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Satellites must take precise measurements from their place in orbit So they don't wobble, satellites are stabilized Stabilizing a satellite is attitude control The attitude of a satellite is its position in space - its orientation Attitude determines what a satellite looks at - which way its cameras are facing, and the angle the satellite makes with the object it is orbiting To stabilize a satellite, the satellite must have a system that keeps it moving evenly through its orbit Satellites often use a spinning or gyroscopic motion to keep them stable A satellite's measurements and pictures will be inaccurate and fuzzy if it is not stabilized A satellite's orbit is more likely to decay - slowly change course either toward the Earth or out into space - if it is not stabilized In stabilizing a satellite, the direction that the satellites' instruments and solar panels are facing is also important It is easier and cheaper to power a satellite that has solar panels that are constantly exposed to the sunlight; this is necessary for satellites with extraordinarily high energy requirements; however, this is not possible if the satellite is spinning There are several ways to stabilize a satellite:
o o o

spin stabilized spun/despun three-axis stabilized

All satellites need to have some means of communication with Earth; the satellite may need to receive instructions and transmit the information it collects, or it may relay information sent to it to another site on Earth This is generally done using some type of antenna Antennas are defined simply as a piece of equipment that allows transmission and reception of radio signals Since the information is transmitted using radio waves, which move at the speed of light, this method allows for very fast communications (only a very small time lag) Antennas come in many families: simple, dishes, patch arrays, and inflatable.

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The body of a satellite, also known as the bus of a satellite, holds all of the scientific equipment and other necessary components of the satellite. Satellites combine many different materials to make up all of their component parts. Since satellites are essentially pieces of scientific or communications equipment that must go into space, engineers must design a bus that will take the equipment safely into space. There are several goals that engineers must accomplish when choosing materials for the satellite's bus. Among these are:

Outer Layer: protecting the satellite from collisions with micrometeorites, or other particles floating in space Anti-radiation: protecting the satellite from the radiation of the sun Thermal Blanketing: using thermal blanketing to keep the satellite at a comfortable temperature for the instruments to function Conduction: conducting heat away from the satellite's vital instruments Structural Support Connecting Materials

Generally, the smaller the satellite, the better. When choosing the materials for a bus, the following factors are also usually taken into consideration: cost, weight, longevity (how long the material will last), and whether the material has proven to be functional on other satellites before

All satellites must have a method of storing and analyzing the data collected by the satellite, and a way of controlling its various systems This is usually performed by some type of computer

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The satellite subsystem that fulfills this role is called Telemetry Tracking and Control (TT&C) TT&C is the brain of the satellite and its operating system It logs every activity of the satellite, receives information from the ground station, and takes care of any general upkeep, or "housekeeping", the satellite needs to do TT&C is made up of three components: Telemetry, Tracking, and Control

The Canadarm can be used for launching or retrieving satellites (satellites can also be launched using rockets) So that the Canadarm can grip these satellites, they are built with a part called a grapple fixture, which is attached to the bus of the satellite The original grapple fixture consisted of a foot-long metal pin, a baseplate, and a target The end of the Canadarm (called its End Effector) has three snare wires which wrap around the grapple fixture using small motors The wires are then retracted, and the satellite is pulled snugly against the end of the Canadarm Today, grapple fixtures have removable grapple pins so that if the Canadarm fails, an astronaut can manually remove the pin to release the satellite Grapple fixtures now have an electrical connector on the end of the pin This can join with an electrical adaptor (called a Special Purpose End Effector or SPEE) at the end of the Canadarm This allows electrical power and data communications to move from the shuttle to the satellite when it is grappled This is used to preserve a satellite's batteries during deploy and retrieval activities The Canadarm is unable to grasp older satellites, or satellites not expected to be repaired in orbit, because they were not fitted with grapple fixtures when they were originally launched The Canadarm can also only capture satellites which are in the same orbital path as the shuttle (for example, the shuttle never flies in a polar orbit

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Every satellite needs a source of power Factors to consider are cost, durability, and effectiveness (amount of power generated) Satellites use up a lot of electricity Think! How could a power source be mounted in or on a satellite? Some possible power sources for satellites include:

Solar panels Batteries Nuclear power Heat generators

Surprising as it may seem, after a satellite is launched into space, it needs little to no power to keep it moving. Satellites move in a path around the Earth called an orbit. Every satellite must have an orbital path (remember, satellites that travel into deep space to look at distant planets are not true satellites, they are in fact space probes), and the type of path it takes is determined by the physics involved.

