Chapter 3 Hydrostatics

3.1 Pressure

In general, fluids exert both normal and shearing forces on surfaces that are in contact
with them. However, only fluids with velocity gradients produce shearing forces. For
fluids at rest, only normal forces exist. These normal forces in fluids are called pressure
forces. The definition of pressure is the force exerted by a fluid per unit area. The term
pressure applies only for gas and liquid. The equivalent term for solids is normal
stress.

Definition of pressure: At every point in a static fluid certain pressure intensity exists.
Specifically, this pressure intensity, usually simply called pressure, is defined as follows:
dA
dF
A
F
p
A
=
A
A
=
A 0
lim (3.1)
where F is the normal force acting over the area A. Pressure intensity is a scalar quantity;
that is, it has magnitude only and acts equally in all directions. This is easily
demonstrated by considering the wedge-shaped element of fluid in equilibrium in Fig.
3.1. The forces that act on the element are the surface forces and the weight force.

Figure 3.1 Pressure forces on a fluid element in equilibrium.

By writing the equation of equilibrium for the x direction, we obtain:
0 ) sin ( sin ) ( = A A A A o o l p l p
x n
(3.2)
or
p
n
= p
x
(3.3)
For the z direction, we obtain
0 sin cos
2
1
) cos ( cos ) ( = A A A A A + A A o o o o l l l p l p
z n
(3.4)
Now, when we divide this equation by the product AlAcoso and shrink the element to a
point (Al0), the last term disappears. Thus we have:
p
n
= p
z
(3.5)
Combining Eqs. 3.3 and 3.5, we finally arrive at the result:
p
n
= p
x
= p
z
(3.6)
Since the angle o (alpha) is arbitrary and p
n
is independent of o, we conclude that the
pressure at a point in a static fluid acts with the same magnitude in all directions:
p
n
= p
x
= p

= p
z
(3.7)
The unit of pressure can be easily derived from the definition of pressure as force per unit
area: the unit of pressure is therefore Newton per square meter (N/m
2
), which is called
Pascal (Pa). This means: 1 Pa = 1 N/m
2
.
The Pascal unit is usually too small for pressures encountered in practice. For this
reason, we are using its multiples: kilopascal (1kPa = 10
3
Pa) and megapascal (1MPa =
10
6
Pa). There are other units of pressure commonly used in engineering practice such as
bar, standard atmosphere, mm of mercury column, or in Anglo-Saxon countries, the unit
psi meaning pound (of force) per square inch:
1 bar = 10
5
Pa
1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 760 mm Hg = 14.696 psi
Throughout this entire course, we will use a wide variety of different pressures: static
pressure, dynamic pressure, stagnation pressure, absolute pressure, gauge pressure and
others. For this reason, pressure has to be clarified each time it is used.



Figure 3.2. Absolute, gage and vacuum pressures.

In thermodynamics, we are dealing primarily with absolute pressures, but not
necessarily in fluid mechanics. The absolute pressure is a sum of atmospheric pressure
and gauge pressure. A zero absolute pressure is the pressure of a perfect vacuum. A zero
gauge pressure is the pressure of the local atmospheric pressure, also called barometric
pressure. It needs to be noted that its value is not fixed but varies with both time and
location on earth. In some cases, the gauge pressure is measured against a standard
atmosphere the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm high at the
temperature of 273.15 K. At these conditions, the absolute pressure is 1 bar or 101,325
Pascals. If the gauge pressure is positive, the pressure is greater than the local
atmospheric pressure. The negative absolute pressure is sometimes referred to as suction
pressure. This is illustrated in Figure 3.2. Summarizing, the pressure relative to the
atmospheric pressure is called the gage pressure, and the pressure relative to an absolute
vacuum is called absolute pressure. Most pressure gages (like car or bicycle tire gage)
read relative to atmospheric pressure, and therefore read the gage pressure.

Example 3.1. Calculating absolute pressure
A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 24 kPa at a location where the atmospheric
pressure is 92 kPa. Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber.





Solution: The absolute pressure in the chamber is determined from:
kPa p p p
vac atm abs
68 24 92 = = =
We must remember that vacuum pressure is the negative of gage pressure hence the
negative sign.

Pressure Variation with Elevation (Depth). For a static fluid, pressure varies only with
the elevation within the fluid. This may be shown by isolating a cylindrical element of
fluid and applying the equation of equilibrium to the element. Consider the element
shown in Fig. 3.3.

Figure 3.3 Variation in pressure with elevation.
Here the element is oriented so that its longitudinal axis is parallel to an arbitrary l
direction. The element is Al long, AA in cross-sectional area, and inclined at an angle o
with the horizontal. The equation of equilibrium for the l direction, considering the

Pabs
Patm = 92 kPa
24 kPa
pressure forces and gravitational force acting on the element in this direction, is
0 =
l
F and:
( ) 0 sin = A A A A + A o l A A p p A p (3.8)
Upon simplifying, and dividing by the volume of the element, AlAA, this reduces to:
o sin =
A
A
l
p
(3.9)
However, if we let the length of the element approach zero, then in the limit Ap/Al =
dp/dl. Also one notes that sin o = dz/dl. Therefore:
dl
dz
dl
dp
= (3.10)
This can also be written as:
g
dz
dp
= = (3.11)
which is the basic equation for hydrostatic pressure variation with elevation. Equation
3.11 states that for static fluids a change of pressure in the l direction, dp/dl, occurs only
when there is a change of elevation in the l direction, dz/dl. In other words, if one
considers a path through the fluid that lies in a horizontal plane, the pressure everywhere
along this path is constant. On the other hand, the greatest possible change in hydrostatic
pressure occurs along a vertical path through the fluid. Furthermore, Eqs. 3.10 and 3.11
state that the pressure changes inversely with elevation. If one travels upward in the fluid
(positive z direction), the pressure decreases; and if one goes downward (negative z), the
pressure increases. Of course, a pressure increase is exactly what a diver experiences
when descending in a lake or pool.
Atmospheric air pressure which is the external pressure exerted on the skin decreases
with increasing elevation. Therefore, the pressure is lower at higher elevations. As a
result, the difference between the blood pressure in the veins and the air pressure outside
increases. This pressure imbalance may cause some thin-walled veins such as the ones in
the nose to burst, causing bleeding. The shortness of breath is caused by the lower air
density at higher elevations, and thus lower amount of oxygen per unit volume.

