INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT ONE SAMPLE INDEPENDENT FACTOR ANALYSIS Chi-Square SIGN SAMPLE ONE DEPENDENT - Chi-Square UNIT T-TEST

TEST ARE INTERDEPENDENCESTRUCTURE ANALYSIS TWO TECHNIQUE TECHNIQUE HOW MANY VARIABLES YES DEPENDENT SOMEAREYES THEYANALYSIS OF MULTIVARIATE OR MORE SAMPLES DEPENDENCE YESARE ANALYSIS MULTI-VARIATE NO VARIABLESNOMETHODS MULTIPLE DISCRIMINANT VARIANCE NON PARAMETRIC STATISTIC INPUTS METRIC METHODS AREONE METRIC LATENTYES MULTIPLENO CLUSTERMETRIC NOIT DEPENDENT SEVERALREGRESSION IS METHODS NON CANONICAL METRIC ANALYSIS RANK-SUM TESTTECHNIQUE TWO WILCOXON OR T-TEST PARAMETRIC UNIVARIATE MORE SAMPLES PAIRED TEST Kolomogorov Smirnov Z-TEST METRIC MDS DATA PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS K-S MCNEMAR Z-TEST Run ANOVA ANOVA COCHRANQ

IV

MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS I . UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS It focus on the level coverage and distribution (variance)) of a single variable II. BIVARIATE ANALYSIS It focus on the degree of relationship (correlation or covariance) between two variables. III. MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS It is the analysis of the simultaneous relationship among three or more variables. In a multivariate analysis, the focus shift from paired relationships to the more complex simultaneous relationships among three or more variables. The multivariate technique can be broadly classifed as dependence technique as dependence technique or interdependence techniques. Dependence techniques are appropriate when one or more variables can be identified as dependent variable and the remaining as independent variables. In the interdependence techniques the variables are not classified as dependant or independent.

Variable In Multivariate Analysis 1. Exploratory Variable Explanatory variables are called external or exogenous variables. If x a considered t be the cause of y, then x is the explanatory variable (or) causal or independent variables.

2. Criterion Variable These are called endogenous variables. In the above stated case y is called as criterion (or) dependent resultant variable. 3. Observable & Latent variable When explanatory variable are directly observable variable, they are termed observable variable. However some unobservable variable may influence criterion variable in which case they are called latent variables. 4. Discrete variable & Continuous Variable Discrete variables are those that lake only the integer value when measured. Continuous variables are those that when measured, can assume any real volume. 5. Dummy Variable This term is used in a technical sense and is useful in algebraic manipulations in the context of multivariate analysis TECHNIQUES I. MULTIPLE REGRESSION When there are two or more than two independent variables, the equation describing such a relationship is the multiple regression equation. In this situation the results are interpreted as Y= a + b1 x1+ b2 x2 X1, x2 = independent variable a, b1, b2 = constant y = dependent variable

The constant can be solved by solving the following equation

The no of normal equation would depend upon the number of independent variable. If there are two independent variables, then three equations, if there are three independent variable then four equations and so on are used. In multiple regression analysis the regression co-efficient (b1,b2) become less reliable as the degree of correlation between the independent variable (x1,x2). If there is high degree of correlation between independent variables. We have what is commonly described as the problem of multicollinearity. In such a situation we should use only one set of the independent variable to make our estimate. Adding a second variable say x2 which is correlated with the first variable say x1 distorts the values of the regression co-efficient. The main objective in using this technique is to predict the variability the dependent variable based on its covariance with all the independent variables.

One can predict the level of the dependant variable through the multiple regression analysis model given the levels of independent variables. When multiple independent variables are measured with different scales, it is not possible to make relative comparisons between regression co-efficient to see which independent variables has the most influence on the dependent variable. To solve this problem, we calculate the standardized regression co-efficient. Its is called beta co-efficient and it is calculated from the normal regression coefficient. The beta co-efficient allows direct comparison between independent variables to determine which variables have the most influence on the dependant measure. When using multiple regression analysis, it is important to examine the overall statistical significance of the regression model. The amount of variation in the dependant variable that you have been able to explain with the independent measures is compared with total variation in the dependant measure. This comparison result in a statistic allied a mode F Statistic

Application: Used to predict the dependent variable , given knowledge of independent variable. To understand the relationship between the dependent variable and independent variable. Inputs : Variable value for dependent and the independent variable. Output: It will output the regression coefficients and their associated beta coefficient and tvalues which can be used to evaluate the strength of the relationship between the respective independent variable and the dependent variable. Statistical Test: The hypothesis that a regression parameter obtained from the sample evidence is zero or not is based on the t-value.

