation, especially neglecting small terms, one obtains the following 11. N = No { [ / ( - )] exp[t/ ( - )] - [/( - )] exp[- ( - )t / L] }
The first term gives the approximate inverse stable reactor period (factor of e rise in flux or power) 12. 1/ = = / ( - )
is the exponential folding time, usually referred to as the reactor period. Note: It has a relation similar to the relationship of the half life and the mean (exponential decay) life. For instance, the doubling time is 0.693 . The only difference is in this case of a reactor period it is a (positive) exponential increase, whereas with radioactive decay it is an (negative) exponential decrease. The following figures show the time behavior of the two terms of the solution for equation (11), for positive and negative step changes in reactivity of = 0.0022. The delayed neutron fraction is often referred to as a dollar, i.e. one dollar is = 0.0065. It is apparent that, as the reactivity goes through the 0.0065 value, and the equation is undefined when = . Note: that this undefined condition is only the result of the approximation made to reduce the equations to one delayed group, instead of the six that actually exist. If all six delayed neutron group equations are used, there is no point at which the solutions are undefined. When is larger than the two terms in equation (11) then have different signs than when < . The exponent in the second term now determines the inverse reactor period. When that occurs, the exponent is very large, representing a very fast rise in power level. This condition is known as prompt critical. Obviously a reactor that is prompt critical is, for all practical purposes out of control with regard to human reaction times. However, virtually all of the nuclear reactors operating today have inherent controls which counter any rapid rise in power. These include, but are not limited to, various types of temperature coefficients (such as expansion lowering the density, cross section reduction with increasing
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temperature, and the Doppler coefficient), moderator void coefficient, and fuel expansion. All of these are negative coefficients of reactivity if an increase in power results in a reduction of the reactivity. The only reactors operating today that have prompt positive coefficients of reactivity are the Chernobyl type of reactors in Russia and Lithuania, known as the RBMK reactors.
SHUTDOWN DECAY HEAT The total energy released in the fission process and reactions related to fission is approximately 200 MeV (this varies by a few percent, depending on the design of the reactor). Of this 7% (about 14 MeV) is delayed energy coming from the decay of the fission products. This energy is about equally divided between beta decay, for which the average energy of the electron is 0.4 MeV, and gamma decay, for which the average energy of the gamma is 0.7 MeV. Note that based on 200 MeV per fission, there are 3.1x1010 (fissions/second)/watt. The companion number for the delayed energy from the decay of fission products is 13. 2.8x10-6 t-1.2 (MeV/second)/fission. This is the total for beta plus gamma energy.
This formula, with the -1.2 power, applies if the time is designated in days after the fission occurred. Integrating this equation for a period of constant power operation, Po, followed by shutdown for a period of time, allows one to determine the decay energy supplied at a given time after shutdown. The solution of the integrated equation is 14. P = Po x 6.1x10-3 [(time since shutdown) -0.2 - (time since startup) -0.2] Page 73
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The time used in the equation must be in days. Note: there are other forms of this equation with the time given in seconds, or some other unit, but the constants in front of the equation will be quite different. The following figure graphically shows the relationship between the times involved in Eq.14.
This equation gives a reasonably good calculation (accurate to within about 25%) of the shutdown power from about 10 minutes after shutdown to ten years, and is useful for estimation purposes out to much longer times. A similar equation can be derived for the gamma activity of the fuel elements. 15. Gamma Activity in Curies = 0.7 x Po [(time since shutdown) -0.2 - (time since startup) -0.2]
The time must be given in days, and the operating power in watts. The beta activity in Curies is approximately 2x the Gamma activity from Eq. 15. However, beta activity is usually not important for dose calculations, because the beta particles do not get through the fuel cladding. The figure shows the results of decay power vs time for various periods of steady state operation. One can deduce a non-steady power operation as a sum of a number of different steady state operations. There are more precise equations that are used for more accurately determining the decay heat and radioactivity. For instance the American Nuclear Society standard uses 26 different groups of decay of fission products.
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THE XENON-135 FISSION PRODUCT POISON PROBLEM During operation, or rather following the shutdown and subsequent attempted operation, of one of the earliest high power reactors in the USA during the Manhattan Project days, it was determined that there was a mysterious fission product that had a huge capture cross section, that would build up and poison a reactor so it couldnt operate. But the fission product appeared to disappear (decay) with a half life of about 9 hours. This decay chain was identified as:
135
I 6.7 hrs
135
Xe 9.2 hrs
135
Cs 2 million yrs
135
Ba (stable)
The only fission product in this chain that is a problem to reactors is the Xe-135, which has a thermal cross section of 2.6 million barns. Its effect on the reactor, when it builds up after shutdown, is horrendous. During normal operation the neutron flux will burn out much of this isotope, but such burnout does not occur when the reactor is shutdown. Then the iodine continues to decay, into the xenon, which then decays but with a longer half life. The figure shows this poison buildup and subsequent decay, in which the ordinate axis is essentially reactivity. For the typical USA commercial nuclear power plant, which operates in the 1012 to1013 flux range, xenon poising is not a serious problem. But for the high flux ATR reactor, with a flux of 1015, xenon poising
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will prevent the reactor from being restarted after it is shutdown for a period of about 30 minutes. It then cannot be restarted for about 2 days. The high flux MURR reactor at the University of Missouri operates around the clock, 24/7, except for an 8 hour shutdown once per week to refuel. Should that reactor be shutdown for longer than 10 minutes (such as from a power outage), it cannot restart, and operators will then refuel the reactor (it only has eight fuel elements) using previously used fuel elements, and restart the reactor with the replaced fuel which has no xenon poison remaining Effects of Other Fission Products There are orders of 100 different fission products, plus higher elements formed from the absorption of neutrons by the U-23 8 in the reactor. These affect the reactivity of the reactor, since most are poisons, and the results of their absorption (capture) cross section. The exceptions are those that have significant fission cross sections, such as Pu-239 and Pu-24l. The continual buildup of these other isotopes (both the mid-periodic table fission products and the transuranic. often designated as TRU) results in a reduction in reactivity for the reactor. Fuel reprocessing can relatively easily remove the fission products. However, it is somewhat more difficult to separate out the higher actinides (the TRU) from the useful fuel isotopes. A solution to this problem is to build fast reactors, which are rather insensitive to these transuranics, because in the fast neutron spectrum, these have very low absorption cross sections. The GNEP program (Global Nuclear Enterprise Partnership) focuses on a combination of conventional thermal reactors and fast reactors to accomplish a significant reduction in nuclear wastes. This program has been designated the Advance Fuel Cycle Initiative (AFCI). Though this program has been characterized as something distinctly new, the basic technology has been demonstrated with the EBR-II reactor (dismantled in the late 1990s) in Idaho, and with Japanese programs involving recycling of fuel in thermal reactors and some measurements with their fast research reactor.
HEAT REMOVAL FROM THE REACTOR Nature of the Energy and its Distribution A fission of uranium or plutonium releases approximately 200 MeV, which is distributed nominally as follows: Type of Energy Kinetic Energy of Fission Fragments Instantaneous Gamma Ray Energy Kinetic energy of fission neutrons Beta particles from fission products Gamma rays from fission products Neutrinos Capture gamma rays Nominal Total Nominal Useful Total MeV per fission 165 (deposited in fuel) 7.4 (most escapes from the fuel) 4.8 (most of energy to moderator and/or coolant) 7.6 (delayed, from decay, stays in fuel) 6.6 (delayed, from decay, escapes from fuel) ~10 (Escapes to the universe!) ~8 (Most escapes from the fuel) 209 MeV 199 MeV
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Removing the Heat for Useful Purposes Of the nominal 200 MeV per fission, most is desired to be recovered as useful heat to eventually produce steam for a Rankine (steam) cycle to turn a generator, or for transfer to other working fluids (such as to a gas to drive a turbine in a Brayton cycle). A small portion (~1%) of the energy escapes to the shield and surroundings, and nominally cannot be captured for useful purposes. The bulk of the energy is deposited in the fuel elements, which are usually either long thin cylinders, or long thin plates. In the typical light water commercial reactor, the fuel pins are nominally: Fuel pellet diameter Cladding thickness Fuel pin diameter Center to center spacing 0.325 inches (0.82 cm) - Uranium dioxide (UO2) 0.022 inches (0.6 mm) - Zircalloy 0.375 inches (3/8 inch = 0.95 cm) ~0.496 inches