Pressure Transmission. In a closed system a pressure change produced at one point in
the system will be transmitted throughout the entire system. The principle is known as
Pascal's law after Pascal, the French scientist. Pascals law states that the pressure
applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same amount. This
phenomenon of pressure transmission, along with the ease with which fluids can be
moved, has led to the widespread development of hydraulic controls for operating
equipment such as aircraft-control surfaces, heavy earthmoving equipment, and hydraulic
presses. Figure 3.4 is an illustration of the application of this principle in the form of a
hydraulic lift used in service stations.



Figure 3.4 Hydraulic lift lifting a large weight by a small force.

Pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same
amount. Specifically, in Fig. 3.4, pistons are at the same heights and therefore:
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
2 1
A
A
F
F
A
F
A
F
p p = = = (3.12)
Ratio A
2
/A
1
is called an ideal mechanical advantage.

Example 3.2. Pascal Law application a hydraulic lift.
The 500-kg load on the hydraulic lift is to be raised by pouring oil ( = 780 kg/m
3
) into a
thin tube. Determine how high h should be in order to begin to raise the weight.



We make following assumptions: 1 The cylinders of the lift are vertical. 2 There are no
leaks. 3 Atmospheric pressure act on both sides, and thus it can be disregarded. 4. The
density of oil is given to be =780 kg/m
3
.
Solution: Noting that pressure is force per unit area, the gage pressure in the fluid
under the load is simply the ratio of the weight to the area of the lift,

kPa 4.34 kN/m 34 . 4
4 / m) 20 . 1 (
) m/s kg)(9.81 500 (
4 /
2
2
2
2
gage
= = = = =
t tD
mg
A
W
P

The required oil height that will cause 4.34 kPa of pressure rise is

m 0.567 = = = =
) m/s )(9.81 kg/m (780
kN/m 34 . 4

2 3
2
gage
gage
g
p
h gh p

Therefore, a 500 kg load can be raised by this hydraulic lift by simply raising the oil level
in the tube by 56.7 cm.
Note that large weights can be raised by little effort in hydraulic lift by making use of
Pascals principle.

Pressure Variation for a Uniform-Density Fluid. Equations 3.10 and 3.11 describe the
rate of change of pressure for all fluids in static equilibrium. In most technical
applications we are dealing with the liquid of a constant density, therefore assuming
const = and integrating Eq. 3.11 gives:
C gz p + = (3.13)
or
(3.14)
As shown by the equation, the sum of g p and elevation z is constant throughout an
incompressible static fluid. Therefore, one can relate the pressure and elevation at one
point to the pressure and elevation at another point in the fluid in the following manner:
2
2
1
1
z
g
p
z
g
p
+ = +

(3.15)
or
z g p A = A (3.16)
Note, however, that Eqs. 3.13 through 3.16 are applicable only in fluids with constant
densities. Therefore, Eqs. 3.15 and 3.16 can be applied between two points in a given
fluid but not across an interface between two fluids having different specific weights.

Pressure Variation for Compressible Fluids. The preceding section dealt with pressure
variation in fluids for which the fluid density is constant. However, when the fluid
density varies significantly as for compressible fluids, it must be expressed in such a form
that Eq. (3.11) can be integrated. For the case of an ideal gas, this is accomplished
through the equation of state, which relates the density of the gas to pressure and
temperature:
RT
p
=

(3.17)
or
RT
p
= (3.18)
where R is the gas constant, for example 0.287 kJ/kgK, for dry air, T is the absolute
temperature K, and p is the absolute pressure in Pa.
Eq. 3.18 introduces another variable, temperature, so it becomes necessary to have
additional data relating temperature and elevation. Lacking such data, one can resort to
the so-called U.S. standard atmosphere. This is a set of data compiled by the U.S.
National Weather Service that represents average conditions over the United States at 40
N latitude. At sea level the standard atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa and the
temperature is 288 K. Also, the atmosphere is divided into two layers, the troposphere
and the stratosphere. In the troposphere, defined as the layer between sea level and
10,769 m, the temperature decreases linearly with increasing elevation at a constant lapse
rate of 6.50 K/km. The stratosphere begins at the top of the troposphere and extends to
an elevation of 32.3 km. In the stratosphere the temperature is constant at -55C. We now
have sufficient information to calculate the pressure and density at any elevation. Let us
first consider the troposphere:

Pressure Variation in the Troposphere: Let the temperature T be given by
T=T
0
- o(z-z
0
) (3.19)
In this equation T
0
is the temperature at a reference level where the pressure is known and
o is the lapse rate. If we use the density of a gas from Eq. 3.18 in the basic hydrostatic
equation, we obtain
(3.20)
Substituting Eq. 3.19 for T, we have:
(3.21)
Now we must separate the variables and integrate to obtain:
(3.22)
and finally:
(3.23)

Pressure Variation in the Stratosphere: In the stratosphere the temperature is assumed to
be constant. Therefore, integrating Eq. 3.20, we obtain:

(3.24)
At z = z
0
, p = p
0
, so the Eq. 3.24 reduces to:
(3.25)
and finally:
(3.26)

Example 3.3. Consequence of pressure variation with elevation
There are two identical fans, one at sea level and the other on top of a high mountain,
running at identical speeds. How would you compare (a) the volume flow rates and (b)
the mass flow rates of these two fans?

The density of air at sea level is higher than the density of air on top of a high mountain.
Therefore, the volume flow rates of the two fans running at identical speeds will be the
same, but the mass flow rate of the fan at sea level will be higher.

In reality, the fan blades on the high mountain would experience less frictional drag, and
hence the fan motor would not have as much resistance the rotational speed of the fan
on the mountain would be slightly higher than that at sea level.