Limitation The knowledge of a regression coeffient and its t-value can suggest the extent of association or influence that an independent variable has on the dependent variable. The regression coeffient will reflect the impact of the omitted variable on the dependent variable.

 The model is based on collected data that represent certain environmental

conditions.
The model is limited by the methodology associated with the data collection

including the sample size and measures used. II. MULTIPLE DISCRIMINATE ANALYSIS It is a multivariate technique used for predicting group membership on the basis of two or more independent variables. A discriminate function is a regression equation with a dependant variable that represents group membership. This function maximally discriminate between members of the group. It tells us to which group each member probably belong. It can be used to assign individual to groups on the basis of their scores on two or measure. From those scores the best composite score based on least squares is calculated. Then the higher R2 is the better predictor of the group membership. One can use discriminate analysis to classify objects into two groups (ie.,) success, failure, default, non-default. In discriminate analysis a scoring system is used on the basis of which an individual is classified as category. Suppose an individual is 25 years of age earns an annual income of Rs.60000/and has undergone formal education for a period of 17years. Each of three variables is given a weight indicating its relative importance. Y=dependant variable. A certain limit is fixed of the value of y below which all values will be classified in Group I and the others in Group II. The values of b1,b2 and b3 indicae their importance. The numerical value of y can be transformed into t probability of the individual being credit worthy. It may be noted that in the linear discriminate, the b co-efficient are similar to the regression co-efficient. However the main differences is that while the regression co-efficient are used to predict the value of the dependant variable. The discriminate co-efficient are used to classify correctly as many individual or object as possible. One major advantage of linear discriminate analysis is that it enables the researcher to know, by a simple device whether an individual is likely to belong to one or the other category on the basis of his overall score. In this context, it is not only the values of the discriminate coefficient but also their positive or negative signs that are equally relevant. Given a certain minimum vale of Z and credit worthiness, it should be clear that the higher the values of the independent variable provided the discriminate coefficient are positive, the more chances there are for the individual to be classified under this category. Application: Used to identify variables that contribute to differences in the a priori defined groups with the use of discriminate functions. It classify objects into one or more groups that are already defined.

Inputs: Variables values for the independent variable and dependent variable. Output: It provide the characteristics of the discriminate fuction., such as the variables that contribute to each discriminate fuction. The significance of the fuction is also given. Statistical Tests: The significance of the discriminant fuction and the variables are evaluated through through an F-statistic. Limitation : It is similar to regression analysis such as intervariable correlations in the model, correlation of variables with the omitted variables,and change of environment condition. The assumption of the discriminant analysis has to be tested and it is often possible that the assumption of equal variance covariance matrices of the independent variables in each group is not met. III. FACTOR ANALYSIS It is a multivariate statistical technique that is used to summarize the information contained in a large number of variables into smaller number of subsets or factors. The purpose of factor analysis is to simplify the data with factory analysis there is no distinction between dependent and independent variables rather all variables under investigation are analyzed together to identify underlying factor. There are two objects of factor analysis :1. It simplifies the data by reducing a large number of variable to a set of a small number of variables. 2. It analyses the interdependence of interrelationship among a total set of variables. Factor analysis is an appropriate technique in case where the variables have a high degree of Interco relation. Methods Of Factor Analysis: I The Centroid method It was developed by L.L. Thurstone in 1950. It tends to maximize the sum of loadings , disregarding signs, it is the method which extracts the largest sum f absolute loadings for each factor in turn. It is defined by linear conmbination in which all weights are either + 1 or -1 . Steps : 1. Compute a matrix of correlations , R where unities are placed in the diagonal spaces. 2. If correlation matrix happens to be positive manifold the centriod method requires that the weights for all variables be +1. 3. The first centroid can be calculated as

a) Sum of the coefficients in each column of the correlation matrix is worked out b) Then sum of these column sums (T) is obtained c) The sum of each column obtained as per is divided by the square root of T . This way each centroid loading is ( one loadings for one variable) computed. The full set of loadings so obtained constitute the first centriod factor.
4. To calculate second centriod , obtain a matrix of residual coefficients. It can be

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

obtained by multiplying the loading for the two variables on the first centriod factor. This second matrix Q1, is subtracted element by element from the original matrix R. The resultant matrix may have negative signs for variables. For those reflected variable signs for all column & row are changed. From this reflected matrix loadings , the second centriod factor loadings are computed just like first centroid factor. For subsequent factor the same process is repeated.

