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HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 1 THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

I. INTRODUCTION This is not a title of a chapter. It is actually a paragraph sidehead, which begins Chapter 1. Statement in this chapter should not only signify the importance of the topic but should also cause an impact on the reader. GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE INTRODUCTION: It may be composed of three paragraphs enabling the readers to see at a glance the entire contents of the research work. 1.The intention of the first paragraph is to provide the readers a mental warm-up, thus giving them information and readiness as to what the research is all about. It should introduce the study and justify the problem. 2.The second paragraph carries the bulk of the introduction. The statement of the problem can best be used as frame of reference to write this paragraph. It is simply telling the readers the scope and coverage of the study. This will help revolve around mentioning the purpose of the study, which is to determine the existing or not existing between the independent and dependent variables. 3.The third or last paragraph is a sort of closing portion that is intriguing and challenging the readers to become interested in knowing the results of the study. It is one or two sentences to link between the introduction and the statement of the problem. 4.This part is a 2-3-page discussion. II. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM This is one of the most important parts of a research report. This is the focus of the study and all questions should be categorically answered. GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM: 1.The problem should be stated both in general and in specific terms. The general statement of the problem is usually a reiteration of the title of the study. 2.The problem is always in an interrogatory form; hence, it must ask a question. Sub-problems must follow the main problem, which are the key points for investigations in the research. 3.The problem should be stated in the infinitive to (action words in research) such as examine, analyze, determine, measure, assess, evaluate, recommend, find out, among others; setting 4-5 research objectives is ideal for a research problem. 4.Specific questions should be stated using the following guide question words: How, Will, What, Is there Example: This study was conducted to investigate all aspects of the Teaching of Science in the High Schools of the Province of Abra during the SchoolYear 2002-2003 as perceived by the Science Teachers. Specifically, the study attempted to answer the following questions: 1.How do the respondents profile be described in terms of: 1.1 educational qualifications 1.2 field of specialization 1.3 kind of examination taken 1.4 number of years in teaching science

1.5 in-service trainings/programs attended 1.6 reading materials frequently read and subscribed to, and 1.7 membership in related organizations / associations 2 How effective are the methods and strategies used by the respondents in teaching science? 3 How adequate are the instructional and noninstructional facilities for the teaching of science? 4 How adequate are the forms of supervisory assistance extended to the respondents relative to the teaching of science? 5 What problems are being encountered by the respondents? 6 What suggestions are offered by the respondents to improve the teaching of science? III. ASSUMPTIONS It is a statement related to the problem, which is presumed to be true on the basis of observation or experience. It is used to provide general direction to the study and does not require confirmation or discussion in the thesis or dissertation nor statistical computation. GUIDELINES IN WRITING AND ASSUMPTION (by Sugden and Manuel): USE OF

1.Assumptions are oftentimes not explicitly expressed but left implicit, i.e., they are unwritten. 2.Avoid assuming the value of the study, reliability of the instruments and the population of the study. Example 1: SPECIFIC PROBLEM: How qualified are the teachers handling science? IMPLICIT (UNWRITTEN ASSUMPTION): There are certain qualifications that one should possess before he can teach science. Example 2: SPECIFIC PROBLEM: How adequate are the facilities that a school should possess before it can offer science as a subject? IMPLICIT (UNWRITTEN ASSUMPTION): There are certain required facilities that a school should acquire before it can offer science as a subject. IV. HYPOTHESIS This is understood as: - a statement of what one expects to find; - a statement to be proven; - an initial answer to the research questions; - a common sense statement; - an expected relationship between variables; - an explanation of the phenomena; - a statement of patterns of behavior. In a research that strives to explain and predict, the hypothesis states an expected pattern, a relationship and a cause. THE HYPOTHESIS MAY HAVE THE FOLLOWING FORMAT: There is a pattern in the observed phenomena; There is a relationship between variables, where a change in one (independent variable) causes a change in the other variable (dependent variable). There is a cause and effect relationship between the variable. There is an association between the variables. A relationship exists between two variables but it is not in the sense that one is the cause and the other is the effect. We will use variables in stating the hypothesis. When we want to find the cause-and-effect or other forms of