Plate type reactors, such as the ATR, the HFIR at Oak Ridge, and many university research reactors are thin plates Fuel meat thickness Cladding, each side, thickness Total thickness of plate 0.030 inches (a matrix of uranium, aluminum, and more recently some silicon or silicon carbide) 0.015 inches (aluminum) 0.060 inches (~1/16 inch)
Cooling channels between the plates are nominally 0.12 inches thick. Heat removal is essentially all by conduction through the fuel and the cladding to the coolant. Transfer to the coolant is usually described as convection. Conduction heat transfer coefficients, called the thermal conductivity, are given in units of heat transferred per unit area and gradient of temperature through the material. Btu/hour per (square foot of area for a gradient of degrees F per foot) = Btu/(hour ft2 {F/ft}) = Btu/(hour ft. F) or watts per (sq. meter for a gradient of degrees per meter = watts/(meter F) The conversion factor is 1 Btu/(hr Ft F) = 1.731 watts/(M C) For heat convection, the coefficient of heat transfer is given in units of heat transferred per unit area and degrees of temperature difference: Btu/(hour sq.ft. F) or Watt/(sq. meter C)
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The conversion factor is 1 Btu/(hour sq. ft. F) = 5.67 watts/(sq. meter C) Note: Often today, the absolute temperature symbols of R and K are used instead of F and C. Thermal characteristics of some common reactor materials Material Aluminum Graphite Carbon Steel Uranium Uranium dioxide Zircaloy (~1.5% tin) Density [lb/ft3] 169 196 490 1205 684 409 Spec. Gr. 2.7 1.7 7.85 19.3 10.9 6.55 Specific Heat [Btu/(lb F)]* 0.23 0.2 - 0.4 0.12 - 0.16 0.028 - 0.04 0.06 - 0.07 0.071 Thermal Conductivity [Btu/(hr Ft F)]* 125 90 - 40 30 - 20 14 - 20 5.3 - 2.9 6.7 - 7.2
* The first number is about room temperature, the second number at 1000F or otherwise near the melting point. Note: Melting points are as follows: Aluminum Zircally Graphite Uranium Uranium Dioxide = 660 C = 1850 C = ~3500 C = 1130 C = ~2800 C = 1220 F = 3380 F = 6330 F = 2066 F = 5070 F
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Supercritical Steam Cycles Fossil plants (coal and natural gas) have been using supercritical steam cycles for the last several decades. The critical pressure for water is 3206 psia and the supercritical temperature is 705 F. These do require several reheat cycles to avoid going into the steam dome and producing water (condensing) in the turbine. These approach an efficiency of 50%. Most such plants in the USA operate in the 3500 psia range. Light water reactors cannot achieve high enough temperatures for supercritical cycles. However, with new reactor designs for Gen IV, the supercritical steam cycle is getting significant attention for advanced nuclear power plants (next generation).
MAXIMUM POWER FROM A REACTOR WITHOUT AFFECTING SAFETY The goal in operating commercial power reactors is to get as much power as possible from them without compromising safety. Energy is developed in the fuel pins, and that energy needs to get to the coolant. In the case of pressurized water reactors (PWR), the coolant must not be allowed to boil, because if it does, the heat transfer from pin to the coolant will drop significantly (liquid transfers heat much better than a gas). The following figure shows the heat transfer coefficient as a function of the temperature difference between the cladding surface and the coolant liquid film temperature. Obviously, as more power is produced in the fuel pin, the T between the pin and the liquid has to increase in order to transfer more heat. The curve is not linear. Nucleate boiling is a desirable and very effective method of heat transfer, but if one approaches the peak of the curve, there is the chance that the conditions may go over the peak to the right, resulting in partial film boiling and resultant burnout (in which the cladding reaches an extremely high temperature) that it will be damaged, perhaps even melt. Such a condition is called departure from nucleate boiling (DNB) or reaching the critical heat flux (CHF). Such a situation must be avoided, and a safety factor is established to assure that such will not ever occur. That safety factor, known as the DNB ratio (DNBR) is usually in the 1.25 to 1.3 range.
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The reactor designer has a goal of flattening the flux (and hence the power distribution) as much as possible, i.e. does not wish to have a conventional flux shape for a uniformly loaded reactor. Hence, the fuel in the center is used (depleted) fuel, or new lower enriched fuel than that near the outside. Another method of flattening the flux in a reactor is to but a very effective reflector around it, giving the effect shown in the figure.
Temperature distributions and avoiding DNB or CHF The core design work must be detailed enough to be able to predict the power distribution in each fuel rod over its entire length. The hottest location in the core is where the safety factor of DNBR is calculated. That point is what determines the maximum power at which the reactor is allowed to operate. In a commercial water reactor, the maintaining of the integrity of the zircaloy cladding is the critical concern. A leak in the cladding allows gaseous fission products to escape into the coolant, which then spreads this contamination throughout the cooling system and deposits fission products on piping and other equipment (such as the steam generators). The melting point for the zircaloy is about 3300 F, but it will be damaged and lose some of its strength if the temperature exceeds about 1800 F. Because .the fuel in a commercial LWR is uranium dioxide, very high temperatures can be reached at the center line of the fuel pellet. Temperatures in excess of 3300 degrees can be reached there. Under normal operating conditions, this is of no concern, because the zircaloy cladding will still be quite cool, in the 800 to 1000 F range. However, should a significant loss in pressure occur from a break in the system, the coolant would tend to flash to steam. Even if the reactor is immediately shut down, there will be an equilibration of the temperatures of the cladding and the fuel, at the same time steam forming around the cladding, greatly reducing the heat transfer to the fluid. The result can be that the cladding can reach a very high temperature, still well below melting, but sufficient to reduce the integrity of the cladding. Designing to mitigate such events, which are called LOCA (Loss of Coolant Accidents), is a major task of reactor designers. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission carefully examines the ana1yis that the company does for the anticipated LOCA.
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Longitudinal Temperature Distribution (in direction of coolant flow) The attached figure shows the temperature distributions that occur longitudinally along the coolant path. The bottom trace shows the increasing temperature of the fluid. The center trace shows the power distribution shape, which is also the shape of the T between the cladding surface and the fluid film. The net effect is a cladding temperature that is like that of the top trace. Note that the peak temperature occurs well past the center of the fuel rod, not at the center where the peak power production occurs. Two infamous reactor accidents (both gas-cooled reactors) occurred because the system operators didnt recognize the distribution and placed their emergency shutdown thermocouples at the very center of the central most fuel pin. These were the Windscale Accident in United Kingdom (1957) and the HTRE III Accident in Idaho (1958).
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HEALTH, SAFETY AND RADIATION Cancer Despite the obvious benefits of nuclear power, radiation can cause cancer, and extremely high doses of radiation can result in short term death (in several days). The exact nature of the causing of cancer in humans is not yet known. Cancer is an uncontrolled multiplication of cells of a certain type and at a certain location in the body. However, this uncontrolled cell multiplication appears to be able to transfer to other cells in the body, by contact. Radiation is not the only known cause for cancer. Certain chemicals are declared to be carcinogenic, by the Environmental Protection Agency. The onset of cancer appears to be delayed for years after exposure to these chemicals or radiation. The most significant and common cancer effect from radiation is that involving skin cancer, the result of excessive exposure to the rays from the sun. In the case of skin cancer, it is ultraviolet rays, with energy above 3 eV, that eventually trigger the cancer, perhaps as long as 20 years after significant exposure to the sun. There are two types of exposure to cancer-causing chemicals or radiation: Acute exposures are those that occur over a short period of time, usually less than 24 hours. Chronic exposures are those that occur over a long period of time, such as years. An example is the natural background exposure that we receive from cosmic rays and naturally occurring activity within the earth and within our bodies.
Two other terms of interest in studying the effects of radiation are: Somatic effects those that occur within the body, generally over a long period of time. Genetic effects those that are passed along to a fetus as a result of genetic alterations in the parents reproductive cells. Note, the fastest growing cells are the most sensitive to radiation damage.
