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contents
Volume 43 Sept - Nov 2009
Announcement
Pelaksanaan One Stop Centre (OSC) Online Publication Calender
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15 Safety And Health In Road Transportation 18 Safety And Health Assessment System In Construction
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Feature
23 Legislative Approach To Water Quality Management In Malaysia Success And Challenges 28 Economic Value Of Wild Bees In Honey Collection From The Forest
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33 Good Animal Husbandry Practice 37 Centralized And Decentralized Wastewater Management In Malaysia Experiences And Challenges (Part 2) 45 Safety of Electrical Workers 49 Treatment of Timber In Housing For Safe Occupation
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Engineering Nostalgia
54 A Mega Project In The 1970s Temengor Hydro Electric Project 55 Kuala Lumpur In The 1950s Jalan Medan Pasar
presidents message
KDN PP11720/01/2010(023647) ISSN 0128-4347
Vol. 43 Sept - Nov 2009 MEMBERS OF THE BOARD OF ENGINEERS MALAYSIA (BEM) 2009/2010 President YBhg. Dato Sri Prof. Ir. Dr Judin Abdul Karim Secretary Ir. Ruslan Abdul Aziz Registrar Ir. Hizamul-Din Ab. Rahman Members YBhg Tan Sri Prof. Ir. Dr Mohd Zulkifli bin Tan Sri Mohd Ghazali YBhg Dato Ir. Hj. Ahmad Husaini bin Sulaiman YBhg. Dato Ir. Abdul Rashid Maidin YBhg. Dato Ir. Dr Johari bin Basri YBhg. Datuk (Dr) Ir. Abdul Rahim Hj. Hashim YBhg. Brig. Jen. Dato Pahlawan Ir. Abdul Nasser bin Ahmad YBhg. Dato Ir. Prof. Dr Chuah Hean Teik YBhg. Datuk Ir. Anjin Hj Ajik YBhg. Datuk Ar. Dr Amer Hamzah Mohd Yunus Ir. Wong Siu Hieng Ir. Mohd Rousdin bin Hassan Ir. Prof. Dr Ruslan bin Hassan Ir. Tan Yean Chin Ir. Vincent Chen Kim Kieong Ir. Chong Pick Eng Mr Jaafar bin Shahidan EDITORIAL BOARD Advisor YBhg. Dato Sri Prof. Ir. Dr Judin Abdul Karim Secretary Ir. Ruslan Abdul Aziz Chairman YBhg. Dato Ir. Abdul Rashid bin Maidin Editor Ir. Fong Tian Yong Members Prof. Sr. Ir. Dr Suhaimi bin Abdul Talib Ir. Ishak bin Abdul Rahman Ir. Prof. Dr K.S. Kannan Ir. Mustaza bin Salim Ir. Prem Kumar Ir. Mohd Rasid Osman Ir. Dr Zuhairi Abdul Hamid Ir. Ali Askar bin Sher Mohamad Ir. Rocky Wong Executive Director Ir. Ashari Mohd Yakub Publication Officer Pn. Nik Kamaliah Nik Abdul Rahman Assistant Publication Officer Pn. Che Asiah Mohamad Ali Design and Production Inforeach Communications Sdn Bhd Printer Art Printing Works Sdn Bhd 29 Jalan Riong, 59100 Kuala Lumpur The Ingenieur is published by the Board of Engineers Malaysia (Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia) and is distributed free of charge to registered Professional Engineers. The statements and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the writers. BEM invites all registered engineers to contribute articles or send their views and comments to the following address: Commnunication & IT Dept. Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia, Tingkat 17, Ibu Pejabat JKR, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50580 Kuala Lumpur. Tel: 03-2698 0590 Fax: 03-2692 5017 E-mail: bem1@streamyx.com; publication@bem.org.my Website: http://www.bem.org.my Advertising Subscription Form is on page 48 Advertisement Form is on page 56
As the nation continues on its way to fully developed status, the health and welfare of its workforce become ever more important. The role of engineers in ensuring safety and health cannot be overstated, whether directly as safety officers, designers or as engineers in maintenance of plant and equipment. The Occupational Safety and Health Act, 1994 (OSHA) makes it obligatory for the designer of buildings as well as plants to ensure that they are safe for use. Safety and health matters encompass almost every aspect of engineering works from the simple electronic assembly factory to utilities, industries and complex construction works. Many shop drawings require sound engineering input on good method statement. Engineers can no longer leave it to contractors alone to ensure work site safety. Work site accident rate can be reduced further if all stakeholders go the extra mile to give due priority to safety and health matters. The costs resulting from an accident such as medical and insurance payments can be exorbitant. Where it results in loss of human lives, the anguish of the victims family is tremendous. As the pace of technological advancement continues its steep upward curve, engineers will be expected to come up with innovative measures to address safety and health issues. I hope that the recently introduced Safety and Health Assessment System in Construction developed by CIBD will enhance the overall safety and health standard in our construction sites and all other work places. More standards and guidelines in other work places should be drawn up as the safety and health of our work force cannot be compromised. Dato Sri Prof Ir. Dr. Judin bin Abdul Karim President BOARD OF ENGINEERS MALAYSIA
editors note