3.2 Pressure Measurement

The most popular method to measure pressure, which is based on the above hydrostatics
theory is to use columns of liquids in vertical or inclined tubes. The height of the liquid
can be translated into a pressure. These devices are called manometers. Tubes are chosen
to have sufficiently large diameters that capillary effects are small. In U-tube manometer
the capillary effects will tend to cancel out. There are many kinds and types of
manometers, and some of them are listed below:

Piezometer. The simplest form of manometer is the piezometer shown in Fig. 3.5. The
height of the fluid in the tube gives the difference between pressure in the chamber and
atmosphere:
atm atm A
p h p gh p + = + = (3.27)
The piezometer is only useful when the pressure to be measured is greater than
atmospheric. Otherwise air would be sucked back into system.


Figure 3.5 Piezometer

U-tube Manometer. A very common form of manometer is the U-tube manometer (Fig.
3.6). In this version one of the tubes is open to the atmosphere. Pressure in Point A can be
determined as follows:
p
2
= p
3
= p
atm
+
2
h
2

p
2
= p
1
+
1
h
1
= p
A
+
2
h
2

p
A
+
1
h
1
= p
3
= p
atm
+
2
h
2,

and finally:
p
A
= p
atm
+
2
h
2
-
1
h
1
(3.28)
If fluid 1 is a gas, impact of
1
h
1
term is small and can be ignored.




Figure 3.6 U-tube Manometer



Differential U-tube Manometer. This type of manometer is shown in Figure 3.7, where
both ends of the manometer can be containers. Thus one determines the differential
pressure as follows:
p
2
= p
3

p
2
= p
1
+
1
h
1
= p
A
+
1
h
1

p
3
= p
4
+
2
h
2
= p
B
+
2
h
2
= p
3
+
3
h
3,
and finally:
p
A
- p
B
=
2
h
2
+
3
h
3
-
1
h
1
(3.29)
If fluid 1 is a gas, impact of
1
h
1
term is small. If fluid 3 is a gas, impact of
3
h
3
term is
small and can be ignored.




Figure 3.7. Differential U-tube Manometer

Inclined tube manometer. Consider the two-container differential tube manometer as
shown in Figure 3.8.



Figure 3.8. Inclined Tube Manometer
In this case, the differential pressure can be determined as follows:
1 1 3 3 2 2
h h h p p
B A
+ =
and considering the incline:
1 1 3 3 2 2
sin h h l p p
B A
u + = (3.30)
If fluids 1 and 3 are gaseous, impact of terms
1
h
1
and
3
h
3
term are small and the final
expression for the differential pressure is:
u sin
2 2
l p p
B A
= (3.31)

Mercury Barometer. A Barometer is the device for measuring the atmospheric pressure.
Note that the atmosphere will support a column of mercury approximately 0.760m high.

W
o
r
k
i
n
g

f
l
u
i
d
s

f
o
r

m
a
n
o
m
e
t
e
r
s
This observation is used for measuring the atmospheric pressure with the barometer as
shown in Figure 3.9. The top of the tube is closed and is almost a vacuum.
The pressure at point A is due to evaporated fluid, and in case of mercury, it can be
neglected. Therefore, the pressure can be determined from the following formula:
h p
Hg atm
= (3.32)



Figure 3.9 A barometer

Some common working fluids are:
Alcohol with specific gravity of 0.75-0.87
Water with specific gravity of 1.00
Mercury with specific gravity of 13.6
When dealing with small pressure differences, the best fluid is water or alcohol. An
inclined manometer also helps measure small pressures. Mercury is used for large
pressure differences.

Bourdon gauges. Measuring high pressures involves the use of manometers with
mercury, which is toxic. Also, manometers are in general bulky and can be inconvenient
to use. The most commonly used pressure gauge is the Bourdon pressure gauge, which
show the pressure directly on the scale. Basic principle is that pressure acts on an elastic
structure, which deforms. The C-tube Bourdon gauge
uses the principle that the tube tends to straighten as
the pressure is increased. The Bourdon gauge only
measures a gauge pressure, it does not measure
absolute pressure.







Figure 3.10. Typical Bourdon pressure gauge (left) and the principle of operation of C-
tube gauge (right).

Example 3.4. Calculating pressure with multi-fluid manometer
The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is measured by a multifluid
manometer as shown in Figure below. Determine the gage pressure of air in the tank if h
1

= 0.2 m, h
2
= 0.3 m, and h
3
= 0.46 m.


We assume that the air pressure in the tank is uniform (i.e., its variation with elevation is
negligible due to its low density), and thus we can determine the pressure at the air-water
interface. Take the densities of water, oil, and mercury to be 1000 kg/m
3
, 850 kg/m
3
, and
13,600 kg/m
3
, respectively.

Solution: Starting with the pressure at point 1 at the air-water interface, and moving
along the tube by adding (as we go down) or subtracting (as we go up) the gh terms
until we reach point 2, and setting the result equal to p
atm
since the tube is open to the
atmosphere gives:

3 2 1 1
gh gh gh p
Hg oil water
+ +
Solving for
1
p :


3 2 1 1
gh gh gh p p
Hg oil water atm
+ =
or,
) (
1 2 3 1
gh h h g p p
water oil Hg atm
=
Noting that
atm gage
p p p =
1 , 1
and substituting,

( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) | |
kPa
m m kg m m kg m m kg s m p
gage
9 . 56
2 . 0 1000 3 . 0 850 46 . 0 600 , 13 ) 81 . 9 (
3 3 3 2
, 1
=
= =

Note that jumping horizontally from one tube to the next and realizing that pressure
remains the same in the same fluid simplifies the analysis greatly.

Example 3.5. Expressing blood pressure in various units
Blood pressure is usually measured by wrapping a closed air-filled jacket equipped with a
pressure gage around the upper arm of a person at the level of the heart. Using a mercury
manometer and a stethoscope, the systolic pressure (the maximum pressure when the
heart is pumping) and the diastolic pressure (the minimum pressure when the heart is
resting) are measured in mmHg. The systolic and diastolic pressures of a healthy person
are about 120 mmHg and 80 mmHg, respectively, and are indicated as 120/80. Express
both of these gage pressures in kPa, and meter water column.