Experience over the last century with man-produced radiation exposure having deleterious effect on persons is rather limited. Some of these rather well known cases are: Madame Marie Curie died of cancer. Women that had jobs painting radium onto watch hands and dials (so that they would glow in the dark), often brought the brushes to a sharp point by wetting the tips in their mouths. They would then unknowingly place specks of radium in their mouth. Many eventually developed lip, tongue, or mouth cancer. Note, this practice of using radium as a fluorescent medium in commercial products has been discontinued. Tritium, a low energy beta (electron) emitter is now used. In 1945 and 1946 two workers at Los Alamos were killed (died within three days) in individual accidents from a supercritical excursion of a small nuclear reactor that they were assembling. Many survivors of the atomic bomb explosions over Hiroshima and Nagasaki soon died as a result of large doses of whole-body radiation. However, as subsequent material shows, those who received moderate (about 10% of a lethal dose) have exhibited much healthier longevity than the average Japanese.
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From the early days of the Manhattan Project during World War II, it was recognized that exposure to excessive amounts of radiation could have serious health effects. In the early days of the Atomic Energy Commission following the end of the war, health physicists and radiologists developed numerical limits of the amount of radiation that individuals may be allowed to take without any harm to the body. Susceptibility to deleterious effects from radiation (or chemicals) varies substantially among individuals. From the above incidents, an international standard has been stated that an acute radiation exposure of 350 Rads has a 50% chance of resulting in death to a human who does not receive immediate medical care. Units of Radiation Dose and Dose Rate The damage to cells is the result of ionization caused by a charged particle moving through material and stripping electrons from the orbits of atoms in molecules. The basic unit is the Gray = one Joule of ionizing radiation per kg of body tissue. The unit that has been used since the 1940s, and is still commonly referred to is the Rad = 0.01 Gray = 100 ergs per gram of tissue. Some radiation is much more dangerous than normal ionizing radiation. These very dangerous types are neutrons and alpha particles (helium nuclei). They have a weighting factor of 10 and 20, respectively for fast neutrons and alpha particles. These waiting factors are referred to relative biological effectiveness (RBE) or Quality Factor (QF). The latter term has been adopted as the more appropriate designation. Another term often used is LET = Linear Energy Transfer, and electrons and gamma rays are often referred to as low LET type of radiation. Rules and Regulations Knowing the above figure, plus the figures for chronic background radiation, standards were developed and adopted by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission in the USA and by regulatory agencies in other countries. An international body known as the ICRP (International Commission for Radiation Protection) keeps continually following scientific data that accumulates. The ICRP, along with the USAs NCRP, and the Committee for Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR) revise these standards when appropriate. It is known that the nominal natural background at sea level is approximately 160 milli Rads per year. However, those who live in rather tightly sealed homes, typically experience additional radiation of approximately 200 milli Rads annually, for a total of 360 milli Rads per year. The standards for radiation exposure allowed to workers and the public are: Annual limit for those employed as radiation workers: Annual limit allowed to be given to any member of the public: Annual emergency dose permitted to a member of the public: 5 Rads per year* 0.1 Rads per year 0.5 Rads per year
*Pregnant women workers are limited to 500 milli Rad during the pregnancy.
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Beneficial Uses of Radiation Because radiation can kill cells in the human body, it is used to kill the fast multiplying cells of cancerous growths. The typical dose given to a cancer to kill the cells is 5000 rads, usually administered in fractions over a period of about one month (20 treatments).
PROTECTION FROM RADIATION Workers and the public are protected from receiving radiation from nuclear power plants and their waste products by shielding the radiation using materials such as concrete, water, or lead. Distance also reduces radiation levels. Distance effect: Most calculations of the distance effect can be adequately estimated by assuming a point source and the radiation flux being given by 1. (particles of MeV[/sq. cm second]) =
Source strength (particles or MeV/second) 4R2
Or, if a dose rate is known at one location (Dose #1), at a given distance R1 from the source, the dose rate (Dose #2) at a distance R2 is given by 2. Dose #2 = (Dose #1) * [R1/R2]2
Shielding effect: Shielding effects can be quickly estimated by using the exponential attenuation formula 3. Attenuation factor = e-x
This represents the factor by which an amount of shielding of thickness x and attenuation coefficient will reduce the dose. The values of change somewhat with energy. However, most nuclear fuel waste products emit gamma rays of energy approximately 1 MeV (million electron volts), and values of for some common shielding materials are as follows: = 0.071 0.15 0.47 0.78 cm-1 for water cm-1 for concrete cm-1 for iron cm-1 for lead.
The strength os a source of radiation is designated in Curies (named after the famous husband-wife team of Pierre and Marie Curie). 1 Curie = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations/second; otherwise known as radioactive decays per second. There is a simple rule of thumb for 1 MeV gamma rays as follows: 1 Curie of 1 MeV gamma rays at a distance of 1 foot = a dose rate of 6 Rads/hour. In metric units, at a distance of one meter, 1 Curie of 1 MeV = a dose rate of 0.56 Rads/hour.)
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Using this result, and the above three formulas, dose rates can be determined at various locations. Note, another method of stating the conversion factor: a flux of 580 MeV/cm2-sec = dose rate of 1 R/hr, for nominally 1 MeV gamma rays. The response curve is essentially flat for 0.1 to 2 MeV gamma rays. Gamma ray energies from common sources: For an operating nuclear reactor, the average gamma ray energy is about 1.2 MeV. For fission product decay, after shutdown, the average gamma ray energy is about 0.7 MeV. For Cobalt-60 decay, two gamma rays are emitted with each decay, one at 1.17 MeV, one at 1.33 MeV. For all of these, the data for 1 MeV is a reasonable approximation. Design for Shielding from Radiation Shielding from gamma rays is accomplished by combination of distance and material attenuation. The high atomic number materials generally provide the best overall shielding. Those with high density provide better shielding on a weight basis, depending on the type of shield. For shipping of radioactive materials, in a so-called cask, the material preferred is depleted uranium because of its high density and high atomic number. However, in practice, lead, with only about half the density of uranium, is used because it is much less expensive and easier to obtain and use (possession of depleted uranium is regulated by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission). Tables of attenuation coefficients for gamma rays for various materials are often presented in terms of mass attenuation coefficients, / where is the linear attenuation coefficient (1/cm) for the material in its normal form, and is the density (in gm/cubic cm). Thus, the mass attenuation coefficient has units of cm2/gm. This coefficient gives a measure of the effectiveness of the atoms in attenuating gamma rays. Consider two materials having similar mass attenuation coefficients, but having densities differing by a factor of 2.4 this is nearly the case of steel (the less dense, 7.9 gm/cc) compared to uranium (having density = 18.9 gm/cc). Not only is the thickness needed less for the uranium because of the density difference, but the higher atomic number of the uranium gives it a factor of 1.27 effectiveness per unit mass (mass attenuation coefficient) compared to lead. Consider a spherical shield, 5 cm thick for the steel. The uranium shield needs to only be 1.6 cm thick to have the same attenuation effect. Suppose the inner radius of this cask is 10 cm. Thus the mass of the spherical shield is (4/3)[R3 - 103] The mass of the more dense uranium cask, outer radius 11.6 cm is 44.4 kg. The mass of the less dense steel cask, outer radius 15 cm is 78.6 kg. Note, there is an advantage in weight in using uranium instead of lead, but the advantage is much less dramatic than the example given above. Effects of Radiation on Materials Organic materials, such as plastics suffer radiation damage from gamma rays. Teflon is one of the most sensitive plastics, suffering some degradation with 1 million rads. Polystyrene is one of the most radiation resistant plastics, able to stand one billion rads before showing degradation.
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Ferritic steel (not stainless steel) shows damage from fast neutron irradiation (energies above ~1 MeV), the result of displacement of atoms in the crystal structure. The effect is to make the material brittle at a higher temperature. Total fast fluence (flux times the time period) of 1019 n/cm2 sec is sufficient to cause some increase in the non-ductility temperature (NDT). This is the main limitation on lifetime for the present reactors, for after 60 years of service, the pressure vessel NDT will be approaching room temperature. Beta and Alpha Particles Alpha particles, usually ~5 MeV, cannot penetrate a piece of paper. However, beta rays (electrons) have a bit more penetration ability. However, a 1 MeV beta can be stopped by 1/4 inch of plastic, and hence goggles will generally provide adequate eye protection from most common beta emitting sources. (The eye is one of the most sensitive organs in the body to the effects of radiation.)
LOW LEVEL RADIATION EFFECTS ON HUMANS