The recent spate of building failures has attracted wide publicity in the press. Engineers as usual are conveniently associated with these mishaps. Public perception of engineers role and competencies with respect to the above should remind us to revisit the safety and health aspects of our design and supervision works. The work of Occupational Safety and Health Forensics is well highlighted in an article from DOSH. The Construction Industry Standard on Safety and Health Assessment System in Construction (SHASSIC) paper provides an insight into the important aspects of site assessment that should be of interest to the construction site management team. As the year end is always linked to monsoons and natural mishaps, we hope extra effort will be given to mitigating foreseeable landslides through better management of safety and health measures. Ir Fong Tian Yong Editor
4 THE INGENIEUR
announcement
BOARD OF ENGINEERS MALAYSIA CIRCULAR NO. 1/2009 Kepada Semua Jurutera Profesional,
DATO SRI PROF. Ir. DR. JUDIN ABDUL KARIM President BOARD OF ENGINEERS MALYSIA
Dec 2009: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT March 2010: FACILITY ASSET MANAGEMENT June 2010: WATER Sept 2010: HILL-SLOPE DEVELOPMENT Dec 2010: TRANSPORTATION & SAFETY
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orensic comes from the Latin word forensis meaning public and in those early days, cases were brought to the public square or forum to be discussed and resolved. Nowadays, it refers to facts pertaining to or fitted for legal or public argumentation in the courts of law.1 R e a d e r s w i l l b e g ive n a n overview of occupational safety an d h eal th fo ren si cs, in th e context of science-based techniques and processes that are applied to obtain crucial and relevant i n f o r m a t i o n a n d f a c t s wh e n undertaking investigation into the accidents (of myriad nature and characteristics) in the workplacesstructural collapse, combustible dust explosion, catastrophic failure of pressurized vessel, toxic gas release or occupational hygiene malaise. Such forensic findings can then be used and contended later in the law court, or formal argumentation.
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Questions that occupational safety and health forensics seek to answer are: (i) How did the workplace accident or occupational poisoning malaise happen and whether it is accidental or due to negligence? (ii) Why the building or structure collapse in a progressive manner?
(iii) What are the items, exhibits or evidence are to be discovered, recovered, collected, bagged, tagged and preserved for eventual analysis in the accredited testing laboratory? (iv) What on-site monitoring measurements are to be recorded in case of toxic gas releases, and the techniques used?
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(v) Who occupied the workplace and had control and duty of care over it? (vi) When and where it happened, for example, while work is in process in the work area? (vii) What nature of work was undertaken before and during the accident? These answers can be found by conducting occupational safety and health forensic investigations through the forensic engineering a p p r o a ch wh i ch i s o n e o f the fields of expertise under forensic science. Using this approach means using the art and science of engineering in identifying the root or basic causes of the accidents involving plants, materials, products, structures or components in the workplaces. Such answers cannot be underpinned through classical investigation due to its underlying limitations. Specifically, there are various sources of information and facts that can be obtained when conducting a forensic engineering investigation.2
Initial site observations, findings and recordings at the scene of accident or plant wreckage; The documentary records and statements from the witnesses or any knowledgeable persons; photographs; contract documents; site CCTV tapes; aerial or land survey of the area; sketches of the work accident scene; building, structure or plant drawings and calculations; technical information copied from computer hard discs; written records of inspection, repair and maintenance; Physical samples or evidence collected from the scene of accident, and the results obtained
later from accredited testing laboratory; On-site sampling or measurement readings using validated rapid-test investigation kits for transient or physical samples; and Using validated computer software for engineering analysis or modelling, to simulate and understand the mode and m e ch a n i s m o f t h e a c c i d e n t structural failure, toxic gas releases or explosion. C o n s e q u e n t l y, o b t a i n i n g information and facts judiciously on the accident will allow preparation of complete engineering reports, testimony at hearings and trials i n a d m i n i s t ra t ive o r j u d i c i a l proceedings, and the rendition of further policy directives by the department with regards to the preventive measures affecting life and property.