We assume that both mercury and water are incompressible substances. We take the
densities of water and mercury to be 1000 kg/m
3
and 13,600 kg/m
3
, respectively.
Solution Using the relation gh p = for gage pressure, the high and low pressures are
expressed as:

kPa gh p
kPa gh p
7 . 10 m) )(0.08 m/s )(9.81 kg/m (13,600
0 . 16 m) )(0.12 m/s )(9.81 kg/m (13,600
2 3
low low
2 3
high high
= = =
= = =

For a given pressure, the relation gh P = is expressed for mercury and water as
water water
gh p = and
mercury mercury
gh p = . Setting these two relations equal to each other
and solving for water height gives:
mercury
water
mercury
water mercury mercury water water
h h gh gh p

= = =
Therefore,
m h h
m h h
09 . 1 m) 08 . 0 (
kg/m 1000
kg/m 600 , 13
63 . 1 m) 12 . 0 (
kg/m 1000
kg/m 600 , 13
3
3
low mercury,
water
mercury
low water,
3
3
high mercury,
water
mercury
high water,
= = =
= = =

Note that measuring blood pressure with a water manometer would involve water column
heights higher than the persons height, and thus it is impractical. This problem shows
why mercury is a suitable fluid for blood pressure measurement devices.

Example 3.6. Measuring height of a building with a barometer
The basic barometer can be used to measure the height of a building. If the barometric
readings at the top and at the bottom of a building are 730 and 755 mmHg, respectively,
determine the height of the building. Assume an average air density of 1.18 kg/m
3
.


We assume that the variation of air density with altitude is negligible. The density of
mercury is 13,600 kg/m
3
.
Solution. Atmospheric pressures at the top and at the bottom of the building are:

( ) ( )( )( ) kPa m s m m kg gh p
top top
39 . 97 730 . 0 81 . 9 600 , 13
2 3
= = =

( ) ( )( )( ) kPa m s m m kg gh p
bottom bottom
73 . 100 755 . 0 81 . 9 600 , 13
2 3
= = =

Taking an air column between the top and the bottom of the building, we write a force
balance per unit base area,

top bottom air
p p A W = and ( )
top bottom air
p p gh =

( )( ) ( )kPa h s m m kg 39 . 97 73 . 100 81 . 9 18 . 1
2 3
=

which yields h = 288.5 m ~ 289 m, which is also the height of the building.
3.3. Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane Surfaces

A plate submerged in water, such as swimming pool wall, dam or the hull of the ship is
subjected to fluid pressure, called hydrostatic pressure. On the flat plate, the hydrostatic
pressure forms a system of parallel forces. They can be described by the magnitude of the
force and its point of application, which is also called the center of pressure. In most
cases, the opposite side of the plate is open to the atmosphere and therefore, atmospheric
pressure acts on both sides and can be neglected. It means that for convenience we are
considering gage pressure only. However, we will now consider the most general case of
an inclined plate of any shape submerged in a liquid in the coordinates as shown in
Figure 3.11. The plane of this surface, which is normal to this page, intersects the
horizontal free surface with an angle . The absolute pressure above the liquid is p
0
(local
atmospheric pressure if the liquid is open to the atmosphere). If the space above the liquid
is either evacuated or pressurized, then
0
p is different than atmospheric pressure.


Figure 3.11. Hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface

The absolute pressure at any point on the plate is:
u sin
0 0
gy p gh p p + = + = (3.33)
Where h is the vertical distance of the point from the free surface and y is the distance of
the point from x-axis. The resultant force F
R
can be determined by integrating over the
entire surface area A:
} } }
+ = + = =
A A A
R
ydA g p dA gy p pdA F u u sin ) sin (
0 0
(3.34)
Note that
}
A
ydA is the first moment of area and it is related to the y-coordinate of the
centroid of the surface by:

}
=
A
C
ydA
A
y
1
(3.35)
Substituting:
( ) A p A gh p A gy p F
C C C R
= + = + = u
0 0
) sin ( (3.36)
Where
C C
gh p p + =
0
is the pressure at the centroid of the surface and h
c
is the vertical
distance from the free surface to the location of the centroid:
u sin
C C
y h = (3.37)
Therefore ,we can conclude as follows:
The magnitude of the resultant force acting on a plane surface of a completely
submerged plate is equal to the product of the pressure at the location of the
centroid of the surface p
C
and the area A of the surface.

Next, we need to determine the line of action of the resultant force F
R
. For this we will
use the parallel forces theorem, which says that two parallel force systems are equivalent
if they have the same magnitude and the same moment about any point. Note, that the
line of action of the resultant hydrostatic force, in general case does not pass through the
centroid of the surface but lies somewhere lower where the pressure is higher. The point
of intersection of the line of action of the resultant force and the surface is called the
center of pressure (Fig. 3.12.)


Figure 3.12. The resultant force acting on a plane surface.

The vertical location of the line of action is determined by equating the moment of the
resultant force to the moment of the distributed pressure force about x-axis:
}
= =
A
R P
ypdA F y dA y g ydA p dA gy p y
A A A
} } }
= = +
2
0 0
sin ) sin ( u u (3.38)
and
0 , 0
sin
xx C R P
I g A y p F y u + = (3.39)
Where y
P
is the distance of the center of pressure from the x-axis, and dA y I
A
xx
}
=
2
0 ,
is
the second moment of area or moment of inertia about x-axis. The second moments of
area are commonly available for many shapes in engineering handbooks, but they are
always given about the axes passing through the centroid of the area. We can then use
parallel axis theorem to calculate the moment about any axis:
A y I I C
C xx xx
2
, 0 ,
+ = (3.40)
Where I
xx,C
is the second moment of area about the x-axis passing through the centroid of
the area and y
C
is the distance between the two parallel axes. Substituting the F
R
from Eq.
3.34 and the I
xx,C
from Eq. 3.40 into Eq. 3.39 and solving above relations for y
P
gives:
( ) | |A g p y
I
y y
C
C xx
C P
u sin
0
,
+
+ = (3.41)
For the usual case when atmospheric pressure is applied to both sides of the plate, the
equation above simplifies to:
A y
I
y y
C
C xx
C P
,
+ = (3.42)
From known y
P,
the vertical distance of the center of pressure from the free surface h
P
is
determined:
u sin
P P
y h = (3.43)
Table 3.1 shows the values of moment of inertia and the location of a centroid for few
common geometrical figures:

Submerged rectangular plate. As an example, the derived formulas are used here for a
fully submerged rectangular plate of height b and width a whose top edge is at the
distance s from the free surface and in three different positions: (a) tilted at an angle , (b)
vertical and (c) horizontal.
The expressions for the resultant force is given underneath of each case. The location
of the center of pressure can be calculated by substituting the plate dimensions a, b and
entering the moment of inertia for a rectangle to Eq. 3.40.