A Health Benefit
Units of Absorbed ionizing radiation energy Rad = 100 ergs/gm Gray (Gy) = I J/kg I cGy = I Rad Known Large Dose Effects 350 Rem (3.5 Sv) single dose is lethal to 50% of the exposed without medical treatment (LD5O) (Accident victims with 1000 Rem (10 Sv) have been saved by bone marrow transplants). 20 Rem (0.2 Sv) in a single dose shows blood effects. 5,000 Rem (50 Sv) is typical dose given to kill cancer (over 5 or 6 weeks, fractionated). Approximate Annual Background Doses in USA Cosmic rays 28 mRem/yr Terrestrial (rocks) 28 Internal (K-40 and C-14) 40 Consumer products 10 Medical Diagnostics 300 Other ~9 Subtotal 415 Add from radon in homes ~200 Approximate total 615 mRem/yr = 6.2 mSv/yr (From NCRP Report #160, March 2009) Rem = Rad x RBE Sievert(Sv) = Gy x RilE 1 cSv = I Rem
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The Linear, No-Threshold (LNT) Hypothesis If the health effects are known for large doses of radiation (i.e. 350 cSv is LD5O), then extrapolation back to the origin (zero dose, zero effect) will enable one to estimate the probability of a similar health effect on those individuals exposed at a lower dose. For instance, this theory would deduce that 175 Rem single dose would cause 25% of those exposed to die. The Collective Dose Hypothesis This is a companion to the LNT hypothesis. It states that if a fatality rate or a cancer rate has been deduced for a large population exposed to a certain dose, that this can be extrapolated to any other population exposure, again using the equivalent of the LNT hypothesis, i.e. the product of number of persons and the average dose per person is a constant outcome, regardless of the value of the average dose. The BEIR (Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation) Committee of the National Research Council, in their 5th published report (1989), concluded that 800 deaths can be expected for each one million personRem of 1 radiation received by the public. This figure is used as the basis for determining the relative risks of all nuclear activities. For instance, the risk to patients receiving dental x-rays, which typically give the patient 30 milliRem of radiation, would be, for every I million person, 0.030x1,000,000 = 30,000 person-Rem, resulting in (3 0,000/1,000,000) x 800 24 of these dying of cancer because of the x-rays. A variety of national and international agencies have adopted this concept and the BEIR risk number, and have promoted the concept of ALARA, As Low As Reasonably Achievable, so as to encourage organizations to keep personnel exposures to a minimum. These organizations include: NCRP National Council on Radiation Protection ICRP = International Commission Rad. Protection. NRC= Nuclear Regulatory Commission EPA = Environmental Protection Agency Occupational doses are limited, by law, to 5 cSv (Rem) per year. However, most organizations have administrative limits that are only a small fraction of this amount. Idaho State University uses 0.1 Rem as an administrative limit. The EPA has established a requirement that decontaminated and restored land must be at a low enough radiation level that no individuals would receive more than 15 mRem per year from that land. Are the LNT and Collective Dose hypotheses reasonable? Consider the analogous case of the over- thecounter medicine, aspirin. A person ingesting 100 aspirin (an acute dose) would probably die, without medical treatment. Therefore the risk factor is one death per 100 person-aspirins. Hence, if 100 people each ingested one aspirin, you would expect one person of those 100 to die. This conclusion is obviously false. Aspirin, like many other medicines, can, kill in large doses, but is beneficial in low doses. This is an effect called hormesis. Such an effect with radiation on humans was first noticed with the survivors of the two nuclear bombs dropped on Japan in the summer of 1945. The survivors have been followed since that time by the United
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National Scientific Commission on the Effects of Ionizing Radiation (UNSCEAR). The data in 1985 appeared as follows [1]: Dr. Sadao Hattori, Vice President and Director of Research at the Central Research Institute for the Electric Power Industry (Japan): The follow up data of people who receive0 radiation from the atomic bomb show us an interesting feature especially in the low dose range. Figs. 1 and 2 show that about 8cGy, is the optimum dose for the suppression of leukemia through the surveys of the people of Hiroshima and Nagasaki exposed to the radiation of the atomic bomb
The trend in this curve continues, now more than 60 years after the Japanese received these exposures. The lower cancer incidence rate at the 10 eGy region (2.5 to 25 cGy) is quite clear. Similar effects are seen from natural radiation, such as is shown in the following data from India:
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In the late 1980s and early 1990s period, various studies were made of large groups of nuclear workers in the USA, Britain, and Canada, with the results shown in the following graphs, in the order as listed. [2],[3],[4]
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This effect of less cancer and lower mortality among workers exposed to radiation is quite convincing. The healthy worker syndrome probably has to be dismissed, because the comparison is between workers in the same organization, those not working in the nuclear environment compared to those who were exposed. The Case of Radon in Homes In 1980, in the Pacific Northwest, it was discovered that tomes that had been tightly sealed from air leakage, because of energy conservation measures, had measurable concentrations of the inert and radioactive gas radon. It had been known for years that radon in uranium mines had created a high incidence of lung cancer in the workers, and coal miners were believed to be similarly affected, though it was difficult to separate the radon effects from coal dust effects. One health physicist in particular, Dr. Bernard Cohen of the University of Pittsburgh, made it a personal campaign to convince the EPA that they should launch an information campaign to have all home owners throughout the country test their homes for radon concentration and to take preventive measures to reduce the in-leakage of radon in the basements (seeping up from the ground, the product of natural uranium decay). EPA was rather successful in carrying out a measurement and mitigation program for radon. The stated action level was 4 pico Curies/liter (148 Bq/cubic meter). In the early 1990s, Dr. Cohen obtained a vast amount of data from the EPA, covering 1600 counties throughout the USA, and obtained actuarial statistics on lung cancer deaths in those counties from the county clerks. The resultant data is shown in the following figure. [5] Instead of the slope of the line being positive, it is actually negative. One can conclude that the EPA program to reduce radon concentrations has actually produced more lung cancer cases!
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For many years, there was considerable concern among women, as well as in the medical profession, that (because of the application of the LNT and Collective Dose hypotheses) breast X-rays might be producing more cancer than they identify for treatment and cure. The medical profession is now in general agreement that such concern is not valid. This conclusion may be due in part to the results of a Canadian study of women who received breast x-rays regularly. The following figure clearly shows a benefit in a lower incidence of breast cancer for women who had received overall x-ray doses in the range of 10 to 30 cOy (Rem).
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Plutonium Plutonium has received a very bad reputation. Not only is it the main substance in most fissile nuclear bombs, but it is the ingredient in the triggers for thermonuclear bombs. Furthermore, because it has chemical characteristics similar to calcium, it seeks the bones in the body, and it has for many decades had the reputation of the most dangerous substance on earth. Hence, the prospects for a healthy life would have been dim for some 26 young US Army machinists who had worked on making the first few bombs at Los Alamos, NM in the 1944 to 1945 period, before precautions were taken to limit the ingestion of plutonium by personnel. A follow-up study was conducted in 1994 to determine the fate of these workers, who, if still alive, would be in their late 60s and early 70s. [6] Of the 26: 19 3 2 1 1 were still alive (expected would have been 10) had died of cancer (4 would have been expected) had died of circulatory disease (7.7 expected) had died of respiratory disease had died in an accident