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relationship between two variables, two mutually exclusive hypothesis are formulated: (1) null hypothesis, and (2) alternative hypothesis. FORMS OF HYPOTHESIS: 1.NULL HYPOTHESIS. This says there is no difference, meaning the independent variable does not affect the dependent variable. If data reject the null hypothesis, then the alternative hypothesis should be true. 2.ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS. This says there is a difference, meaning, that the independent variable affects the dependent variable. The alternative hypothesis serves as the real concern of the research. It is a definite statement of the relationship between variables. This is what the research hopes to determine. WAYS OF STATING THE ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS 1.NON-DIRECTIONAL FORM. A difference exists between the related variables (without expressing the direction of the relationship). It does not tell us if the relationship is direct or inverse. 2.DIRECTIONAL FORM. This states very explicitly that the relationship is direct or inverse. GUIDELINES IN THE FORMULATION OF EXPLICIT HYPOTHESIS: 1.In experimental investigation, hypotheses have to be explicit; they have to be expressed in comparative and correlational studies. 2.Hypotheses are usually stated in the null form because testing a null hypothesis is easier than a hypothesis in the operational/alternative form. 3.Hypotheses are formulated from the specific questions upon which they are based. Example: QUESTION: Is there any significant difference between the effectiveness of the inductive method and the deductive method in the teaching of science? OPERATIONAL HYPOTHESIS: There is a significant difference between the effectiveness of the inductive and the deductive method in the teaching of science. NULL HYPOTHESIS: there is no significant difference between the effectiveness of the inductive and the deductive method in the teaching of science. V. IMPORTANCE OR SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY In this section, the researcher expresses the value or importance of the research study. It is where the significant contributions of the results of the study are enumerated. Such contributions may be viewed from the point of the target beneficiaries like the researcher himself, service providers, client, society, administrators, planners, decision-makers, implementors, the community, the educational institutions, legislatures and practitioners. It may also be viewed on their contributions to the accumulation of knowledge, solving a problem, which improves certain refinement of concepts and theories, improvement of research instruments and methods and meeting priorities of institutions. GUIDELINES IN WRITING IMPORTANCE OR SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY. 1. The rationale, timeliness and relevance of the study to existing conditions must be explained. 2. Possible solutions to existing problems or improvements to unsatisfactory conditions. 3. It must be shown who are the individuals, groups, or communities who may be placed in amore advantageous position on account of the study.

4. Possible contribution to be a fount of knowledge. 5. It should discuss the implications, including the possible causes of problems discovered, the positive effects of the problems and the remedial measures to solve the problems. Implications must include the good points of a system, which ought to be continued or to be improved. The use of the following phrases could help express the importance of the study: The results of this study could help them realize . . . The useful and relevant information acquired from the study will encourage them to continue . . . The study will encourage them to . . . This study will enhance involvement in the . . . Results could help benefit . . . It will also serve as basis in the study of . . . This study will also afford the management to know .. Similar organizations will benefit from the study in Researches may find the study useful as This study will contribute to The results hopefully, will be of value to Through this study, students will become aware of The results of this study will provide some insights and information on how they The findings may also serve as a guide to VI. SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The SCOPE identifies the boundaries or coverage of the study in terms of subjects, objectives, facilities, area, time frame, and the issues to which the research is focused. The DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY defines the constraints or weaknesses, which are not within the control of the researcher, therefore, they are not to be expected to be covered by the study. The use of the following phrases could help express the SCOPE of this portion:

The study will focus on The coverage of this study . . . The study covers the The study focuses on It includes It is concerned with .. The study consists of
The DELIMITATIONS could be expressed using the following phrases:

This study is limited to The study does not cover . The investigator limited this research to It does not seek to include
VII. DEFINITION OF TERMS This section of research includes important or key terms that should be substantially and clearly defined according how they are used in the study in order to facilitate understanding of the problem and avoid ambiguous meaning to terms, which can be otherwise interpreted in different ways. Definitions of terms may be of two categories: (1) OPERATIONAL DEFINITION expresses the meaning of the terms as used in a particular field of study. (2) CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION usually taken from the dictionary. It carries a universal meaning easily understood by people. The common practice in dealing with this part of the research is to state first the conceptual, then, the operational definitions, although using one of them is already acceptable.