Table 3.1 Moment of inertia and centroid location for common geometries







Figure 3.13. Hydrostatic force acting on submerged rectangular plate in different
positions.
For tilted rectangular plate:
| | ) sin ( 2 12 2
0
2
u g p b s
b b
s y
P
+ +
+ + = (3.44)
For vertical plate:
| | g p b s
b b
s y
P

0
2
2 12 2 + +
+ + = (3.45)
when p
0
can be neglected in cases when it acts on both sides of the plate and when the
top edge of the plate is at the free surface (s=0) then for vertical plate:
( )b h y
P P
3 2 = = (3.46)
This formula is used very often for calculating the hydrostatic forces acting on various
vertical walls of pools, channels, etc.
Note, that for a horizontal plate, the resultant force acts through the midpoint of the
plate.
As we see, the magnitude of the resultant force acting on a plane surface of a
completely submerged body in a homogeneous fluid is equal to the product of the
pressure
C
p at the centroid of the surface and the area A of the surface. The pressure at the
centroid of the surface is
C C
gh p p + =
0
where
C
h is the vertical distance of the centroid
from the free surface of the liquid. This make it easy to determine the magnitude of the
hydrostatic force acting on a plane surface submerged in water regardless of its shape and
orientation if we knew the vertical distance of the centroid of the surface from the free
surface and the area of the surface.
To further illustrate the concept of a resultant hydrostatic force, consider a submerged
horizontal flat plate which is suspended in water by a string attached at the centroid of its
upper surface. Now the plate is rotated 45 about an axis that passes through its centroid.
There will be no change on the hydrostatic force acting on the top surface of this
submerged horizontal flat plate as a result of this rotation since the magnitude of the
resultant force acting on a plane surface of a completely submerged body in a
homogeneous fluid is equal to the product of the pressure
C
p at the centroid of the surface
and the area A of the surface. However, in case the rotation is not around the centroid,
there would be a change in the force.
As another conclusion we notice that dams are built much thicker at the bottom
because the pressure force increases with depth, and the bottom part of dams are
subjected to largest forces. Dam construction requires an enormous amount of concrete,
so tapering the dam in this way saves a lot of concrete, and therefore a lot of money.

Example 3.7. Calculating hydrostatic force
A car is submerged in a lake with a flat bottom. The drivers side door of the car is 1.1 m
high and 0.9 m wide, and the top edge of the door is 8 m below the water surface.
Determine the net force acting on the door (normal to its surface) and the location of the
pressure center if (a) the car is well-sealed and it contains air at atmospheric pressure and
(b) the car is filled with water.

We assume that: 1 The bottom surface of the lake is horizontal. 2 The door can be
approximated as a vertical rectangular plate. 3 The pressure in the car remains at
atmospheric value since there is no water leaking in, and thus no compression of the air
inside. Therefore, we can ignore the atmospheric pressure in calculations since it acts on
both sides of the door.
The density of lake water is taken as 1000 kg/m
3
.
Solution (a) When the car is well-sealed and thus the pressure inside the car is the
atmospheric pressure, the average pressure on the outer surface of the door is the pressure
at the centroid (midpoint) of the surface, and is determined to be:
( ) ( )( )( )
2 2 3
88 . 83 2 1 . 1 8 81 . 9 1000 2 m kN m s m m kg b s g gh p p
C C avg
= + = + = = =

Then the resultant hydrostatic force on the door becomes:

( )( ) kN m m m kN A p F
avg R
83 1 . 1 9 . 0 88 . 83
2
= = =
The pressure center is directly under the midpoint of the plate, and its distance from the
surface of the lake is determined to be
m
b s
b b
s y
P
56 . 8
) 2 / 1 . 1 8 ( 12
1 . 1
2
1 . 1
8
) 2 / ( 12 2
2 2
=
+
+ + =
+
+ + =
(b) When the car is filled with water, the net force normal to the surface of the door is
zero since the pressure on both sides of the door will be the same.
Note that it is impossible for a person to open the door of the car when it is filled with
atmospheric air. A strong person can lift 100 kg, whose weight is 981N or about 1 kN.
Also, the person can apply the force at a point farthest from the hinges (0.9m farther) for
maximum effect and generate a moment of 0.9 m kN . The resultant hydrostatic force
acts at the midpoint of the door, and thus a distance of 0.45m from the hinges. This
generates a moment of 37.35 m kN which is about 37 times the moment the driver can
possibly generate. Therefore it is impossible for the driver to open the door of the car.
The drivers best chance to open the door is to let some water in by rolling down a
window and to keep his head close to the ceiling. The driver should be able to open the
door shortly before the car is filled with water since at that point the pressures at both
sides of the door are nearly the same and opening the door in water is almost as easy as
opening it in air.

Example 3.8 Calculating hydrostatic force and a center of pressure
A room in the lower level of a cruise ship has a 30-cm-diameter circular window. If the
midpoint of the window is 5 m below the water surface, determine the hydrostatic force
acting on the window, and the pressure center.



Atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of the window, and thus it can be ignored in
calculations for convenience. We take the specific gravity of seawater to be 1.025.