One can attribute some of this excellent low mortality ratio to a healthy worker syndrome, since all were young Army recruits. However these men had average effective lifetime plutonium doses of 125 Rem, the highest being 720 Rem. Hence, this data alone should be sufficient to remove Pu from the category of the most dangerous substance on earth. Though all of the above studies quite convincingly show a hormesis effect for low to moderate levels of radiation, many in the nuclear and medical communities felt that without a double blind study, one cannot be sure that there arent confounding and unexpected effects producing the observed results. No one ever expected that such a study would be authorized, or that volunteers could be obtained, at any price. Furthermore, the true outcome of the study might not be known for several decades. The Taiwan Co-60 Incident Somewhat unexpectedly, the equivalent of a double blind study was performed, unintentionally in Taipei, Taiwan, from 1983 to the present. In 1982 a number of apartment and public buildings were constructed, unknowingly using steel rebar that contained cobalt-60, a radioactive gamma emitter (1.17 and 1.33 MeV) with a half life of 5.27 years. The presence of the radioactive rebar in these buildings was not discovered until 1992, two half lives after the first occupancy of some 1700 apartments so affected. By then the dose rates were rather low. Over the period of 10+ years, approximately 10,000 individuals had occupied the apartments or attended the kindergarten in these buildings. The mean total exposure for these individuals was 7.4 Rem, with 91 Rem being the highest exposure. The expected deaths from cancer in these last 20 years would have been 232 based on the average cancer death rate in Taiwan. However, only 7 cancer deaths have been observed among these 10,000 individuals (as of 2002). [7] The ICRP model predicted 302 cancer deaths. Genetic malformations were also studied, 46 normally expected, but only 3 were actually observed. The ICRP model predicted 67. However, a subsequent more detailed analysis showed that children had a slight increase in cases of leukemia. [8] The generally acknowledged reason for the hormesis effect is that radiation stimulates the immune system. That being the case, one asks the question of what is the most optimum amount of either acute (onetime) or chronic (over a long period of time) radiation dose to obtain the best of health. The ENGR 190 Page 92
following composite figure shows a estimate of these two effects, and is similar to that proposed by T.D. Luckey in 1996. The area indicated with a D implies a deficiency of radiation, and that with an X extra (or too much) radiation. The optimum for an acute dose is about 5 cSv (Rem), that for annual chronic radiation is about 10 cSv/year.
References: 1. 2. 3. Japanese bomb survivor data: Kondo, S., Health Effects of Low-Level Radiation, Kinki University Press, 1993 U.S. Radiation Workers: Manatoski, GM, Health Effects of Low-Level Radiation in Shipyard Workers, Dept. Of Energy, 1991, Report E 1.99, DOE-ACO2-79EV10095-TI and 2. U.K. Radiation Workers: Kendall, Muirhead, MacGibbon, OHagan, and Conquest, Mortality and occupational radiation exposure, National Registry for Radiation Workers, British Med. J., 304, 220-225, 1992 Canadian Workers: Abbatt, Hamilton, and Weeks, Epidemiological studies in three corporations covering the nuclear fuel cycle, Biological Effects of Low-Level Radiation, IAEA, 1983, pp.351-561 Radon: B.L. Cohen, Test of the Linear-No-Threshold Theory of radiation Carcinogenesis for Inhaled Radon Decay Products, Health Physics, 68, 157-174 (1990) Plutonium Workers Report: Voelz, Lawrence, and Johnson, Fifty Years of Plutonium Exposure to the Manhattan Project Plutonium workers: An Update, Health Physics, Vol 73, #4, October 1997 Taiwan Co-60 Report: W.L. Chen, et al Is Chronic Radiation an Effective Prophylaxis Against Cancer? Journal of Am. Physicians and Surgeons, Vol. 9, #1, Spring 2004 Taiwan Cancer Risks Report, S.L. Hwang et al, Cancer risks in a population with prolonged low dose-rate -radiation, 1983-2002, Int. J. Radiation Biology, 82, #12, Dec. 2006 Jay F. Kunze, September, 2009 ISU Engineering ENGR 190 Page 93
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NUCLEAR AND REACTOR SAFETY AND REGULATIONS The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is responsible for regulating all radioactive sources and nuclear reactors. The main headquarters are in Rockville, MD, Washington, DC 20555. There are four field offices (designated as Regions) - Philadelphia, Atlanta, Chicago, and Arlington, TX. In general, the NRC has regulatory authority over all by-product material, defined as anything radioactive that is produced by a nuclear reactor or an accelerator. However, accelerators themselves are not under the regulatory responsibility of the NRC, but are dealt with by agencies in each state of the union. Some states have signed agreements to be responsible for governing and enforcing NRC regulations in the facilities in their state. Idaho is not an agreement state. There are three main types of licenses issued by the NRC: Broad Scope Materials license to possess and use various by-product materials. Nuclear Reactor construction and operating licenses. Special Nuclear Material (SNM) licenses. Special nuclear material is defined as material that contains fissile isotopes - principally U-235, U-233, and Pu-239.
The NRC is governed by five commissioners, appointed by the President of the USA, and confirmed by the Senate. The current chair of the NRC is Dr. Dale Klein, who holds a PhD in Nuclear Engineering from the University of Missouri (1978). Code of Federal Regulations, Title 10 Title 10 of the Federal Code of Regulations pertains to Energy. Chapter 1 covers the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, and includes Parts 0 to 199. Chapters II, III and X cover the Department of Energy, and Parts 200 to the end. Chapter XV covers the Office of Inspector General for the Alaska Natural Gas Transportation System. Chapter XVII covers the Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board. Idaho State University ISU holds one of each of the above licenses. The Broad Scope Materials License is #11-273380-01, and is administered under the Technical Safety Office, by the Technical Safety Officer/ Radiation Safety Officer, Dr. Richard Brey. Nuclear Reactor License #R-110 - Administered under the College of Engineering, with Dr. Jay F. Kunze as the Reactor Administrator, Dr. Jon Bennion as Reactor Supervisor. Materials License SNM 1373 - Administered under the College of Engineering, through the same chain of command as the Reactor License.
Principal Nuclear Reactor Documentation The basic documents that governing operation of a reactor, such as the AGN-201 at ISU, are: Safety Analysis Report Page 94
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Technical Specifications Technical Operating Limits, specifying various limiting conditions for operation
Currently, the NRC has streamlined the licensing for new power plants, as follows: First requiring a Site Permit Application and Environmental Report (ER), from which the NRC writes an Environmental Impact Report (EIS), which is subject to public review. After the site is approved, the company will complete design a Safety Analysis Report and license application, from which the NRC will eventually issue a combined Construction and Operating License (COL). The total time to file and obtain approval for these two basic licenses is nominally the order of four years. The applicant will probably spend two to four years preparing each of these documents in advance of filing them with the NRC. Then there will be a number of Requests for Additional Information (RAI) from the NRC.
ECONOMICS OF NUCLEAR ELECTRICITY Nuclear power plants are capital intensive, meaning that the major cost of generating electricity from a nuclear power plant is in the capital cost of the plant. This cost is usually figured by amortizing it over a period of years, at a characteristic interest rate. Such a method is a convenience for estimating purposes. Financing of power plants is done in a variety of ways, some portions being funded by investor capital (i.e. common stocks, which usually expect a return on investment of 10% or more per year), some by venture capital (these investors expect much higher returns), and some by conventional borrowing from banks (typical interest rates are in the 6% range in 2007). Current costs for new nuclear plants are in the $2000 per kW range. Such quotes are considered overnight costs, i.e. do not include interest during construction. The most recent costs quoted in a private communication for the newly completed Japanese plants are in the $2200 per kW range. At $2000 per kW, a 1600 MW electric plants will cost $3.2 billion. Amortized over a 30 year period at 7% results in an annual amortization cost of $258 millon per year. Operating costs include the costs of personnel, overhead, and fuel. A typical plant will have 800 employees, at an average cost of $100,000 per year, including benefits, FICA, etc. Thus, the employee cost is in the neighborhood of $80 million per year. Additional overhead costs will be in the range of $20 million per year. Repair and maintenance costs will probably be in the range of $20 million per year of the 3 year period, this includes a sinking fund for major repairs, such as steam generator replacement. Labor and non-fuel costs during refueling operations, occurring once every 18 months, will cost ~$10 million on an annual basis. Adding all of these fixed costs together gives $388 million per year.
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It is important that these costs be used efficiently, by getting as high a capacity factor as from the plant. During the last several years, USA plants have been averaging 90% factor. Thus, these costs amount to: $388E6 0.90 1,600,000 kW 8760 hours/year = 3.1 cents/kWh
The remaining cost is that of fuel. For a PWR, a typical fuel assembly will cost in the range of nearly $1 million. Using $900,000 for a 450 kg (heavy metal) assembly, and assuming that it can be run at a burnup of 52,000 MWD (thermal) (MegaWatt Days) per metric ton of heavy metal (~18,000 MWD electric), the fuel cost will then be: $900,000/0.45 Metric Tons [18,000 MWD/Metric Ton] 24 hrs/day = $4.60 per MWh = 0.46 cents/kWh (plus an additional 0.1 cents/kWh tax)
Total cost for the electricity generated is the fixed costs + fuel costs = 3.7 cents/kWh.
SUMMARY OF SERIOUS NUCLEAR CRIT1CALITY ACCIDENTS