II . The Principal Components Method It is developed by H.Hotelling. It seeks to maximize the sum of squared loadings of each factor extracted in turn. The aim of the principal components method is the construction out of a given set of variables X j s ( j = 1,2,3 .k) of new variables (pi) called principal components which are linear combinations of the X. The method is being applied mostly by the using the standardized variables, The aij are called loadings and are worked out in such a way that the extracted principal components satisfy two conditions i) Principal components are uncorrelated ii) The first principal pi has the maximum variance, the second principal component p2 has the next maximum variance and so on. III .The Maximum likelihood method It consist in obtaining sets of factor loadings successively in such a way that each in turn explains as much as possible of the correlation matrix. It is a statistical approach in which one maximize some relationship between the sample of data and the population from which the sample was drawn. The loading obtained on the first factor are employed in the usual way to obtain a matrix of the residual coefficient. A significance test is then applied to indicate whether it would be reasonable to extract a second factor. This goes on repeatedly in search of one factor after another. This method is very difficult in comparison to the other methods. Merits : 1. The technique of factor analysis is quite useful when we want to condense and simplify the multivariate data. 2. the technique is helpful in pointing out important and interesting that were there all the time, but not easy to see from the data alone

3. The technique can reveal the latent factors that determine relationship among

several variables.
4. the technique may be used in the context of empirical clustering of products,

media or people ie., for providing a classification for providing a classification scheme when data scored on various rating scales have to be grouped together. Summary Application : It is used to identify underlying dimensions or constructs in the data and to reduce the number of variables by eliminating redundancy. Inputs : Usually a set of variables values for each individual or object in the sample. Output ; The factor loadings ie correlation between the factors and the variables are used to interpret the factors. Key assumptions: The list of variables are complete and adequate for each factor. Limitation 1. It involves laborious computations involving heavy cost burden. 2. the results of a single factor analysis are considered generally less reliable. 3. It can be used only when researchers has good knowledge and experience in handling. 4. It is highly subjective process. 5. No statistical tests are regularly employed in factor analysis.

IV. CLUSTER ANALYSIS The basic idea of cluster analysis is to group similar objects together. A cluster is consists of variables that have high correlation with one another and comparatively low correlation with variables other clusters. The objective of cluster analysis is to determine how many mutually and exhaustive groups or clusters, based on the similarities profiles among entities really exist in the population and then to state the composition of such groups. There are two approach to clustering. Hierarchical and Non-Hierarchical. Hierarchical clustering can start and divide and in one cluster and divide and sub divide them until all objects are in their own singly object cluster. This is called the top-down or decision approach. In contrast the bottom up or agglomerate approach can start with each object in its own cluster and systematically combine cluster until all objects are in one cluster.

When one objects is associated with another in a cluster, it remains clustered with that object. The non-Hierarchical clustering differs from clustering only in that it permits objects to leave one cluster and join another as clusters are being formed if the clustering criterion is improved by doing so. Instead of using the tree like construction process found Pn Hierarchical clustering, cluster seeds are used to group objects within a pre-specified distance of the seeds. Cluster seeds are initial centroids or starting points of the cluster. Hence in this approach a cluster center is initially selected and all objects within a pre-specified threshold distance are included in that cluster. There are several methods of groupings objects into cluster. In the Hierarchical approach the commonly used methods are singly linkage, complete linkage ,average linkage, wards method & the centroid method. In Non-Hierarchical methods the three most commonly used approaches are sequential threshold parallel threshold and optimizing procedures. Methods Of Grouping Clusters I. Hierarchical Clustering a. Single Linkage It is based on the shortest distance. It finds the two individual separated by the shortest distance and places them in the first cluster and places them in the first cluster. Then the next shortest distance PS found and either a third individual joins the first wo to form a cluster or a new two individual cluster is formed. The process continues until all individual are in one cluster. This procedure is also referred to as the nearest neighbor approach. b. Complete Linkage This procedure is similar to singly linkage except that the clustering criterion is based on the longest distance. For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as the farthest neighbor approach. The distance between tow clusters is the longest distance from a point in the first cluster to a point in the second clusters. c. Average Linkage It start out the same as single linkage and complete linkage but the clustering criterion is the average distance from individuals in one clusters to individuals in another such technique do not use extreme values as do single linkage or complete linkage and partitioning is based on all members of the clusters rather than on a single pain of extreme members. d. Wards Method