Solution: The average pressure on a surface is the pressure at the centroid (midpoint) of
the surface, and is determined to be
( )( )( )
2 2 3
276 , 50 5 81 . 9 1025 m N m s m m kg p p
C avg
= = =
Then the resultant hydrostatic force on each wall becomes:
| | ( ) ( ) | | N m m N D p A p F
avg avg R
3554 4 / 3 . 0 276 , 50 4
2 2 2
= = = = t t








The line of action of the force passes through the pressure center, whose vertical distance
from the free surface is determined from
( )
( )
m m
m
m
y
R
y
R y
R
y
A y
I
y y
C
C
C
C
C
C xx
C p
00 . 5 001 . 5
5 4
15 . 0
5
4
4
2 2
2
4
,
~ = + = + = + = + =
t
t


Example 3.9 Combined statics-hydrostatics problem
The two sides of a V-shaped water trough are hinged to each other at the bottom where
they meet, as shown in Figure below, making an angle of 45 with the ground from both
sides. Each side is 0.75 m wide, and the two parts are held together by a cable and
turnbuckle placed every 6 m along the length of the trough. Calculate the tension in each
cable when the trough is filled to the rim.
We assume: 1 Atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of the trough wall, and thus it can
be ignored in calculations for convenience. 2 The weight of the trough is negligible. 3
Density of water is 1000 kg/m
3


F
R
5 m
D=0.3 m

Solution: To expose the cable tension, we consider free-body diagram, which is a half of
the trough whose cross-section is triangular. The water height h at the midsection of the
trough and width of the free surface are:









m 530 . 0 m)cos45 75 . 0 ( cos
m 530 . 0 m)sin45 75 . 0 ( sin
= = =
= = =
u
u
L b
L h

The hydrostatic forces acting on the vertical and horizontal plane surfaces as well as the
weight of the liquid block are determined as follows:

Horizontal force on vertical surface:
( )A h g A gh A p F F
C avg x H
2 = = = =
Substituting numerical values:
( )( )( )( ) N m m s m m kg F
H
8267 6 530 . 0 2 530 . 0 81 . 9 1000
2 3
= =
The vertical force on the horizontal surface is zero since it coincides with the free surface
of water. The weight of fluid block per 6-m length is:
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) | |
N
m m m s m m kg A h g bh w g W F
V
8267
2 530 . 0 530 . 0 6 81 . 9 1000 2 2
2 3
=
= = = =

The distance of the centroid of a triangle from a side is 1/3 of the height of the triangle
for that side. Taking the moment about point A where the two parts are hinged and
setting it equal to zero gives
0
3 3
A H
b h
M W F Th = + =

Solving for T and substituting, and noting that h = b, the tension in the cable is
determined to be :

( )
N
N W F
T
H
5510
3
8267 8267
3
~
+
=
+
=



F
H
W
0.75 m
45
T
b
A
3.4 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Curved Surfaces

For a submerged curved surface, the determination of resultant hydrostatic force
typically requires integration of the pressure forces that change direction along the curved
surface. The simplest way is to determine the horizontal and vertical components
separately and then to calculate the resultant force. First, we need to consider free-body
diagram of the liquid block enclosed by the curved surface and the two plane surfaces
(one horizontal and one vertical) passing through the two ends of the curved surface as
shown in Figure 3.14 below. The vertical surface of a liquid block is the projection of the
curved surface on a vertical plane and the horizontal surface is the projection of the
curved surface on a horizontal plane. The resultant force acting on the curved solid
surface is then equal and opposite to the force acting on the curved liquid surface
(Newtons third law).


Figure 3.14 Calculation of the hydrostatic force on a curved surface

Horizontal force component on curved surface is determined as:
x H
F F = . Line of action
on vertical plane gives y coordinate of center of pressure on curved surface. The
horizontal component of the hydrostatic force acting on a curved surface is equal (in both
magnitude and the line of action) to the hydrostatic force acting on the vertical
projection of the curved surface.
Vertical force component on curved surface is: W F F
y V
+ = , where W is the weight
of the liquid in the enclosed block W=gV. Horizontal (x-) coordinate of the center of
pressure is a combination of line of action on horizontal plane (centroid of area) and line
of action through volume (centroid of volume). The vertical component of the hydrostatic
force acting on a curved surface is equal to the hydrostatic force acting on the
horizontal projection of the curved surface, plus (minus, if acting in the opposite
direction) the weight of the fluid block.

Magnitude of the resultant force:
2 2
V H R
F F F + = (3.47)

Angle of force is: ( )
H V
F F
1
tan

= o (3.48)
The resultant hydrostatic force acting on a circular surface always passes through the
center of the circle since the pressure forces are normal to the surface, and all lines
normal to the surface of a circle pass through the center of the circle. Thus the pressure
forces form a concurrent force system at the center, which can be reduced to a single
equivalent force at that point. If the magnitudes of the horizontal and vertical components
of the resultant hydrostatic force are known, the tangent of the angle is: ( )
H V
F F = o tan .

Example 3.10. Calculating hydrostatic force on curved surfaces
The water side of the wall of a 100-m-long dam is a quarter circle with a radius of 10 m.
Determine the hydrostatic force on the dam and its line of action when the dam is filled to
the rim.
Atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of the dam, and thus it can be ignored in
calculations for convenience.
We take the density of water to be 1000 kg/m
3
.
Solution We consider the free body diagram of the liquid block enclosed by the circular
surface of the dam and its vertical and horizontal projections. The hydrostatic forces
acting on the vertical and horizontal plane surfaces as well as the weight of the liquid
block are:













Horizontal force on vertical surface:
( ) ( )( )( )( )
N
m m m s m m kg A R g A gh A p F F
C avg x H
7
2 3
10 905 . 4
100 10 2 10 81 . 9 1000 2
=
= = = = =

Vertical force on horizontal surface is zero since it coincides with the free surface of
water. The weight of fluid block per m length is:

| | ( )( )( ) ( )
N
m m s m m kg R w g g W F
V
7
2 2 3 2
10 705 . 7
4 / 10 100 81 . 9 1000 4
=
= = = = t t


R = 10 m
F
H
F
y
= 0
W
Then the magnitude and direction of the hydrostatic force acting on the surface of the
dam become:
( ) ( ) N N N F F F
V H R
7
2
7
2
7 2 2
10 134 . 9 10 705 . 7 10 905 . 4 = + = + =

5 . 57 571 . 1
10 905 . 4
10 705 . 7
tan
7
7
= =

= = o o
N
N
F
F
H
V

Therefore, the line of action of the hydrostatic force passes through the center of the
curvature of the dam, making 57.5 downwards from the horizontal.