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A satellite's orbit works because of a balance between two forces. The orbit is a combination of the satellite's velocity - the speed it is travelling in a straight line - and the force of the Earth's gravitational pull on the satellite. These forces are similar to the forces that keep all the planets in their places in the solar system. That gravitational pull is the result of the mass or weight of the Earth and the mass of the satellite. Basically, gravity keeps the satellite's velocity from sending the satellite flying out in a straight line away from the Earth, and the satellite's velocity keeps the force of gravity from pulling the satellite back to Earth. To illustrate this concept, think of a yo-yo. There is a long string that holds the weight of the yo-yo ball at the end. The yo-yo ball is the satellite, and your hand holding the end of the string is the Earth (not to scale of course). If you swung that yo-yo in a circle, then the string would act as the gravity. Without the string, the yo-yo ball would fly off into space, but without the weight and forward motion of the yo-yo ball, the string would flop towards the ground. Since the Earth turns from west to east on its axis, satellites can either seem, from Earth, to be moving very quickly or very slowly. A satellite in orbit travelling towards the east would seem to be moving very slowly to an observer on Earth. On the other hand, a satellite moving toward the west would seem to be moving quickly to someone on Earth. From Earth, there is only one orbit that would seem like it wasn't moving, and that's a geostationary orbit, also know as geosynchronous.

SATELLITE What is a Satellite?

A satellite is basically any object that revolves around a planet in a circular or elliptical path. The moon is Earth's original, natural satellite, and there are many manmade (artificial) satellites, usually closer to Earth.

The path a satellite follows is an orbit. In the orbit, the farthest point from Earth is the apogee, and the nearest point is the perigee. Artificial satellites generally are not mass-produced. Most satellites are custom built to perform their intended functions. Exceptions include the GPS satellites (with over 20 copies in orbit) and the Iridium satellites (with over 60 copies in orbit). Approximately 23,000 items of space junk -- objects large enough to track with radar that were inadvertently placed in orbit or have outlived their usefulness -- are floating above Earth. The actual number varies depending on which agency is counting. Payloads that go into the wrong orbit, satellites with run-down batteries, and leftover rocket boosters all contribute to the count. This online catalog of satellites has almost 26,000 entries!

Although anything that is in orbit around Earth is technically a satellite, the term "satellite" is typically used to describe a useful object placed in orbit purposely to perform some specific mission or task. We commonly hear about weather satellites, communication satellites and scientific satellites. Whose Satellite Was the First to Orbit Earth? The Soviet Sputnik satellite was the first to orbit Earth, launched on October 4, 1957.

Sputnik 1, the first satellite, shown with four whip antennas

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Personal Reflection: Sputnik, October 4, 1957
Sputnik's transmissions died along with its battery after only three weeks, but its effects have been felt for decades. As a fifth-grader, I witnessed the stir caused by the launch of Sputnik. News reports showed that many people in the United States were embarrassed to see the Soviet Union achieving a scientific first, as well as frightened that a foreign country had placed something overhead (read these Sputnik stories). Soviet rocket development seemed well ahead of the United States' efforts. The push toward getting an American satellite into space started immediately. American schools and universities were soon stocked with new science books. One side effect that had a direct impact on many students like me was an increase in science homework, giving a personal dimension to the national wake-up call.

Because of Soviet government secrecy at the time, no photographs were taken of this famous launch. Sputnik was a 23-inch (58-cm), 184-pound (83-kg) metal ball. Although it was a remarkable achievement, Sputnik's contents seem meager by today's standards:

Thermometer Battery Radio transmitter - changed the tone of its beeps to match temperature changes Nitrogen gas - pressurized the interior of the satellite

On the outside of Sputnik, four whip antennas transmitted on short-wave frequencies above and below what is today's Citizens Band (27 MHz). According to the Space Satellite Handbook, by Anthony R. Curtis: After 92 days, gravity took over and Sputnik burned in Earth's atmosphere. Thirty days after the Sputnik launch, the dog Laika orbited in a half-ton Sputnik satellite with an air supply for the dog. It burned in the atmosphere in April 1958. Sputnik is a good example of just how simple a satellite can be.

How Can I See an Overhead Satellite?