It is based on the loss of information resulting from grouping objects into clusters as measured by the total sum of square deviation of every object from the mean of the cluster to which the object is assigned. As more clusters are fomed the total sum of squared devations increases. At each stage in the clustering procedure the error sums of ssquare is minimized over all partitions obtainable by combining tow clusters from the previous stage. This procedure tends to cmombine clusters with a small number of observations. It is also biased toward producing clusters with approximate the same number of observations. e. Centroid Method In the centroid methid the distance between the group centroids is measured. The centroid is the point whose co-ordinates are the means of all the observations in the cluster when two clusters combine a new cluster is computed. Thus cluster centroids migrate or move as the clusters are combined. II. Non-Hierarchical Clustering Sequential Threshold In this case a cluster centroid is selected and all objects withing a pre-specified threshol value are grouped. Then a new cluster center is selected and the process is repeated for the unclustered objects, and so on for unclustered objects, and son on. Once objects enter a cluster, they are moved from further procession. Parallel Threshold This method is similar to the proceding one except that severa cluster centers are selected simultaneously and objects withing the threshold ldevel are assigned to the nearest center. The threshold level can then be adjusted to admit fewer or more objects to the cluster. Optimizing This method modified the previous two procedures in that objects can later be reassigned to clusters by optimizing some overall criterion measure. Such as the average within cluster distance for a given number of cluster. Number of Clusters 1. The analyst can specify the number 2. He can specify the level of clusering with respect to the clustering criterion. 3. Determine the number from the pattern of clusters, the program generates. 4. The rate of total withing group variance to between gruopd variance can be plotted against the number of cluster. SUMMARY Application Cluster analysis is used to group variables, objects or people

2. Input It is any valid measure of similarity between objects such as correlations 3. Output The output is the formation of clusters. 4. Key assumptions The basic measure similarity on which the clustering is based is a valid measure of the similarity between the objects. There is theoretical justification for structuring the objects into clusters. Advantages : 1. Main use of cluster analysis in marketing is market segmentation 2. It provides better understanding of buyers behaviour. 3. It can also be used in the development of potential new products. 4. It helps for reducing a large mass of data into meaningful aggregate which are far more manageable than a large number of individual observation. Limitation 1. the lack of specificity has resulted into several methods of cluster analysis 2. cluster analysis lacks standard statistical tests 3. it requires a good deal of computational time almost as much as factor analysis needs. CANONICAL CORRELATION ANALYSIS When the researcher has two criterion variables (dependant variable) and multiple predictors variables (independent varible) canonical correlation analysis is an appropriate statistical technique. Multiple regression analysis investigates the linear relationship between a singly dependant or criterion variable and multiple independan variables. Canonical correlation is a extension of multiple regression. It focuses on the relationship between two sets of interval scale variables. For eg. The relationship between the performance of a brand (measured as sales, marker share, growth in sales, proft etc) and marketing-mix variables (price, promotion, distribution, advertising etc) can evaluated through canonical analysis. Application Suppose we wish evaluate the assocation between a set of export-interest variable (criterion set) and some firm characteristic (predictive set) e want to know how several from characteristic such as willingness to export (y1) and level of interest on seeking government assistance (y2) influence export interest behavior. Computing the canonical correlation assesses the relationship between the y-set and x-set of variable. Canonical correlation can be defined as the correlation between the linear combination of the dependant variables and the linar combinations of the independent variables. Calculations of the canonical correlation maximize the correatlion between two linear combinations for eg. The linear combination for firm

characteristics might and the linear combination for the export interest variables might be Then the correlation between W and Y is defined as canonical correlation. SUMMARY Application Canonical analysis is a technique to assess relationship between multiple dependant and multiple independent variables. Input The inputs are the variables value for both the dependant and the independent variables. Output It helps to assess relationship between the linear composites of the dependant variable s with linear composite of the independent variables. Statistical Test The significance of canonical function and the variable are evaluated with an F- Statistic. LIMITATIONS
1. canonical weight are derived to maximize the correlation between the linear

composites and not the variance extracted.