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The terms defined should be arranged in alphabetical order and acronyms should always be spelled out fully, especially if it is not commonly known or if used for the first time. GUIDELINES IN WRITING DEFINITION OF TERMS 1. Define those terms, which though may be common, may have a special meaning or differently used. 2. Define special terms or languages created by some disciplines. This applies as well to terms familiar in one discipline and borrowed or transformed by another discipline. 3. Define only what is absolutely necessary and do so precisely by using an authoritative document. 4. If you cannot find an authoritative definition, find one or two such definitions; cite them and try to create your own definitions as used in research; 5. Complicated and lengthy definitions like those required in mathematics or science, should be placed in an appendix. ALTERNATIVE WAYS OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF GENERATING

Related Readings, Literature and studies must directly bear or relate to the present study. In research writing, review of related Literature is divided into three parts. These are (1) Related Readings and Literature, (2) Related Studies and (3) Relevance or Justification of the Reviewed Literature and Studies. I. RELATED READINGS The major sources of related readings are laws and department directives such as circulars, orders and memoranda, which are related to the present study. These laws and department directives serve as legal bases for the paradigm of the study. This also presents as having direct or indirect implications to the government thrusts in presenting the related readings, the researcher has to arrange related readings chronologically either from the past readings to most readings recent readings or vice versa. Example: TOPIC: The Study on the Correlation of National Secondary Achievement Test (NSAT) Percentile Rank and Achievement of Bachelor of Science in Accountancy (BSA) First Year College Students of Selected Urban Colleges and Universities in the National Capital Region (NCR). SAMPLE RELATED READING: Presidential Decree about the National Secondary Assessment Test, which maintains the highest quality of education for the purpose of national development. II. RELATED LITERATURE LITERATURE may be defined as written works collected, especially those with enduring importance, exhibiting creative imagination and artists skill, which are written in a particular period, language and subject. In other words, any written matter such as book, journal, magazine, novel, poetry, yearbook and encyclopedia are considered as literature. The elements of good writing style of literature review adhere to the basic rules of clarity or organization, content and grammar in order to present the report in an acceptable format. Clear writing is smooth in terms of presentation of topics and even in the use of language and syntax. Presentation of ideas must be in orderly progression, continuity and smoothness. It identifies relationships between the ideas and use of transitions to maintain the flow of thought in the literature for review. Most literature reviews should use a standard formula for verb tense. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) advocates using the PAST TENSE and the PERFECT TENSE for literature reviews. The PAST TENSE should be used to describe the procedure of a study that has already been conducted and to describe the results of a completed study. The PRESENT TENSE is used to discuss the meanings and implications of the results of the study and to present conclusions. Using this standard formula helps to ensure smooth reading. GUIDELINES ON THE EFFECTIVE WRITING OF THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE: 1.Research Papers must be written in a formal style, which is IN THE THIRD PERSON, NOT IN THE FIRST PERSON. 2.Avoid highly descriptive writing style, which is not appropriate for a scholarly research. 3.Use the active voice for direct impact and easy understanding. 4.Avoid the use of jargon; use familiar terms in place of terminologies. 5.Language should be neutral gender, no sexy language like his.

TYPE A in terms of operations, which must be performed to cause the phenomenon or state of being defined to occur. It is the statement of what preconditions the experimenter creates or looks for to indicate a certain phenomenon or state exists. TYPE B includes how a particular object or term operates, that is, what it does or what constitutes its dynamic properties. TYPE C can be constructed in terms of what the object or phenomenon looks like. That is, what constitutes its static properties (qualities, traits or characteristics of people and things). Example: OPERATIONAL DEFINITION of a TABLE SALT TYPE A The result of the chemical combinations of water and chlorine. TYPE B A water soluble substance that conducts electricity. TYPE C A substance having cubical crystals.

HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

The Review of Related Literature and Studies is one of the components of a research process. IMPORTANCE OF CHAPTER 2 IN A RESEARCH: (1) A researcher needs to review the write-ups, readings and studies related to the present study in order to determine the similarities and differences of the findings between the past and the present studies. (2) It also aims to gain insight into the aspects of the problem that are critical and controversial. Likewise, this chapter provides the investigator a background regarding the aspects, which have been studied and not yet studied. (3) It also assists the researcher on what to do with the components of the research process; this also gives the idea to proceed with the study until its completion. Furthermore, the researcher should have the ability to compare between what should be read and included in the study and what should not be read. The investigator is required to read all literature and studies partially and closely related to the study.