Occupational Safety and Health, Ministry of Human Resources. Th e d e c i s i o n t o s e t u p t h e d iv i s i o n c a m e f r o m C a b i n e t after the high-profile accident case on December 30, 2005, involving the fall of a piece of heavy formwork from a building under construction on a car in Sri Hartamas, Kuala Lumpur. The accident caused the death of an influential corporate director and caused serious injuries to his wife. Their driver escaped unscathed. Presently, it has 11 officers who are from various technical disciplines and background and is housed in the Departments head office. There are five sections under the division, namely:(i) Mechanical engineering; (ii) Construction engineering; (iii) Occupational Hygiene; (iv) Petrochemical; and (v) Laboratory Testing. Each section is headed by a senior officer who then reports to the divisional director.
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workplace, and premature failure of completed building system and machinery. Since its inception, the division has notched several casework successes. About four completed cases have been decided by the courts and the responsible party or parties have been fined and sanctioned. A few cases are still pending, awaiting the decisions of the courts. In all workplace accidents, investigation officers from regional offices will lead investigations but the provision of specialized investigative services for complex or intricate cases will be provided by the Forensic Engineering Division. Written protocol on the need for forensic engineering services during investigation have been established and communicated clearly to divisional and regional officers. Also, the divisions involvement in such accident cases in the past two years, have contributed and helped the regional offices to reduce the number of cold or unresolved cases.
the approach of selecting the most applicable scientific techniques from numerous methodologies. An investigation relying on the results of single forensic techniques, exclusive of other available tools, is frequently successfully challenged when contrary evidence based on multiple forensic approaches is introduced. When forensic evidence is arrayed as multiple, but independent lines of evidence, a stronger scientific case, less susceptible to scientific challenge emerges.2 Attention has to be given during the collection of evidence in the accident scene to ensure that the strict requirement of chain of custody is upheld at all times. Otherwise, the case exhibits or samples that have been collected even though relevant to the investigation can be held inadmissible later in the courts of law. This comes about when the defendant can raise reasonable doubt on the management of the exhibits that have been identified and collected. Reconstruction of the accident or event will be conducted after
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the laboratory results have been received so that the testable hy p o t h e s e s c a n b e c h e c k e d and confirmed for the complete accident report to be prepared. L a t e l y, t h e r e h a v e b e e n increasing number of prosecutions by the Department against companies who have contravened occupational safety and health laws. It is expected that some of these cases can become extremely protracted, as expert witnesses in law court sometimes provide conflicting interpretations of the investigative data. It is in this context that occupational safety and health forensics is developing into a specialism, leading to greater formalization of investigation methods, which should lead to more definitive findings and less scope for experts to disagree. Now it is a significant subject in its own right in courses offered by local and overseas public universities.
involving acetylene gas during filling and bottling operation, at the factory in Simpang Pulai which caused injuries to workers, massive damage to production facility, and destruction of more than 400 cylinder bottles. Since its inception, the Division has investigated a number of interesting and highly technical cases involving construction or engineering activities. Examples are: the sudden collapse of elevated temporary loading platform at the Kipmart building project site, Tampoi in June 2007 which caused three fatalities; failures of several hammerhead and luffing tower cranes during lifting operation and involving a number of fatalities in the last two years; cascading collapse and failure of several TNB transmission towers during stringing and tensioning of metal conductors on April 14, 2008 in Kapar,Klang with one fatality; failure of temporary gondola or motorized loading platform equipment in early 2008 which caused the death of three construction workers
in Bukit Antarabangsa; and the catastrophic collapse of Jaya Supermarket, Petaling Jaya on May 28, 2009, at about 5.00pm during the demolition work on the building. The collapsed portion of the building was constructed using the two-way pre-stressed concrete unbounded tendons method. The accident killed seven workers and injured three workers. In the latter case, which caught the attention of the countrys leadership, the Division led the forensic engineering investigation into the accident and the reports have been completed and made available to other Government departments for further deliberation. Since the case was complicated, technical assistance and expertise was sought from the Construction Engineering Testing Unit (CETU), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). Such technical collaboration with outside agency will be strengthened further in the years ahead. Through such joint investigative actions, the underlying causes for the
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progressive failure of the building structure had been discovered, analyzed, and concluded within the time-frame agreed. Recently, the Division was also called to investigate an accident case at the jetty in Tanjung Karang fishing village. In this unfortunate case, there were six fatalities and three injuries due to exposure and inhalation of toxic gas involving hydrogen sulphide (H2S).The gas evolved when the decomposition of the discarded fishes took place in the storage compartments, due to power outages for five days. The stocks were usually packed in 50kg bags and then normally kept Fish holding compartment in Tanjung Karang Village where six died refrigerated. The holding stock in each compartment is about 3,000kg. Post-accident measurements of the H 2 S levels in the holding compartments, using calibrated multi-gas meters, found that the levels exceeded 100ppm. At the levels recorded, the concentrations of H2S deadened the smell and no odour was detectable. Carbon disulphide (CS 2), and carbon monoxide (CO) gases were also detected but ammonia (NH 3 ) gas was not detected. The refrigeration system used chlorofluoromethane or R-22 as the refrigerant media. Leak tests on the cooling coils, fixtures, connections and appurtenances did not show any leakages and the system test pressure was maintained. The accident findings had been communicated to the state Government and other relevant authorities. Briefings to fishermen and owners of the other jetties have been scheduled to make workers, employers and occupiers aware of what had happened and how to safeguard their personal safety and health. Brochures containing basic safety information when working in such similar environment will be circulated.