Below is another, slightly more involved problem, dealing also with a circular surface
and requiring some knowledge of statics.

Example 3.11. Hydrostatic forces acting on curved surfaces
A 4-m-long quarter-circular gate of radius 3 m and of negligible weight is hinged about
its upper edge A, as shown in Figure below. The gate controls the flow of water over the
ledge at B, where the gate is pressed by a spring. Determine the minimum spring force
required to keep the gate closed when the water level rises to A at the upper edge of the
gate. Take density of water to be 1000 kg/m
3
.



We assume that: 1 The hinge is frictionless. 2 The atmospheric pressure acts on both
sides of the gate, and thus it can be ignored in calculations for convenience. 3 The weight
of the gate is negligible.
Solution We consider the free body diagram of the liquid block enclosed by the circular
surface of the gate and its vertical and horizontal projections. The hydrostatic forces
acting on the vertical and horizontal plane surfaces as well as the weight of the liquid
block are determined as follows:

Horizontal force on vertical surface:
( ) ( )( )( )( )
kN
m m m s m m kg A R g A gh A p F F
C avg x H
6 . 176
3 4 2 3 81 . 9 1000 2
2 3
=
= = = = =


Vertical force on horizontal surface (upward):
( )( )( )( ) kN m m m s m m kg A gh A gh A p F
bottom C avg y
2 . 353 3 4 3 81 . 9 1000
2 3
= = = = =













The weight of fluid block per 4-m length (downwards):
| | ( )( )( ) ( ) kN m m s m m kg R w g g W 4 . 277 4 / 3 4 81 . 9 1000 4
2 2 3 2
= = = = t t

Therefore, the net upward vertical force is
kN W F F
y V
8 . 75 4 . 277 2 . 353 = = =
Then the magnitude and direction of the hydrostatic force acting on the surface of the 4-
m long quarter-circular section of the gate become

( ) ( ) kN kN kN F F F
V H R
2 . 192 8 . 75 6 . 176
2 2 2 2
= + = + =

2 . 23 429 . 0
6 . 176
8 . 75
tan = = = = o o
kN
kN
F
F
H
V

Therefore, the magnitude of the hydrostatic force acting on the gate is 192.2 kN, and its
line of action passes through the center of the quarter-circular gate making an angle 23.2
upwards from the horizontal.
The minimum spring force needed is determined by taking a moment about the point
A where the hinge is, and setting it equal to zero,
( ) 0 90 sin 0 = =

R F R F M
spring R A
o
Solving for F
spring
and substituting, the spring force is determined to be
( ) ( ) ( ) kN kN F F
R spring
177 2 . 23 90 sin 2 . 192 90 sin = = =

o





R = 3 m
F
x
F
y
W

F
s
A

B

3.5 Archimedes Principle Buoyancy

It is a common knowledge that bodies weight less and feels lighter when submerged in a
liquid. This can be easily demonstrated by weighting any object in water and in air. Light
materials, such as wood float on water while metals sink. Therefore, it must be a upward
force acting on a body submerged in a liquid. This upward force a fluid exerts on an
immersed body is called the buoyant force. The buoyant force is caused by the increase
of pressure in a fluid with depth. In order to determine the magnitude of this force, we
will consider a flat plate of thickness h submerged in a liquid of density
f
as shown in
Fig. 3.15. Using the formulas from the previous paragraph, the hydrostatic forces acting
on a top and bottom surfaces are respectively:
Top surface: gsA F
f top
= (3.48)

Bottom surface: ( )A h s g F
f bottom
+ = (3.49)



Figure 3.15 A flat plate submerged in a liquid schematics for calculating a buoyant
force.
The difference between these two forces is a net upward force, called a buoyant force:
( ) = = + = = g ghA gsA A h s g F F F
f f f f top bottom B
(3.50)
where volume hA = . Note, however, that the expression g
f
is the weight of a
liquid of the volume equal to the volume of the plate. Therefore, we can state that the
magnitude of the buoyant force acting on a submersed body is equal to the weight of the
liquid displaced by this body. This is known as Archimedes principle and is expressed
as:
The buoyant force acting on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the body, and it acts upward through the centroid of the displaced
volume.

Note that according to Eq. 3.50 the buoyant force does not depend on the depth, therefore
the buoyant forces acting on two bodies with identical volumes submerged in a liquid at
different depths are the same.
There are three possible scenario for a body submerged in a fluid:
1.
body
<
fluid
: Floating body
2.
body
=
fluid
: Neutrally buoyant body
3.
body
>
fluid
: Sinking body
For floating bodies, the weight of the body is equal to the buoyant force, which is the
weight of the fluid displaced by the submerged part of the body. It is therefore:
f
body
total
submerged
total body submerged f B
g g W F

= = (3.51)

Example 3.12. Calculating submerged volume
A large cubic ice block floats in seawater. The specific gravities of ice and seawater are
0.92 and 1.025, respectively. If a 10-cm-high portion of the ice block extends above the
surface of the water, determine the height of the ice block below the surface.