Or Nuclear Reactor Operation Accidents.
USA: 1. 2. 3. Los Alamos, Aug 21,1945 Hand stacking of tungsten carbide reflector around a pseudo spherical (6.3 kg) Pu core. One fatality 1E16 fissions Los Alamos, May 21, 1946 Hand stacking of Be reflector around a pseudo spherical (63 kg) Pu core. One fatality 6E16 fissions Idaho Test Station, July 22, 1954 BORAX reactor was put on a planned transient test, which was a worse transient than had been calculated. The core was destroyed. 135 MJ of energy released, equivalent to about 70 pounds of high explosive. Remote operation. No one hurt or over exposed 4.7E18 fissions EBR-1, National Reactor Test Station, Idaho, Nov 11, 1955 Delayed scram (human caused) on planned transient. Extensive core melting. No injuries 4E17 fissions Los Alamos National Lab, Feb 12, 1957 Unreflected 54 kg sphere of U-235 shifted position. Severe damage to assembly No injuries l.2E17 fissions Y-12 Chemical Processing Plant, Oak Ridge. June 16, 1958 Wash water added to U-235 solution. Several exposed. Largest dose 461 Rem No fatalities 1E18 fissions Test Area North, National Reactor Testing Station, Idaho, Nov 11, 1958 Nichrome clad fuel, aircraft nuclear propulsion core with attached jet engine. Put on automatic control, but the temperature scram thermocouple was not at the hottest spot in the core for flow conditions. Fuel melted. Fission products distributed over nearby sage brush and some farms. No injuries 25E19 fissions Los Alamos, Plutonium Recovery, Dec 20, 1958 Stirrer changed geometry to super critical. One fatality 1.5E17 fissions.
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11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
Idaho Chemical Processing Plant, Oct 10, 1959 Solution inadvertently siphoned. No injuries 4E1 9 fissions SL-1 Reactor, National Reactor Testing Station, Idaho, Jan 3,1961 Control rod pulled up 27 inches, possibly inadvertently, possibly deliberately. Reactor went supercritical. Destroyed the reactor. Three fatalities 4.4E18 fissions Idaho Chemical Processing Plant, Jan 25, 1961 Solution moved to non-safe geometry. No injuries 4E1 9 fissions National Reactor Testing Station, Nov 5, 1962 SPERT Reactor. Transient worse than predicted. Extensive damage. No injuries 1E18 fissions Lawrence Livermore National Lab, Mar 26, 1963 Split table assembly, hung up on being closed. Extensive damage No injuries 3.7E17 fissions Wood River Junction, RI, July24, 1964 Solution moved to non-safe geometry. One fatality 6E17 fissions Aberdeen Proving Grounds, MD, Sept 6, 1968 Incorrect operation cylindrical assembly. Gross damage No injuries 6.1E17 fissions Idaho Chemical Processing Plant, October 17, 1978 U-235 stripped from a solvent by a nonspecified aqueous stream No injuries 3E18 fissions Three Mile Island II, near Harrisburg, PA, March 26, 1979 PWR reactor lost pressure, coolant boiled, core melted. Very minor exposures. No injuries. Destroyed reactor worth $2 billion.
Submarines The USA has lost two submarines: The Thresher in April 1963, and the Scorpion in May 1968. The causes are uncertain or unknown. However, all causes are believed to be the ultimate result of the structure being crushed. No radioactivity escaped. RUSSIAN (USSR): First major accident was at Mayak in 1953. Two major personnel exposures. Eighteen other major accidents through to June 1997, with 13 significant or serious exposures. All these were non-military activities. Nuclear submarine accidents have been several, including at least two lost submarines, and one prompt criticality while refueling. A number of fatalities occurred in these accidents. Chernobyl, April 28, 1986 Reactor went supercritical and blew the top off the reactor. One killed instantly. 31 fireman suffered gross exposures fighting the fire, and died soon after. Perhaps two dozen children deaths occurred from thyroid cancer, the result of drinking milk that came from cows who had ingested radioactive iodine. OTHER NATIONS: 1. Chalk River, Ontario, Canada, Dec 12, 1952 Heavy water moderated, light water cooled. Positive void coefficient. Extensive damage to core and support. No injuries 1.2E20 fissions Windscale, Great Britain 1957 Annealing neutron damage to graphite moderator, by running it at high temperatures. Thermocouple monitoring the temperature was not at the core hot spot
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under flowing conditions. Part of core melted, and fission products were dispersed on the nearby farmland. Milk production was bought up by government for a number of months. No injuries Vinca, Yugoslavia, Oct 15, 1958 Fuel rods in heavy water. Faulty power monitoring. No serious damage, but 5 received extensive exposures, one nearly immediate fatality. All were flown to Paris for bone marrow transplants. Mol, Belgium, Dec 20, 1965 Heavy water system. Misoperation, and not draining tank. No damage but one severe exposure. 4E17 fissions Buenos Aires, Argentina, Sept. 23, 1983 Failure to drain tank One fatality 4E17 fissions Tokaimura, Japan, Sept 30, 1999 Uncontrolled chain reaction in a Uranium processing nuclear fuel plant, spewed high levels of radioactive liquid (and gas) into the air. Two nearby workers were killed and another was seriously injured. Earthquake beneath the Kashiwazaki, Japan power plants, July 17, 2007 Despite the earthquake magnitude being nearly twice as intense as the design earthquake for the plant, no significant damage has been observed to any of the seven nuclear power plants. The spent fuel storage pool in one of the plants experienced wave action, which resulted in some of the slightly contaminated water overflowing onto worker walkways. The press reports have been much exaggerated about damage. There apparently were some fires at substations when electrical lines touched each other.
NOTABLE RADIATION ACCIDENTS NOT INVOLVING REACTORS 1. (1970 period) Mexico A lost Co-60 radiation source from a well logging truck was taken home by the boy who found it. It was placed in the kitchen cabinets, and a month or so later many of the family (except the father who was out of the home much of the day) developed radiation sickness. Some died. 1982, Taipei, Taiwan, (Republic of China) A number of new apartment buildings and a school were constructed using re-bar that was radioactive with Co-60. The radioactivity was not discovered until 1992. Despite exposures as high as 91 rads of those 10 years, the only indication of excess cancers was for leukemia, mostly in younger children, and numbered only in the range of 10, out of total population of nearly 10,000. However, deaths from cancer were remarkably lower than normal for Japan, with ~230 deaths to have been expected from cancer over the subsequent 20 year period, but only 7 were known to have died of cancer. Sept 18, 1987, Golania, Brazil 244 people were contaminated with Cs-137 from a cancertherapy machine that had been sold for steel scrap. Four died. Note, Cs-137 has 30 year half life. In the early 1990 period, at cancer therapy accelerators, two in Oklahoma and one in Washington State. AECL machines, developed a flaw whereby the patients were to have been exposed to gamma rays from electrons on a tungsten target, were instead exposed directly to the electrons. The three patients died. About 1992, at a cancer therapy clinic at Indiana, PA (near Pittsburgh) A female patient undergoing high dose radiation therapy from a strong source was injected through a catheter into her vagina for a short period for vaginal cancer therapy. When the source was removed (all done remotely), the lead wire on the source capsule broke, and the source was inadvertently left in the patient for more than a day. The sources injector device had indicated that the source was safely Page 98
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stored in the device. The trash collection company found the source in the trash a day later. The patient died from a massive overdose, and several nurses and the other patient in the hospital room were exposed to high doses of radiation. Other (non-nuclear) Power Plant Accidents Numerous accidents at fossil power plants occur each year; and-receive little attention in the press. When these occur at nuclear plants, even if involving no part of the nuclear portion of the plant, the accidents receive high publicity. Two examples are steam line explosions (usually at an elbow, where the steam has eroded part of the pipe) in the secondary systems of PWR plants. One of these occurred at a Surrey plant in Virginia, killing 4 (about 1990) and at Mihama, Japan on August 9, 2004, also killing four and severely burning seven others. Near the same period of the Surrey accident, a similar accident happened at a coal-fired plant in Wyoming killing three. Note: In all of these cases, it was unfortunate and coincidental that workers or others happened to be standing near the elbow in the steam pipe that broke. Chemical Accidents There have been many. Notable for environmental disasters were: Donora, PA on October 30 and 31, An inversion trapped pollutants from the steel industry in this small town 20 miles south of Pittsburgh. 19 people died suddenly from the air pollution (all of whom were over 50 and had a history of respiratory problems). Hundreds of others were made sick. Note: Donora is the home town of Stan Musial and Ken Griffeys (senior and.junior). Bhopal, India, December 3, 1984 Toxic gas (methyl isocyanate) seeped from a Union Carbide insecticide plant, killing more than 2,000 and injuring about 150,000. London, England Over many years in the late 9th century and early 20th century, London has had the reputation of horrible periods of air pollution during weather inversions. Many deaths were no doubt the result of such. Similarly, open hearth steel producing industrial cities in the USA such as Pittsburgh, PA and Birmingham, AL have had similar reputations. However, as the result of the Clean Air Act of 1970, and efforts initiated by the cities themselves, most severe air pollution from industry has been essentially eliminated in the USA. Mining Accidents During much of the first half of the 20th century, coal mining accident in the USA resulted in several hundred fatalities per year. By 1970, the accidental deaths had been reduced to the range of 70 per year. Over the last 10 years mining accidents have resulted in deaths of less than 10 per year (on average). In China, the death rate for coal mining accidents has recently been in the range of 5,000 to 7,000 per year.