Lessons learnt
Repercussions from the Jaya Supermarket building collapse, for example, reverberated beyond the accident site: causing great inconveniences to the surrounding residents; affecting the public who were passing by the area; and disrupting
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business activities around the scene of the accident. From cases investigated, a lot of useful occupational safety and health information were obtained which can then be used by the Department to formulate further policy directives to prevent such similar accidents or events. Emphasis is placed on lessons learned from each failure. Steps have been taken to have such information disclosed and disseminated to the workers, public and all other interested parties through the publication of forensic engineering case series; seminars and promotion activities; and the publication of Safety Alerts in the departments portal http://www. dosh.gov.my It is important that written documents from the companies are taken into possession early, to allow the investigators to examine, analyze and extract whatever pertinent information and facts that may help in the direction and management of the case. Additionally, there is a need for an internet-based repository system with capabilities to store, archive, retrieve and distribute relevant technical data, information and facts during an accident investigation. Also, the facility will allow for on-line interactive discussion and collaboration between the investigators on the ground and officers in the office. Lag in responsiveness on sharing of such information among investigators, is a thing of the past once this system is ready by September this year. Similarly, it was found that officers must have a flair for investigative work and possess good communication skills in addition to engineering knowledge, analytical skills, and occupational safety and health expertise. Understanding
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the difficulties on the ground, and scope of work which is different for each case also necessitates co-operative teamwork from each of the officers in the investigation team.3
authorities like the Police or the Fire and Rescue Department; (vii) Using validated software tools for investigative work to understand fully the mode and mechanism of an accident or event.
Moving forward
The Division has faced many challenges since its establishment and at the same time the officers have learned a lot from the many high profile cases. To enable the Division to move forward and respond quickly and effectively to accident cases in future, the following plans of actions have been identified: (i) Enhancing expertise of officers by the provision of broadbased opportunities to attend forensic engineering seminars, courses, and conferences whether locally or abroad on a regular basis; Providing adequate resources(ii) m o n e t a r y, l o g i s t i c s , s o f t wa r e technology support and rapid-test investigation equipment; (iii) Collaborating with experts from local higher institutions of higher learning and accredited testing laboratories; (iv) Building and establishing technical rapport and links with external forensic engineering experts from overseas institutions; (v) Allowing serving officers to attend post-graduate courses on forensic engineering or allied disciplines and tutored by experienced lecturers; (vi) Establishing good rapport and liaisons with the other relevant
Conclusion
Th e Fo r e n s i c E n g i n e e r i n g Division has achieved its primary objective as demonstrated from the number of high profile cases investigated and completed. The Division needs to anticipate new casework challenges in the years ahead, by having sound and practicable investigative framework in place. Although the road ahead looks tortuous, the experience obtained and the wisdom accrued, will able officers to undertake a ny o c c u p a t i o n a l s a f e t y a n d health forensic investigation with confidence, credibility, and redoubtable integrity. Last but not least, the adoption of occupational safety and health forensics in accident cases can contribute to improvement in the standard of occupational safety and health compliance in workplaces and benefit workers, employers and the nation as a whole. BEM
REFERENCES
1. David W.Fowler and Joe J.King-Chair in Engineering. The University of Texas at Austin.Forensic Engineering: Detective Engineering. 2. RE Hester ad RM Harrison. Environmental Forensics. 3. Kenneth L. Carper. Forensic Engineering.
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n the past, drivers were usually been singled out as the primary cause of accidents. However, this has changed lately, as the safe system approach has put forward that not only drivers are to be blamed, but the entire system must play its role instead. After all, drivers are not driving in a vacuum. They require vehicles to drive and ride on, and the vehicles in turn require the infrastructure to cruise on. Each of these will also require many entities behind them to make it work as safe system, such as design, operation, construction, legal framework and others. It is therefore fitting that the road transportation system be governed by a safety system, and the Safety, Health and Environment (SHE) Code of Practice is one such example.