2. It reflects shared variance between the linear composites and not the variance

extracted.
3. Canonical weight are subject to a great degree of instability.

UNIT V REPORT RESEARCH

DESIGN,

WRITING

AND

ETHICS

IN

BUSINESS

RESEARCH REPORT Research report is a written document through which the researcher intimates to the world the findings of this study, the design of the study, his conclusions, the suggestion and recommendations based on his findings, the details of data collected, the method he has adopted for selecting the sample, the tools he used for analysis the hypotheses he has set his set objectives, the limitation of his study etc..It is the end product of research activity. It is a technical activity that demands all the skills and patience of the researcher.

A vast amount of planning and preparation is necessary for organizing and writing the report. Perfection in a research report is achieved by continuous and persistent thought and creative and intelligent writing. There are no standard criteria for the organization of a report. They depend on problem, novelty, familiarity, nature, volume of facts, technique of analysis and so on. Objectives of a Report :1. Reports provide information to those who are in need of it. 2. It provides information for planning and co-ordination o business activities. 3. Reports give information to investors speculators, government, customers and 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

the people at large. This provides base to formulate alternative proposals relating to an issue. Reports acts as an a historical document to take decision in future. Report normally presents facts and suggestions to an enquiry. It acts as a tool in conducting performance appraisal. An effective report should be simple, clear, brief and should be based on reliable factual information.

TYPES OF BUSINESS REPORTS : I. On the Basis Of Legal Formalities :

a. Informal Report : It is usually in the form of a person-to-person

communication. It may range from a short almost fragmentary statement of facts on a singly page to a more developed presentation taking several pages. b. Formal Reports : A Formal report is one which is prepared in a prescribed form and is presented according to an established procedure to a prescribed authority. II. On the Basis Of Frequency : a. Periodic or Routine : These are prepared and presented at regular prescribed interval in the usual routine of business. b. Special Reports : These are related to a singly occasion or situation. A report on the desirability of opening a new branch or on the unrest among staff in a particular branch is special reports. III. On the Bases of Function: a. Information : If a report merely present facts pertinent to an issue or a situation it is informative. b. Interpretative : If it analyses the fact, draws conclusions andmakes recommendations it is analytical or interpretative or investigative. IV. On the Bases of the Nature of the Subject dealt with a. Problem determining report : It determine causes the underlying a problem or to ascertain whether or not the problem actually exists. b. Technical Report :In this present data on a specializes subject with or without comments.

V. On the Basis of the Number of Persons entrusted with Drafting of Reports : a. Report by Individual : Report submitted by an individual like personnel manager and related to the work in their own department. b. Report By Committee ; The report prepared by a group members ie., committee in formal style. CHARACTERISTIC OF A GOOD REPORT Precision In a good report the writer is very clear about the exact purpose of writing it. Precision gives a kind of unity an coherence to the report and makes it a valuable document. 1. Accuracy Of Facts The scientific accuracy of facts is very essential to a good report since reports invariable lead to decision-making, inaccurate facts may lead to disastrous decisions. 2. Relevance The facts presented in a report should be not only accurate but relevant also. While it is essential that every fact included in a report has a bearing on the central purpose it is equally essential to see that nothing relevant has escaped inclusion. 3. Reader-Orientation A good report is always reader oriented while drafting a report it is necessary to keep in mind the person who is going to read it. 4. Objectivity of Recommendation If recommendation are made at the end of a report, they must be impartial and objective. They should come as a logical conclusion to investigation and analysis. They must not reveal and self interest on the part of the writer. 5. Simple and Unambiguous Language A good report is written in a simple, unambiguous language. It is a kind of scientific document of practical utility, hence it should be free from various forms of poetic embellishment. 6. Clarity A good report is absolutely clean clarity depends on proper arrangement of facts. The report writer must process systematically. 7. Brevity A report should be brief. It is not difficult to define brevity in absolute terms nor can brevity be laid down as a rule. All that can be said is that a good report is as brief as possible. 8. Grammatical Accuracy The grammatical accuracy of language though listed at last in the characteristics of a good report is of fundamental importance. It is one of the basic requisites of a good report as of any other piece of composition. RESEARCH REPORT- TYPE