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LESSONS LEARNED (O1) Unfavorable geometry vessels should be avoided in areas where high concentration solutions might be present. (O2) Important instructions, information and procedural changes should always be in writing. (O3) The processes should be familiar and well understood so that abnormal conditions can be recognized. (O4) Criticality Control should be part of an integrated program that includes tissue material accountabi1ity (O5) Operations personnel should know how to respond to foreseeable equipment malfunctions or their own errors. (O6) Operations personnel should be trained in the importance of not taking unapproved actions after an initial evacuation. (O7) Readouts of radiation levels in areas where accidents may occur should be considered. (O8) Operations involving both organic and aqueous solutions require extra diligence in understanding possible upset conditions if mixing of the phases is credible. (O9) Operations personnel should he made aware of criticality hazards and be empowered to implement a stop work policy. (O10) Operating personnel should be trained to understand the basis for and adhere to the requirement for always following procedures. (O11) Hardware that is important to criticality control but whose failure or malfunction would not necessarily be apparent to operations personnel should be used with caution. (O12) Criticality alarms and adherence to emergency procedures have saved lives and reduced exposures. (M I) Process supervisors should ensure that the operators under their supervision are knowledgeable and capable. (M2) Equipment should be designed/configured with ease of operation as a key goal. (M3) Policies and regulations should encourage self-reporting of process upsets and to err on the side of learning more, not punishing more. (M4) Senior management should be aware of the hazard of accidental criticality and its consequences. (M5) Regulations should exist which promote safe and efficient operations. (M6) Regulators, like process supervisors, should ensure that those they regulate arc knowledgeable and capable.
FROM MINE TO FUEL ASSEMBLY Mining of Uranium Uranium is found in a wide variety of ores, in various chemical forms, usually with valence of +4 of +6. After some refining, the most common form of uranium is as U3O8, often referred to as yellow cake (two valence 6 and one valence 4). Uranium prices have fluctuated significantly over the last several years, most recently averaging about $20 per pound of U3O8 ($23.60 per pound of Uranium). The spot price ENGR 190 Page 101
market peaked at nearly $90 per pound early in 2007, with the average spot price over the last year being in the $40 per pound range. The yellow cake is put through a refining and chemical conversion process to produce UF6 (uranium hexafluoride) gas, which sublimates from a solid to a gas at 53C (127F) at one atmosphere pressure. The hexafluoride forms the feed for both the gaseous diffusion or the gas centrifuge enrichment processes. Cost of the conversion process is in the range of $10 per kg. Enriching the Uranium to Higher Content of U-235 Enriching the uranium to a higher fraction of U-235 was initially done by electromagnetic separation (equivalent to a mass spectrograph device), which was a very expensive method of enriching the product, very energy intensive (electricity). The most common method that has been used by the USA, Russia, and United Kingdom over the last 50 years has been the gaseous diffusion process. In this, the gas is forced (by pumps) through a ceramic membrane. The U-235 hexafluoride migrates slightly faster than does the U-238 (a factor of 1.0043 ideally at best). Thus it takes many stages of 1.0043 separation factor to reach the enrichment of 4.5% typical of modern PWR plants. It takes thousands of stages to reach the enrichment needed to make a nuclear weapon (nominally 93% or more U-235). At one time the USA has three gaseous diffusion enrichment plants, at Oak Ridge, TN, Portsmouth, OH, and Paducah, KY. All but the latter has been closed down and decommissioned. The European Union, with the consortium known as URENCO, built a number of gaseous centrifuge enrichment plant in the 1970s, in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. This technology is much more efficient and uses considerably less energy than the gaseous diffusion process. Two centrifuge facilities are in the process of being built in the USA: 1. Louisiana Energy Services plant in Lea, NM 2. US Enrichment Corp (USEC) pilot plant at Piketon, OH with the full scale plant to be built at the existing Portsmouth, OH site of the shut down diffusion plant. 3. A third plant is scheduled for construction near Idaho Falls, by the AREVA Corp. The cost of enrichment is calculated in terms of separative work units (SWU). The number of SWU units needed to enrich to a certain level depends on the waste product that is permitted. This is termed the tails assay. Typically this waste product is run at 0.2% U-235. With this tails assay, the requirements for enrichment are as follows: For 3% U-235, one kg of product requires 5.5 kg of feed and 4.09 SWU For 4.5 % U-235, on kg or product requires 8.4 kg of feed and 7.7 SWU The current cost of a SWU unit is in the range of $140. These are all based on number of SWU per kg of product.
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Manufacturing of the Fuel Assembly After leaving the enrichment plant, the hexafluoride is converted to uranium dioxide (UO2), and sent to the fuel manufacturing plant. There the small fuel pellets are manufactured (approximately 0.3 inches in diameter, about 0.5 inches long), and sintered to give them some integrity. These are loaded into long thin zirconium alloy tubes which are then assembled into a fuel assembly. The typical PWR fuel assembly consists of a 17 by 17 square array of rods, 264 of which contain uranium, the other 25 either control rods or dummy rods of stainless steel. The total cost of a typical fuel assembly that contains about 450 kg (about 1000 pounds) of uranium (in the form of the oxide) costs about $900,000 to $1 million. To obtain the 450 kg of 4.5% U-235 fuel required 3780 kg of natural uranium feed material (about $76,000) and utilized 3465 SWU (about $485,000). The conversion to the hexafluoride and back to the oxide probably accounted for $43,000. The manufacture of the assembly from the enriched oxide costs in the range of $400,000. In addition there are shipping costs.
Laser Excitation of UF6 is another method for separation of isotopes that uses much less energy than even the centrifuge method (which is 10 times more energy efficient than the gaseous diffusion method). General Electric-Hitachi is building a laser enrichment plant for uranium at its nuclear headquarters in North Carolina. Note: ISU achieved some success in a similar method applied to separation. of medical isotopes.
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Schematic of a Gaseous Centrifuge device. UF6 gas is injected into the rapidly rotating cylinder. The U238 component tends to go to the outside of the cylinder, and the U-235 component accumulates near the inside. A thermal convective flow is set up so that the one component can be extracted at the bottom, the other at the top. The Closing of the Fuel Cycle Currently, a typical 1200 MW electric (3550 MW thermal) light water reactor discharges about 22 tons of used/waste fuel assemblies each year, or about 2200 tons per year for the 104 plants operating in the USA. This fuel is destined for the Yucca Mountain Long Term High Level Waste Repository, where it is planned to store these assemblies until the nation is ready to reprocess and recycle this fuel. The authorized capacity is Yucca Mtn. is 70,000 tons. When the fuel is discharged from a nuclear power plant and destined to go to high level waste, less than 7% of the uranium in the fuel has been consumed. Note that even though the fuel only started with 4.5% U-235, during the time that the fuel is in the operating reactor, for each U-235 atom destroyed, approximately 0.6 Pu-239 atoms are created from the U-238. Thus, the final burn-up far exceeds the 4.5% initial fissile inventory. However, 93% of the uranium remains, representing 93% of the available nuclear energy originally in that fuel assembly.
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Furthermore, 7.4 kg of 0.2% U-235 tails assay is discharged from the enrichment plant for every 1 kg of fuel produced. There is currently about 900,000 tons of this depleted uranium in storage in large tanks at the sites of the once three gaseous diffusion plants in the USA. All of this could be used in a fast breeder reactor, to produce plutonium that could then fuel the light water reactors. The net effect of these two waste streams (the depleted uranium from the enrichment process and the unused uranium in the discarded fuel assemblies) is that less than 1% of the uranium that was mined has actually been fissioned. The remaining unused 99% is a terrible waste, and nations of the world are moving towards utilizing at least some of this waste. The world program is known as GNEP (Global Nuclear Enterprise Partnership) and involves developing an array of fast breeder reactors to work in parallel with light water reactors. The program to recycle the fuel in the USA has been designated the Advanced Fuel Cycle Initiative (AFCI). However, there is, at present, little economic pressure for the USA or the world to develop the closed fuel cycle instead of merely discharging the fuel after one use in the light water reactors. The reason is that at 0.5 to 0.6 cents per kWh cost of the fuel that goes into the reactor, the plant operators have little incentive to contribute towards research and development to close the fuel cycle. Note: from the above cost figures, the cost of the uranium in the fuel assembly is rather trivial, only about 8% of the total cost of the fuel assembly (i.e. less than 0.05 cents per kWh).
The above figure shows part of the vast array of depleted uranium stored at Oak Ridge, TN, site of one of the once three gaseous diffusion plants in the USA. The nuclear energy contained in the first row of cylinders is roughly the equivalent of the present oil reserves of Saudi Arabia.
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US DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY LABORATORIES
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Energy and Nuclear Power