Ther e was an increase of 25.35 % in accidents involving commercial vehicles, with crashes involving buses increasing by 131.25% in Malaysia from 2000 to 2005 (AH, Zulkipli, Othman, & Sarani, 2007). The frequency of high profile accidents of commercial vehicles involving multiple deaths has become a grave concern. The crash investigations carried out by the Malaysian Institute of Road Safety Research (MIROS) have discovered that crashes involving commercial vehicles need to be addressed via the system approach, addressing the vehicles owner as a whole and not only micro-managing each individual cause only. The principles in Safety, Health and Environment management system are obvious when it comes
to the commitment of upper management, driver management and also vehicle maintenance. The enactment for safety in working environment as outlined in the Occupational Safety and Health 1994 Act (OSHA) Regulation already exists, but has never been implemented and tailored to the transportation sector. OSHA is not only an Act that makes provisions for securing the safety, health and welfare of the person at work, but also protects others against risks to safety or health in connection with the activities of the person at work. Road traffic accidents involving commercial vehicles will undoubtedly affect third party victims which are passengers and/or drivers of other vehicles. Seeing this as urgent, a group of Government agencies and some from the private sector, in a concerted effort, started to work on the Safety, Health and Environmental (SHE) Code of Practice (COP) for the Transportation Sector in 2007. The target group of the COP are all the employers and the employees of the transportation industry. The intention of SHE COP is to improve fleet management in Malaysia, ensuring safety and decreasing the number of accidents and fatalities. The SHE COPs specific objectives serve as a guideline to employers and employees regarding the correct and effective methods of handling matters pertaining to the safety and health of employees, to educate and create awareness about safety and health at the workplace and also to ensure that the public is not exposed to accidents and/or risks due to the practice of the industry. Since its introduction in 2007, SHE COP has only been
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Figure 1
implemented either on a voluntary basis or as a punitive measure following inquiries and litigation. This is under the custody of the Commercial Vehicle Licensing Board (LPKP). The implementation of SHE COP can be considered as a success as the number of accidents involving lorries and buses have seen a steady decrease beginning in 2007 (PDRM) as illustrated by Figure 1. The implementation of SHE COP consists of five elements of management responsibility towards SHE which are policy, organisation, planning and implementation, evaluation and action for improvement. These five elements are essential in ensuring the continual improvement of the implementation of SHE COP and shown in Figure 2. As a system approach, SHE COP aspires to have transport companies responsible towards the safety of their service for both workers and customers. SHE COP is mindful that all its aspirations must not be lip or documentservice only, but must cascade down to the service levels, where the safety of the service is going to be experienced by passengers. Under the Continual Quality
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Improvement (CQI) process, the entire SHE culture must include a performance-based evaluation, an internal audit as well as an external audit system. Th e S t a n d a r d O p e r a t i n g Procedure (SOP) in the implementation of SHE COP consists of four main elements which are driver management, vehicle management, risk and t rave l m a n a g e m e n t a n d a l s o
quality assurance system (QAS) through document management. Table 2 provides details of SOP in SHE COP (AH, Zulkipli, Othman, & Sarani, 2007). It is clear that if all transport companies heed the principles behind SHE COP, many tragic crashes involving commercial vehicles like lorries and buses can be avoided. When companies see safety as good business sense and a social responsibility, w e m ay a ch i e ve o u r a i m o f zero fatality, at least amongst commercial vehicles. From the many crash investigations carried out by MIROS, many contributing factors to crashes can be avoided had the companies heeded and made SHE COP a culture and practice in their companies. Many crashes were associated with the issue of driver management. The recruitment policy to ensure suitable, competent and legal drivers will address the issues associated with the quality and
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Sub-elements Driver hiring procedure Driver categorization Training & mindset change Driving procedure (journey) Driving hours & working hours Driver scheduling Reward & penalty Vehicle acquisition Checklist on turn on/off engine Seatbelt for drivers & passengers (bus & lorry) Display vehicle license Fuel fill-up procedure Vehicle usage Service & maintenance Replacement & disposal of vehicle Specific driver for specific vehicles Management of passengers & goods Risk & hazard identification Journey risk management Emergency response Insurance coverage Personal accident coverage (PA) Incident/Accident Report System Management of complaints & concerns SHE training & competency Management of contractors Driver Management Records Vehicle Management Records Risk & Journey Management Records Surveillance System logbook/blackbox/GPS/tachograph Self-evaluation
Driver Management
Vehicle Management
the discipline of drivers. Another issue commonly associated with crashes involving commercial vehicles are the road-worthiness or crash-worthiness of commercial vehicles. Issues of structural integrity, strong seat anchorage points, condition of brakes and tyres may be easily tackled with the implementation of SHE COP. Presently, the commitment towards safety is primarily from the exterior, i.e through legal means. However, if companies do not see safety in the light of what
we aspire, there are many and usual means to trick the system. It is therefore imperative that SHE COP transform the prevailing attitude towards safety towards self-enforcement, backed by good business sense. SHE COP for the Transportation Sector has now been taken under the guardianship of the Department of Safety and Health (DOSH) under the Ministry of Human Resources. Th e Tataamalan Industri Keselamatan dan Kesihatan Pekerjaan bagi Aktiviti Pengangkutan Jalan is
currently being drafted by DOSH and its implementation and enforcement will be more holistic in approach and governed by the more appropriate OSHA 1994. BEM
REFERENCES
AH, K., Zulkipli, Z., Othman, I., & Sarani, R. (2007). Kod Amalan Keselamatan, Kesihatan dan Persekitaran untuk sektor pengangkutan. PDRM.