a. Technical Report In this type of report the scholar should focus on 1. the methods employed. 2. assumptions made in the course of the study 3. the detailed presentation of the findings. Output
1. Summary of results (executive summary) 2. Nature of the Study 3. Objectives, hypothesis 4. Data types, & analysis 5. Tools of analysis 6. Methodology sample design, size, selection. 7. Data Sources, characteristics & limitation 8. analysis of data & presentation of findings. 9. Conclusions 10. Bibliography 11. Technical apprentices 12. Index

The order presented may vary in different reports even the different sections outlined above will not always be the same, nor will all these sections appear in any particular report. b. Popular Report The popular report is one, which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness. The simplification should be sought through clear writing, minimization of technical, particularly mathematical details and liberal use of charts and diagrams. Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings over an occasional cartoon is the characteristic feature of the popular report. Outline 1. The findings and their implication. 2. Recommendation for action 3. Objective of the study 4. Methods employed 5. Results 6. Technical appendices. There can be several variations of the form in which a popular report can be prepared, the only important thing about such a report is that it gives emphasis on simplicity and policy implications from the operational point of view avoiding the technical details of all sorts to the extent possible. c. Oral Presentation This type of reporting takes place in public viva voce examination. The researcher would present the details of his work orally. He may use different methods of presentation like overhead projector , slide projector, simple presentation on board, printed matter etc.

The flow of language style adopted, delivery speed, gestures and gesticulation, body language etc will all determine the effectiveness of oral presentation. In such presentation, the researcher should avoid unnecessary elaborations, affecting sentiments, creating controversies attack on any ideals or beliefs and most important details which are not most important details which are not supported by facts or evidences. He should maintain a logical sequence in his presentations. MECHANICS OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT 1. Size and Physical Design The report should have a margin of at least one and one-half inches should be allowed at the left hand and of at least half an inch at the right hand of the paper. There should also be one-inch margin, top and bottom. The paper should be double spaced on one side of the page. 2. Procedure The subject matter of a report can be arranged either logical sequence or chronologically. 3. Layout Keeping in view the objective and nature of the problem, the layout of the report should be thought of and decided and accordingly adopted eg. Technical, popular 4. Quotations It should be placed in quotation marks and double spaced forming an immediate part of the text. But if a quotation is of a text. But if a quotation is of a considerable length then it should be single-spaced and indented at least half an inch to the right of the normal text margin. 5. The footnotes The footnote serve two purpose viz., the identification of materials used in quotations in the report and the notice of materials not immediately necessary to be body of the research text but still of supplemental value. In other words, footnotes are meant for cross-references, citation of authorities and sources, acknowledgement and elucidation or explanation of a point of view. It should always be kept in view that footnote is neither an end nor a means of the display of scholarship. The modern tendency is to make the minimum use of footnotes for scholarship does not need to be displayed. 6. Documentation Style Regarding documentation, the first footnotes reference to any given works should be completed in its documentation, giving all the essential facts about the edition used. Such documentary footnotes follow a general sequence. The common order may be described as under. i. Regarding the single volume reference a. Authors name in normal order followed by comma b. Title of work, underline to indicate italics

ii.
a. b. c. d. e.

c. Place and date of publication. d. Pagination references (The page number). Regarding multivolumed references. Authors name in normal order Title of work, underline to indicate italics Place and date of publication Number of Volume Pagination references.

