MATH 324 CODING AND CRYPTOGRAPHY

ASSIGNMENT 1 Marking Scheme: Q11, Q21, Q35, Q42, Q53, Q63, Q75 1. Prove Proposition 1.1 (i). First note that a0 = a(0 + 0) = a0 + a0 by distributivity. Now a0 = a0 + a0 implies a0 + (a0) 0 0 0 2. Prove Proposition 1.2. Since a = a (mod m) and b = b (mod m) there exist integers k and j such that a a = km and b b = jm. Then (a + b) (a + b ) = (k j)m and ab a b = (kb + ja + mkj)m. The result follows. 3. (i) Construct addition and multiplication tables for the eld GF (5). + 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 0 1 2 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 3 4 0 1 0 1 2 3 4 2 2 3 4 0 1 2 0 2 4 1 3 3 3 4 0 1 2 3 0 3 1 4 2 4 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 4 3 2 1 = = = = (a0 + a0) + (a0) a0 + (a0 + (a0)) a0 + 0 a0 Solutions

(ii) Construct a table of inverses for the eld GF (19). a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 a1 1 10 13 5 4 16 11 12 17 2 7 8 3 15 14 6 9 18 Check that in each case a.a1 = 1(mod 19). (iii) Find primitive elements for the elds GF (5), GF (7) and GF (13). The powers of 2 (modulo 5) are: 2, 4, 3, 1. So 2 is a primitive element of GF (5). Similarly, the powers of 3 (modulo 7) are: 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1. So 3 is a primitive element of GF (7). The powers of 2 (modulo 13) are: 2, 4, 8, 3, 6, 12, 11, 9, 5, 10, 7, 1. So 2 is a primitive element of GF (13). Primitive elements are not unique, so these neednt be the only ones. 4. (i) Find all zero divisors of Z12 . Explain why one cannot, in general, cancel over Zm . The zero divisors of Z12 are all those integers in {1, . . . , 11} which have a non-trivial common factor with 12. That is, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, and 10. It is not possible to cancel in Zm if m is not prime, because elements may not have multiplicative inverses. For example, in Z4 the number 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse, and 2x = 2y does not imply that x = y, since 2x = 2y holds when x = 1 and y = 3. 5. (i) Let F be a nite eld and let G be a subset of F with the following properties: 0 and 1 are in G; whenever a and b are in G, then a + b and ab are in G. Prove that G is a eld. G is closed under + and by denition. If a and b are in G then a + b = b + a and ab = ba because G is contained in the eld F. Similarly, if a, b, c G then (a + b) + c = a + (b + c), (ab)c = a(bc), and a(b + c) = ab + ac. We know that G contains additive and multiplicative identities by denition.

This means that we need only verify the presence of additive and multiplicative inverses. Suppose that a G. We want to show that a G. For a positive integer n let na denote the sum of a with itself n times (note that the integer n may itself not be in G, so na means something dierent from the product of n and a). The elements 1a, 2a, 3a, . . . are all in G since G is closed under addition. Since F is nite there must be some integers n < n such that na = n a. Then n a na is equal to the sum of n as, plus the sum of n (a)s. But by using associativity we can see that this is equal to a summed with itself (n n) times, in other words n a na = (n n )a. But n a na = (n n)a = 0 since na = n a. Then a + (n n 1)a = 0, so (n n 1)a is the additive inverse of a, and (n n 1)a G. Similarly, let an denote the product of a taken with itself n times. The elements a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . are all in G. There must be integers n < n such that an = an . It is easy to check that an (an )1 is equal to an n . So an n = 1. Then an n1 is the multiplicative inverse of a. (ii) Give an example to show that the above statement does not remain true if the word nite is deleted. The properties for G in (i) hold for the integers, considered as a subset of the eld of real numbers. However the integers are not a eld. 6. R2 is the set of ordered pairs of real numbers. Dene the addition of two ordered pairs as follows: (u1 , u2 ) (v1 , v2 ) = (u1 + v1 + 1, u2 + v2 + 1), and dene the multiplication of an ordered pair with a scalar from R as follows: (x, y) = (x + 1, y + 1). Show that under these operations R2 is a vector space over the eld R. Clearly R2 is closed under . The fact that is commutative and associative follows easily from properties of addition in the real numbers. The additive identity is (1, 1), and the additive inverse of (u1 , u2 ) is (u1 2, u2 2). Thus V1 holds. Clearly V2 and V6 hold also. Now ((u1 , u2 ) (v1 , v2 )) = (u1 + v1 + 1, u2 + v2 + 1)

= ((u1 + v1 + 1) + 1, (u2 + v2 + 1) + 1) = (u1 + v1 + 2 1, u2 + v2 + 2 1) = (u1 , u2 ) (v1 , v2 ) and ( + )(u1 , u2 ) = (u1 + + u1 + 1, u2 + + u2 + 1) = (u1 , u2 ) (u1 , u2 ). So V3 and V4 also hold. Finally, ((u1 , u2 )) = = = = So V5 holds. 7. Consider the vector space V (3, 3). Let W1 denote the subspace spanned by {(1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 2)} and let W2 denote the subspace spanned by {(0, 1, 0), (1, 2, 0)}. (i) List the elements of W1 and W2 . To nd W1 we list all the possible linear combinations of {(1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 2)}. 0(1, 0(1, 0(1, 1(1, 1(1, 1(1, 2(1, 2(1, 2(1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1) + 0(0, 1) + 1(0, 1) + 2(0, 1) + 0(0, 1) + 1(0, 1) + 2(0, 1) + 0(0, 1) + 1(0, 1) + 2(0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) = = = = = = = = = (0, (0, (0, (1, (1, (1, (2, (2, (2, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0) 2) 1) 1) 0) 2) 2) 1) 0) (u1 + 1, u2 + 1) ((u1 + 1) + 1, (u2 + 1) + 1) (u1 + 1, u2 + 1) ()(u1 , u2 )

We do the same for W2 . 0(0, 1, 0) + 0(1, 2, 0) = (0, 0, 0)

0(0, 0(0, 1(0, 1(0, 1(0, 2(0, 2(0, 2(0,

1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,

0) + 1(1, 0) + 2(1, 0) + 0(1, 0) + 1(1, 0) + 2(1, 0) + 0(1, 0) + 1(1, 0) + 2(1,

2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2,

0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0)

= = = = = = = =

(1, (2, (0, (1, (2, (0, (1, (2,

2, 1, 1, 0, 2, 2, 1, 0,

0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0)

(ii) Find W1 W2 and W1 W2 . W1 W2 = {(0, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0), (2, 2, 0)}. W1 W2 = {(0, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 2), (0, 2, 0), (0, 2, 1) (1, 0, 0), (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 2, 0), (1, 2, 2) (2, 0, 0), (2, 0, 2), (2, 1, 0), (2, 1, 1), (2, 2, 0)}. (iii) Show that W1 W2 is a subspace of V (3, 3), and W1 W2 is not. By Proposition 4.2 it is necessary only to check that W1 W2 is closed under addition and scalar multiplication. This is easily done. W1 W2 is not closed under addition since (for example) (0, 1, 0) + (0, 1, 2) = (0, 2, 2).