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afety and Health Assessment System in Construction or SHASSIC is an independent method to assess and evaluate the safety and health performance of a contractor in construction works/ projects. SHASSIC was developed by a Technical Committee comprising industry stakeholders. It was published as Construction Industry Standard or CIS 10:2008 in November 2008.
SHASSIC Objectives
SHASSIC was designed and developed to enable the user to achieve any or combination of the following objectives: Benchmark the level of safety and health performance of construction industry in Malaysia; Have a standard system on safety and health assessment in the construction industry; Assess safety and health performance of contractor(s) based on this standard; Evaluate the performance of contractor(s) on the safety and health practices at site; Improve and take necessary corrective action on OSH performance and management at site; and Compile data for statistical analysis.
safety and health of construction site conforms to legislations requirement, approved standards, code of practice, guidelines, specifications and contractual requirements. Preferably, the assessment shall be carried out when there are different type of activities going on at same time (concurrent activities) and many workers of different trades are involved at the site. It is recommended that SHASSIC assessment be carried out when physical work progress is between 25% and 75%.
Scope Of SHASSIC
SHASSIC sets out the safety and health management and practices of contractors for various aspects of the construction work activities. SHASSIC covers three main components of assessment such as document check, site/workplace inspection and employees interview covering components such as OSH policy, OSH organisation, HIRARC, OSH training and promotion, machinery and equipment management, materials management, emergency preparedness, accident investigation and reporting, records management and performance monitoring. Application shall cover COSH management system and practices during construction work activities, particularly work activities covered under Occupational Safety and Health Act, 1994, Factories and Machinery Act, 1967 and regulations made under this Act such as Factories and Machinery (Building Operations and Works of Engineering Construction) (Safety) Regulations 1986, and Factories and Machinery (Safety, Health and Welfare) Regulations, 1970. For the purpose of terms and references, the following Acts, Regulations and OHS management system standards shall take precedence, Occupational Safety and Health Act, 1994 (Act 514) and Regulations, Factories and Machinery Act, 1967 (Act 139) and
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Regulations and Rules, OHSAS 18001: 2007, MS 1722: 2005 and ILO OHS MS: 2001.
SHASSIC Assessment
Basically, SHASSIC assessment is divided into three different components namely, document check; work site inspection and employee interview. 1. Document check C h e ck i n g o f O S H - r e l a t e d d o c u m e n t s a n d records will enable the assessor to determine the compliances of the establishment of safety and health programmes and activities. There are 63 questionnaires identified for this component check. 2. Site/workplace inspection There are 62 items identified for inspection for this component. Workplace inspection shall be carried out at five high risk areas within a site. These locations will be determined by the SHASSIC assessor. The assessor may also discuss with the principal contractor prior to selection of these high risk areas for assessment. This assessment shall provide the assessor with the valuable visual comparison evidence on the OSH programmes implemented, enforced and practiced at site/workplace. 3. Employees interview Employees shall be randomly selected from all levels and occupation so that they could be interviewed by the assessor using established standard questionnaire. There are 48 questions for this component. The employees in this component are categorised into three categories, as spelt out in Annex C. The number of employees from each category to be interviewed are as follows: Category A One employee from management personnel, Category B Three employees from safety and health personnel or OSH Committee members and/or combination of both; and Category C Ten workers from various trades/skills.
The weightage system is aimed at making the score quantitative in representing the safety and health performance of the respective contractor. Basic formulas for respective component weightage are as follows:
Document Check
Total Number C Scored X 40 % = SHASSIC score for Document Check - (A) (63 Number of NA)
Workplace Inspection
Total Number C Scored X 40 % = SHASSIC score for Workplace Inspection - (B) (310 Number of NA)
Employees Interview
Total Number C Scored X 20 % = SHASSIC score for Employees Interview - (C) (330 Number of NA) where, C is the total number of Compliance NA is the total number of item that is Not Applicable.