We make following assumptions: 1 The buoyancy force in air is negligible. 2 The top
surface of the ice block is parallel to the surface of the sea.
Solution: The weight of a body floating in a fluid is equal to the buoyant force acting on
it (a consequence of vertical force balance from static equilibrium). Therefore, in this
case the average density of the body must be equal to the density of the fluid since
W = F
B

submerged fluid total body
= g g


fluid
body
total
submerged

The cross-sectional of a cube is constant, and thus the volume ratio can be replaced by
height ratio. Then,

025 . 1
92 . 0
10 . 0

10 . 0

water
ice
fluid
body
total
submerged
=
+
=
+
=
h
h
h
h
h
h

where h is the height of the ice block below the surface. Solving for h gives
h = 0.876 m = 87.6 cm
Note that the 0.92/1.025 = 90% of the volume of an ice block remains under water. For
symmetrical ice blocks this also represents the fraction of height that remains under
water.
Example 3.13. Determining the density of a submerged body
The legend says that Archimedes discovered his principle during a bath while thinking
about how he could determine if King Hieros crown was actually made of pure gold. His
idea to determine the average density of an irregularly shaped object was to weight it in
air and also in water. If the crown weighed 31.4 N in air and 28.9 N in water, determine if
the crown is made of pure gold. The density of gold is 19,300 kg/m
3
. Take the density of
water to be 1000 kg/m
3
.

Solution: The mass of the crown is
kg
g
W
m 20 . 3
s m 81 . 9
N 4 . 31
2
air
= = =
The difference between the weights in air and in water is due to the buoyancy force in
water, and thus
N 50 . 2 9 . 28 4 . 31
water air
= = = W W F
B

Noting that V g F
B water
= , the volume of the crown is determined to be
( )( )
3 4
2 3
10 548 . 2
81 . 9 1000
50 . 2
m
s m m kg
N
g
F
water
B
= = =

Then the density of the crown becomes:
3
3
4
560 , 12
10 548 . 2
20 . 3
m kg
m
kg m
=

=


which is considerably less than the density of gold. Therefore, the crown is NOT made of
pure gold.
This problem can also be solved without doing any under-water weighing as follows: We
would weigh a bucket half-filled with water, and drop the crown into it. After marking
the new water level, we would take the crown out, and add water to the bucket until the
water level rises to the mark. We would weigh the bucket again. Dividing the weight
difference by the density of water and g will give the volume of the crown. Knowing both
the weight and the volume of the crown, the density can easily be determined.

Example 3.14. Determining the fat-to-muscle ratio of the body.
The muscle tissue is denser than the fat tissue, and, thus, the higher the average density of
the body, the higher is the fraction of muscle tissue. The average density of the body can
be determined by weighing the person in air and also while submerged in water in a tank.
Treating all tissues and bones (other than fat) as muscle with an equivalent density of

muscle
, we can obtain a relation for the volume fraction of body fat x
fat
.

The difference between the weights of the person in air and in water is due to the
buoyancy force in water. Therefore,

water air water water air
W W g W W F
B
= =
Knowing the weights and the density of water, the relation above gives the volume of the
person. Then the average density of the person can be determined from

=
g W m /
air
ave

Under assumption that the total mass of a person is equal to the sum of the masses of the
fat and muscle tissues, and the total volume of a person is equal to the sum of the
volumes of the fat and muscle tissues. The volume fraction of body fat is the ratio of the
fat volume to the total volume of the person. Therefore,

) - (1 and where
muscle fat
fat muscle muscle fat fat muscle fat
m m m
x x x
+ =
= = = + =

Noting that mass is density times volume, the last relation can be written as
+ =
+ =
) 1 (
fat muscle fat fat ave
muscle muscle fat fat ave
x x


Canceling the and solving for x
fat
gives the desired relation,
fat muscle
avg muscle
fat
x

=

Weighing a person in water in order to determine its volume is however not practical. A
more practical way is to use a large container, and measuring the change in volume when
the person is completely submerged in it.

3.6 Stability of Floating Bodies

The assessment of stability of immersed and floating bodies is of great importance in the
design of ships and submarines. A body at rest is in static equilibrium if this body is
disturbed by an external force and returns to its original position when the force is
removed, the body is considered to be in stable equilibrium. Therefore, a ship, which is
inclined from its normal position and returns to its original position is said to be stable.
The opposite of this is unstable equilibrium a condition when the body continues
to move in the same direction after it is originally set in motion by an external force.
Another state is neutral equilibrium, when the body comes to rest at any position to
which it is moved.
Summarizing, we have three states of equilibrium: stable, unstable and neutral. This
can be illustrated by balls on the floor as shown in Figure 3.16.




Figure 3.16 Three states of equilibrium: stable, neutrally stable and unstable.

For an immersed or floating body in static equilibrium, the weight and the buoyant force
acting on the body balance each other, and such bodies are always stable in the vertical
direction. If an immersed neutrally buoyant body is raised or lowered by a vertical force,
the body will remain in equilibrium at that location. If a floating body is raised or
lowered by a vertical force, the body will return to its original position as soon as the
external force is removed. Therefore, the floating body possesses vertical stability.

Rotational stability of immersed bodies depends upon relative location of center of
gravity G and center of buoyancy B as shown in Figure 3.17 below:
There are three possibilities:
1. G below B: stable the body is heavy on the bottom
2. G above B: unstable
3. G coincides with B: neutrally stable.



Figure 3.17 Rotational stability of immersed bodies

Another case is if the center of gravity is not vertically aligned with the center of
buoyancy. This case is shown in Figure 3.18:



Figure 3.18. Center of gravity G is not vertically aligned with center of buoyancy. In this
case, the body will rotate towards its stable state by means of restoring moment.

In order to discuss the stability of a ship, it is useful to make definitions of certain points
as marked below in Figure 3.19:



Figure 3.19 Stability of a ship

- Point B refers to the center of buoyancy. It is a centroid of the underwater or
displaced volume. It is the point through which the buoyant force acts vertically
upward.
- Point G refers to the center of gravity. The force of gravity acts vertically
downward through this point.
- Point M refers to the metacenter. It is the intersection of the buoyant forces line-
of-action with the vertical centerline of the ship. The metacenter may be
considered to be a fixed point for most hull shapes for small rolling angles up to
about 20.
A measure of stability for floating bodies is the metacentric height GM. Floating bodies
are stable when if point M is above point G and thus GM is positive. On the other hand,
the body is unstable if point M is below point G. In the latter case, the weight and the
buoyant force acted on the tilted body generate an overturning moment instead of a
restoring moment, causing the boat to capsize.