ENGR 190 Idaho State University College of Engineering Fall 2010

Supplemental Text and Notes

USEFUL REFERENCES ON THE INTERNET

Normal Distribution Curve

Nu Xi Omicron Pi Rho Sigma Tau Upsilon Phi Chi Psi Omega

BASIC NUMBERS FOR NUCLEAR ENGINEERS

3.7x1010 disintegrations/sec = 1 Curie

1 Rad = 1 cGy 1 Rem = 1 cSv

ELECTRICITY AND NATURAL GAS RATES

Coal Natural Gas* Petroleum

ENERGY DATA FOR THE USA 2009 ENERGY REVIEW

Figure 1.0 Energy Flow, 2009

U.S. Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Review 2009

Figure 2.0 Primary Energy Flow by Source and Sector, 2009

Percent of Source Percent of Sector 94 3 72 22

Natural Gas2 23.4

Residential & Commercial6 10.6

Electric Power7 38.3

Nuclear Electric Power 8.3

Table 1.1 Primary Energy Overview, Selected Years, 1949-2009

Nuclear Electric Power

Stock Change and Other 7

Table 1.2 Primary Energy Production by Source, Selected Years, 1949-2009

U.S. Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Review 2009

Table 1.3 Primary Energy Consumption by Source, Selected Years, 1949-2009

U.S. Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Review 2009

Figure 5.0. Petroleum Flow, 2009

(Million Barrels per Day)

U.S. Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Review 2009

Table 5.9 Refinery Capacity and Utilization, Selected Years, 1949-2009

U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico

Total Net Imports

Electricity Flow, 2009 (Quadrillion Btu)

Table 8.1 Electricity Overview, Selected Years, 1949-2009

Net Generation Exports Net Imports

Electric Power Sector 2

T & D Losses 5 and Unaccounted for 6

(Sum of Tables 8.2b and 8.2d; Billion Kilowatthours)

Hydroelectric Pumped Storage 5

U.S. Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Review 2009

(Breakout of Table 8.2b; Billion Kilowatthours)

Hydroelectric Pumped Storage 5

U.S. Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Review 2009

(Sum of Tables 8.4b and 8.4c; Trillion Btu)

U.S. Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Review 2009

Natural Gas Flow, 2009

(Trillion Cubic Feet)

Coal Flow, 2009

(Million Short Tons)

Table 9.2 Nuclear Power Plant Operations, 1957-2009

Nuclear Electricity Net Generation

U.S. Energy Information Administration / Annual Energy Review 2009

HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC STUDIES LEADING TO NUCLEAR POWER

THE EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS

Maximum Overpressure (psi) Maximum Wind Speed (mph)

Surface Burst 46 150

Air Burst 74 230

WORLD LIST OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Notes on the 20 I 0 World List of Nuclear Power Plants

Tihange (Huy, Liege) [2985]'

- ....I.:rnmj:mm,[jU'4im,Jlt~UIlUI 'S'A: Unit 1 1000 PWR

- Units in commercial operation

Capacity Orange: Forthcoming Capacity