iii. Regarding works arranged alphabetically. For works arranged alphabetically such as encyclopedia and dictionaries, no pagination reference is usually needed. Punctuation and Abbreviations in Footnotes: 7. The first item after the number in the footnote is the authors name, given in the normal signature order. This is followed by comma. After the comma, the title of the book is given : the article is omitted and only the first word and proper nouns and adjectives are capitalized. A comma follows the title. Information concerning the edition is given next. A comma follows this entry. The place of publication is then stated; it may be mentioned in an abbreviated form, if the place happens to be a famous one such as Lond. For London, N.Y for New York and so on. This entry is followed by comma. Then the name of the publisher is mentioned and a comma closes this entry. 8. Use of Statistics, Charts and Graphs A judicious use of statistics in research reports if often considered a virtue for it contributes a great deal towards the clarification and simplification of the material and research results. One may well remember that a good picture is often worth more than thousand words. Statistics are usually presented in the form of tables, charts, bars and line graphs and pictograms. Such presentation should be self explanatory and complete in itself. It should be suitable and appropriate looking to the problem at hand. Finally, statistical presentation should be neat and attractive. 9. The final draft: Revising and rewriting the rough draft of the report shuld be done ith great care before writing the final draft. For the purpose, the researcher should put to himself questions like. Are the sentences written in the report clear ? are they grammatically correct ? Do they say what is meant ? Do the various points incorporated in the report fit together logically ? Having at least one colleague read the report just before the final revision is extremely helpful.. sentences that seem crystal clear to the writer may prove quite confusing to other people ; a connection that had seemed self evident may strike others as non-sequitur. 10. Bibliography Bibliography should be prepared and appended to the research report as discussed earlier. 11. Preparation of Index

At the end of the report, an index should invariably be given, the value of which lies in the fact that it acts a good guide to the reader. Index may be prepared both as subject index and as author index. The former gives the names of the subjecttopics or concepts are long with the number of pages on which they have appeared or discussed in the report, whereas the latter gives the similar information regarding the names of authors. The index should always be arranged alphabetically. Some people prefer to prepare only one index common for names for authors, subject-topics, concepts and the like ones. PRECAUTIONS FOR WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS. Research Report is a channel of communicating the research findings to the readers of the report. A good research report is one which does this task efficiently and effectively. As such it must be prepared keeping the following precautions in view : 1. While determining the length of the report (since research reports vary greatly in length), one should keep in view the fact that it should be long enough to cover the subject but short enough to maintain interest. In fact, report writing should not be a means to learning more and more about less and less. 2. A research report should not, if this can be avoided, be dull; it should be such as to sustain readers interest. 3. Abstract terminology and technical jargon should be avoided in a research report. The report should be able to convey the matter as simply as possible. This, in other words, mean that report should be written in an objective style in simple language, avoiding expression such as it seems, there may be and the like. 4. Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of the main findings and such the report must provide a ready availability of the findings. For this purpose, charts, graphs and the statistical tables may be used for the various results in the main report in addition to the summary of important findings. 5. The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be appropriate and in accordance with the objective of the research problem. 6. Appendices should be enlisted in respected of all the technical data in the report. 7. Bibliography of sources consulted is a must of a good report and must necessarily be given. 8. Index is also considered an essential part of a good report and as such must be prepared and appended at the end. 9. Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean, whether typed or printed. 10. Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in conducting the research study may also be stated in the report. STEPS IN WRITING REPORT

1. Logical Analysis of the subject Matter It is mainly concerned with the development of a subject. A research subject matter may be arranged in two ways Logical It is concerned with the mental connections and associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Among other things it h develops a material from the simple possible to the most complex structures. Chronological It is based on a connection or sequences in time or occurrence. The direction for doing or making something usually follows the chronological order. 2 Preparation of the Report Outline Outlines are the framework upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical organization of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report. 3. Preparation of the rough draft. Here the researcher enumerates what he has done in the context of his research study. Here he explain the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of analysis adopted by him. The broad findings and generalization and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding. 4. Redrafting the report Here the researcher has to spend more time than the writing of the rough draft. Here the researcher also examines the weakness in logical development or presentation. He should check the mechanics of writing, grammar, & usage. 5. Final Settings including bibliography It is the last part of the research report which contains alost of books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain all those works which the researcher has consulted. Te bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided into two parts the first part may contain the names of book and pamphlets and the second part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper articles. 6. Preparation of the Final Draft A researcher has to write the final draft in a concise and objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions. In the final draft the researcher should not use technical jargons. LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT The layout of the report means as to what the research report should contain. A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise. 1. PRELIMNARIES Title Page Certificate from the Guide Declaration by the scholar Preface, Acknowledgement

Table of Contents. List of Tables. List of Figures List of Appendixes.