The total SHASSIC score in Document Check (A) plus (+) total SHASSIC score in Workplace Inspection (B) plus (+) the total SHASSIC score in Employees Interview (C) components shall justify the ranking star or stars. Stars awarded range from 1 star to 5 stars as per Table 2.
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55 to 69
40 to 54 39 and less
Note: CSHO means a person who is registered with DOSH as Safety & Health Officer and attended 5 five-day course organised by CIDB for Construction Safety & Health Officer. Contractors may engage any qualified person a b ove t o c a r r y o u t S H A S S I C a s s e s s m e n t o r alternatively they can make arrangement with CIDB to carry out SHASSIC assessment. Currently CIDB is providing this service Free of Charge (FOC). Contractors just need to fill in a FORM which is available at Standard & Quality Division, 10th Floor,
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CONCLUSION
SHASSIC was developed to assist everyone particularly the contractors, in managing safety and health at construction sites based on safety and health performances assessment. CIDB believes, by using the SHASSIC assessment system as a norm of practice at site, accidents can be prevented or minimized. BEM
FORMS REVISED
The PAM 2006 family of forms of conditions of contract comprise the following individual forms that have been revised: PREVIOUS FORM The Malaysian Standard Form of Building Contract (PAM 1998 Form With Quantities Edition). The Malaysian Standard Form of Building Contract (PAM 1998 Form Without Quantities Edition) Agreement and Conditions of Building Sub-Contract (PAM 1998 Sub-Contract Form) NEW FORM Agreement and Conditions of PAM Contract 2006 (With Quantities) Agreement and Conditions of PAM Contract 2006 (Without Quantities) Agreement and Conditions of PAM Sub-Contract 2006 APPLICATION For Building Contracts based on Bills of Quantities (BQ)
It should be noted that the above forms are for contracts (or sub-contracts) employing the traditional general contracting route of procurement and are only for building works. No such form has been drafted nor formulated for contracts procured along the turnkey/design & build/design & construct/EPC method of procurement and/ or for fee contracting.
NUMBER OF CLAUSES
With Quantities Edition PREVIOUS FORM (PAM 1998) 35 NEW FORM (PAM 2006) 38 CHANGE (CLAUSES) Additional 3 Clauses
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Without Quantities Edition PREVIOUS FORM (PAM 1998) 35 Sub-Contract Form PREVIOUS FORM (PAM 1998) 23 NEW FORM (PAM 2006) 33 CHANGE (CLAUSES) Additional 10 Clauses NEW FORM (PAM 2006) 38 CHANGE (CLAUSES) Additional 3 Clauses
PRINCIPAL CHANGES
Although the general arrangement of the clauses as in the previous PAM 98 Form, has been maintained, both the format and content in the new forms have been appreciably altered. Some changes undertaken have brought the new form more in tandem with contemporary developments, although these are still relatively deficient in some material aspects. Definite time periods for the principal procedural matters have now been stipulated even for the architect and the employer. This will positively further good contract administration practice. The contractors and employers obligations and liabilities have been now set out in much clearer language and the roles and responsibilities of the Architect (and the quantity surveyor and the engineers) expanded and amplified. Prima facie, as compared with the previous PAM 98 Form, in particular, the employers obligations and liabilities have been appreciably enhanced with its rights relatively reduced or watered-down. Consequently, in terms of risk allocation, there is a significant transfer of the risk involved in the contract to the employer as compared to the previous PAM 98 Form. The end result of the above changes is that notwithstanding it being presumably intended to be a more balanced form in terms of risk allocation, in the context of the local building industry, it appears to be now so-called more contractor friendly. Furthermore, despite some improvements in style and formatting, the form is still cluttered with deficiencies, material omissions and provisions difficult to comprehend and implement by an average practitioner. Overall, for a standard form that has just undergone major revisions apparently to address the alleged shortcomings of the previous form and perhaps to make it a frontrunner for the local building industry, save for some welcome changes, it falls rather short of expectations. Consequently, it may need another major revamp depending on how it is accepted by all the main players in the industry, especially the employers who still remain the single most influential segment of the local building industry.