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6.Make the conclusions and contradictions found in the literature clear in the report. 7.Use short sentences; avoid elongated and run-on expressions. 8.Use proper grammar and proofread the work. 9.NEVER PLAGIARIZE; give credit to the original author of the ideas. 10. Pay attention to the structure and form of published articles, which are good examples of how literature reviews can be written. Sample 1: Peters (1993) claims that job-related stress can enhance productivity up to a certain point. There is, however, a threshold point beyond which stress becomes a harmful factor in ones productivity. On the other hand, Saunders (1999) averred that, in his experience as a clinical psychologist, stresses always produce a negative effect on ones productivity. Sample 2: The ideas of using the sample mean as a measure of central tendency has a long-standing history. It is almost automatic tendency and reaction of the people confronted with a mass of data to add the set of numbers and divide the total by the number of observations. Gauss (1989), however, demonstrated that the sample mean indeed satisfies an optimality criterion when the original observations are normally distributed. III. RELATED STUDIES Related Studies in contrast to related literature are works based on empirical data. In reviewing related studies, one must be careful to the (1) problem, (2) methodology, (3) instruments used, (4) findings, and (5) conclusions. The researcher reviews such studies by commenting on the research design used. Given the problem statement, is the design appropriate to answer the problem posed? He proceeds to comment on the plausibility and scope of applicability of the findings given in the information on the research design and instruments used by the researcher. At the end of the researchers review, he explains how the study being reviewed relates to the present study and identifies similarities and differences with the present study. 1. The researchers motivation for conducting the study (this is usually found in the introduction). 2. The statement of the problem. 3. The variables involved in the study, including their quantifications; 4. The research design, including the sampling data utilized by the investigator; 5. The major results and conclusions. The researcher reviews both local and foreign studies in order to give a balanced presentation of the investigations conducted in various settings. Foreign studies may have some biases in terms of the cultural Background of the respondents of the study; and therefore, there is a need to review local studies conducted on the same topic so that the effects of cultural differences may be ascertained. Both local and foreign studies are normally reviewed on chronological order to establish the time-order progression of the topic. Conflicting results may be observed because of the differences in (1) population frame; (2) research design, (3) statistical test employed, and (4) absence or presence of appropriate controls. The use of the following phrases and expressions that help express related literature and studies are:

From the book of Espidio entitled Practice of Research published by the National Bookstore Inc., in 1999 he expounded that Gay (1998) said that Gates (1998) pointed out that Amidos and Hunters system investigated Bellack, et al., proposed Malcolhm, on the other hand, credited for Zulueta postulated that these Nebrez directed that
Sample 1: Bernard pointed out that good teachers vary their combination of traits but the listed characteristics do indicate what teachers should strive for (1999). Sample 2: Ryan (1999) found out that the qualities of good teachers are not absolute; they are instead interesting traits that may vary in their merits, depending upon educational philosophy, pupil characteristics, course level and content.

IV. RELEVANCE or JUSTIFICATION OF THE REVIEWED LITERATURE AND STUDIES THE PRESENT STUDY
This is one of the sections of the proposed study in which the proponent has to justify the direct bearing and relevance of the related readings, related literature and related studies to the proposed study. It justifies the difference between the proposed study and the pastrelated studies. It should be made clear that there is no duplication of the studies. The present inquiry may only be a replication of another study. It should also be stressed that inspite of similar studies, the present study is still necessary to find out if the findings of the studies in other places are also true in the locale of the present study. There may be a need to continue with the present study to affirm or negate the findings of other inquiries about the same research problems or topics so that generalizations or principles may be formulated. These generalizations and principles would be the contributions of the present study, together with the other studies to the fund of knowledge. The following phrases can help express the relevance of the study:

In 1999, Dizon stresses that . . .

The related literature included in this study has significant relationship with the future study in the sense that The related studies presented here were selected on the basis of their significance in promoting directions for this present study The study of provided a framework for the The dissertation of is especially relevant to this study because the venue is similar to This present study is similar to that of in terms of The different concepts on as reflected in several studies revealed the following insights as they are related to the researchers present study Like the previous studies presented, this study on will serve All the concepts revealed in the study of will influence the of this study. The related literature and studies provided the considering that The study of is especially relevant to The present study will be similar to that of in the following aspects

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Reference/Source: METHODS OF RESEARCH, THESIS WRITING and APPLIED STATISTICS, by: Francisco M. Zulueta and Nestor Edilberto B. Costales, Jr.