2. CONTENT OF THE REPORT a. Introduction Objectives of the Study Statement of the problem. Hypothesis & definition of concepts Review literature & research studies. Time, Place and materials of the survey Scope, assumptions and limitations. Organisation and sampling procedures. Methods, tools and techniques employed for data collection. b.Analysis & Presentation of Results Report of facts, nature , volume and dimension Statistical analysis of data Summary of findings and recommendations. 3. END MATTER Bibliography Appendices : a) Questionnaire b) Statistical table. Glossary of terms Index. 1. Title Of The Page The title page must give the title of the research project. It must give information about who prepared it, who supervised it, who sponsored it, date on which it was presented and place where it was presented. 2. Certificate From The Guide Normally this is issued and signed by the guide/supervisor stating that the theses is the contribution made by the scholar and that the the guide has provided only general guidance in shaping the work.

3. Declaration By The Candidate This is a certificate submitted by the scholar in which he states, that the thesis is the result of his own efforts and is not a copy of any theses or publication already submitted or published to any agency. Foreword It is generally given by a person whim the researcher think is highly a expert on the pursued research project. Preface It gives a general introduction to the project and says a few words about its

importance. The researcher express his gratitude to others, he puts his signature, place and date at the end of the preface. 4. Table Of Content The chapters, sections and other headings used in the report and the pages on which each of them is found 5. List Of Tables All the tables used to present the data must be given along with the pages on which they appeared in the report. 6. List Of Figures All the figures, charts, diagrams, pictures etc given within the report must be indicated along with the pages on which they have appeared. 7. List Of Appendixes In this part of the contents the scholar would specify items included under the appendixes. He would indicate the items in serial order, its title and the page number where it is found eg. Govt policy, questionnaire etc. 8. Acknowledgement In this page, the scholar expresses his gratefulness to all those who have helped him in the course his research work. 9. Objectives Of The Study The objectives established and to be accomplished during the research are to be highlighted in this problem. 10. Hypothesis These are the assumptions the researcher holds regarding the problem. 11. Statement Of The Problem It gives the background of the problem, importance of the problem, dimensionality of the problem. The problem is fully explained here. 12. Review Of Literature A review of earlier researcher done in relation to the research project is given in this chapter. 13. Period Of Study This refers to the duration of the study ie. Whether the study is analyzing the fact for a period of 10 years or is it focusing on the current status alone must be indicated.

Place Or Area Of The Study The area where the study was undergone should be mentioned. This should also be supported by the reasons why this specific area was taken up for the research. 15. Limitation Of The Study In this section the scholar should be honest to state the limitation of the data used, analyses applied, validity of conclusions etc. 16. Sample Design It refers to the method of sampling adopted for data collection.
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He should explain how the sample characteristic was established, how the sample size was determined and how was the data collected. 17. Methodology It deals with the research design to be used, data collection methods to be used. Sampling techniques to be used, field work to be carried out, analysis and interpretation to be done. 18. Research Design It gives details about the exploratory, explanatory or descriptive or experimental nature of the research work. Why a particular design is used and what is its importance. 19. Scope What aspects are to be covered in the research are to be highlights in brief in the section of methodology. 20. Tools Of Analysis In this researcher explains the tools that he has adopted for analyzing the data. The researcher should select the tools of analysis by considering the objectives set for the study. 21. Report Of Results, Facts The researcher will present the results of the analyses he had adopted in his study. Each result will be discussed and interpreted. 22. Statistic Tools Various statistical tools to be used to analyze and interpret the collected data are mentioned. Eg. Average, percentage, measures of dispersion etc. The advance analysis like factor analysis, cluster analyses are to be used. These must be mentioned and justification for their use must be put forward in this section. 23. Findings Here results and findings are given and discussed. The information which have bearing on the objectives of the research should be included in the report. 24. Recommendation The recommendation must not be made just on assumption basis. The resources of the company to which recommendation are being made must be kept in mind. It should not be a very expensive proposition which company cannot implement owing to lack of funds. The recommendations must be such that could be implemented.

Appendices The information which is not directly related to the main body of the research report should be included in the appendices for those readers who want to go in depth of certain aspects of the research work. 26. Bibliography It will contain the details of journal and books used and referred in the course of the study. The details like, name of the book, author name, title of the
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book; publishers name, year of publication, place of publication and edition are all provided. 27. Index It refers to an alphabetical list of name of author or subject matter provided at the end of research reports. It enables the reader to locate the author of subject matter easily. 28. Glossary It refers to the definition of the technical terms used in the report.