This satellite tracking Web site shows how you can see a satellite overhead, thanks to the German Space Operations Center. You will need your coordinates for longitude and latitude, available from the USGS Mapping Information Web site or at the website Topozone.

Satellite-tracking software is available for predicting orbit passes. Note the exact times. Use binoculars on a clear night when there is not a bright moon. Ensure that your watch is set to exactly match a known time standard. A north-south orbit often indicates a spy satellite!

How is a Satellite Launched into an Orbit?

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Photo courtesy Arianespace

ARIANE 44L (four liquid strap-on boosters) at liftoff from French Guiana, October 1998

All satellites today get into orbit by riding on a rocket or by riding in the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle. Several countries and businesses have rocket launch capabilities, and satellites as large as several tons make it safely into orbit on a regular basis. For most satellite launches, the scheduled launch rocket is aimed straight up at first. This gets the rocket through the thickest part of the atmosphere most quickly and best minimizes fuel consumption. After a rocket launches straight up, the rocket control mechanism uses the inertial guidance system to calculate necessary adjustments to the rocket's nozzles to tilt the rocket to the course described in the flight plan. In most cases, the flight plan calls for the rocket to head east because Earth rotates to the east, giving the launch vehicle a free boost. The strength of this boost depends on the rotational velocity of Earth at the launch location. The boost is greatest at the equator, where the distance around Earth is greatest and so rotation is fastest. How big is the boost from an equatorial launch? To make a rough estimate, we can determine Earth's circumference by multiplying its diameter by pi (3.1416). The diameter of Earth is approximately 7,926 miles (12,753 km). Multiplying by pi yields a circumference of something like 24,900 miles (40,065 km). To travel around that circumference in 24 hours, a point on Earth's surface has to move at 1,038 mph (1,669 kph). A launch from Cape Canaveral, Florida, doesn't get as big a boost from Earth's rotational speed. The Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39-A, one of its launch facilities, is located at 28 degrees 36 minutes 29.7014 seconds north latitude. The Earth's rotational speed there is about 894 mph (1,440 kph). The difference in Earth's surface speed between the equator and Kennedy Space Center, then, is about 144 mph (229 kph). (Note: The Earth is actually oblate -- fatter around the middle -- not a perfect sphere. For that reason, our estimate of Earth's circumference is a little small.)

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Inertial Guidance Systems

A rocket must be controlled very precisely to insert a satellite into the desired orbit. An inertial guidance system (IGS) inside the rocket makes this control possible. The IGS determines a rocket's exact location and orientation by precisely measuring all of the accelerations the rocket experiences, using gyroscopes and accelerometers. Mounted in gimbals, the gyroscopes' axes stay pointing in the same direction. This gyroscopically-stable platform contains accelerometers that measure changes in acceleration on three different axes. If it knows exactly where the rocket was at launch and it knows the accelerations the rocket experiences during flight, the IGS can calculate the rocket's position and orientation in space. Considering that rockets can go thousands of miles per hour, you may wonder why a difference of only 144 mph would even matter. The answer is that rockets, together with their fuel and their payloads, are very heavy. For example, the February 11, 2000 lift-off of the Space Shuttle Endeavor with the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission required launching a total weight of 4,520,415 pounds (2,050,447 kg). It takes a huge amount of energy to accelerate such a mass to 144 mph, and therefore a significant amount of fuel. Launching from the equator makes a real difference. Once the rocket reaches extremely thin air, at about 120 miles (193 km) up, the rocket's navigational system fires small rockets, just enough to turn the launch vehicle into a horizontal position. The satellite is then released. At that point, rockets are fired again to ensure some separation between the launch vehicle and the satellite itself.

How Much Do Satellites Cost?

Satellite launches don't always go well, as shown by this story on failed launches in 1999. There is a great deal at stake. For example, this hurricane-watch satellite mission cost $290 million. This missile-warning satellite cost $682 million. Another important factor with satellites is the cost of the launch. According to this report, a satellite launch can cost anywhere between $50 million and $400 million. A shuttle mission pushes toward half a billion dollars (a shuttle mission could easily carry several satellites into orbit). You can see that building a satellite, getting it into orbit and then maintaining it from the ground control facility is a major financial endeavor! Major U.S. satellite firms include:

Hughes Ball Aerospace &Technologies Corp. Boeing Lockheed Martin

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