CONCLUDING COMMENTS
Despite the various changes undertaken, on an overall basis, the layout and design of the form is inadequate and confusing. Like provisions dealing with similar issues should have been collated and drafted consecutively e.g. provisions dealing with financial matters such as variations, payment, etc. should have been set out in close relation to each other instead of being all over the form. In the absence of being privy to the drafting philosophy, the form appears to be just a revision and reformulation of the previous PAM 98 Form with the layout being maintained but additions/amendments made on a cut and paste basis. It would have been more appropriate to undertake a wholesale revision and reformatting of the previous PAM 98 Form to bring it in tandem with other contemporary forms of conditions of contract. The revisions undertaken have generally not taken into account contemporary developments in the industry e.g. the recommendations of documents such as the SCL Protocol on Delay and Disruption have not been given due consideration, etc.; thereby defeating the aim of the local industry being on par with international developments/practice. Furthermore, the predominant use of terms and expressions that are inherently vague or smacking of legalese will certainly contribute to lack of clarity, precision and thereby lead to possible disputes as to interpretation. Finally, it is submitted that the form could have been structured such that it would have given the parties especially the employer greater flexibility and more options in using the form; which being a standard form cannot fit into the varied uses that are likely to be encountered in practice.
22 THE INGENIEUR
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h e N a t i o n a l Po l i c y o n E nv i r o n m e n t s t a t e s t h a t the nation shall implement environmentally sound and sustainable development for the continuous economic, social and cultural progress and enhancement of the quality of life of Malaysians. It is based on eight inter-related and mutually supporting principles and where water is concerned will include the sustainable use of water r e s o u rc e s , c o n s e r va t i o n o f a rivers vitality and diversity, and the continuous improvement of its water quality. The policy outlines the strategies and measures to be taken towards an effective management of water resources,
pollution control and prevention of environmental degradation. A holistic approach is required to manage river water quality.
These laws are largely sectoral in character and focused on specific areas of activity. The increasingly complex environmental problems faced by Malaysia required a comprehensive piece of legislation which came in the form of the 1974 Environmental Quality Act. The Act came into force on Apr 1, 1974 for the abatement and control of pollution and enhancement of the environment. Three pieces of subsidiary legislation were formed as an initial legislative approach to water quality management. These were: ( i ). E nv i r o n m e n t a l Q u a l i t y (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations 1977;
THE INGENIEUR 23
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( ii ). E nv i r o n m e n t a l Q u a l i t y (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) Regulations 1978; and ( iii ). E nv i r o n m e n t a l Q u a l i t y (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979. S o u rc e s o f p o l l u t i o n t h a t threatened our water environment have been subjected to these regulations since the 1970s. It is essentially a command and control approach utilising effluent discharge standards. The effluent discharge standard was made much stricter for pollution sources upstream of public water supply intakes than those of downstream of such intakes. In addition to making use of these laws to control pollution, additional legislation is also in place to effect prevention of pollution into a river or water b o dy. A t h i r d m e ch a n i s m involves a continuous assessment or monitoring of all the rivers in the country to ascertain the improvement or otherwise of our river water quality.
Rubber factory
additional pollution load and the requirement for waste disposal. The Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979 also require that written permission be obtained before the construction of any building or carrying out any work that may result in a new source of effluent or discharge.
research and development but also made great efforts to comply as rapidly as possible with the stipulated effluent-discharge or land-disposal standards. They were induced to install effective wastewater treatment systems instead of paying the prohibitive effluent-related or pollution fees imposed under the licensing requirements that came into force in 1977. The organic pollutant load dumped into rivers has been greatly reduced by more than 90% of the total load generated.
Manufacturing industries
Prevention
The legislative approach in water quality management effected by the 1974 Environmental Quality Act makes use of Section 34A where a report on impact on the environment resulting from prescribed activities (EIA requirement) is mandatory. Among the prescribed activities or projects that can cause water pollution include airport, housing, industry, mining, petroleum, power generation, resort and recreational development, and waste treatment and disposal facilities. For non-prescribed activities, site suitability evaluation would also be carried out so as to assess the capacity of the area to receive
24 THE INGENIEUR
Agro-based industries
Th e e a r l y y e a r s o f p o s t independence saw a proliferation of agro-based industries such as raw natural rubber factories and palm oil mills which polluted our rivers. The control of pollution from these sources involved a combination of both economic and command-control instruments which has proven to be very successful. These industries did not only invest in pollution control
A new set of environmental problems has emerged as the nation progressed in its industrial development. In addition to organic pollutants, manufacturing industries generate inorganic pollutants, toxic wastes and persistent organic pollutants. All manufacturing industries are required to install wastewater treatment systems to arrest their water pollutants before they are dumped into rivers. The achievement in controlling effluent discharges from these manufacturing industries varies from industry to industry. The small- and mediumscale industries have difficulties in complying with discharge standards. Constraints cited include financial problems and lack of space for the construction of wastewater treatment facilities. The manufacturing industries are encouraged to implement alternative options such as cleaner production, waste minimisation and waste re-utilisation in order
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Construction site
to reduce water pollution further. Such options could also enhance production efficiency, reduce waste generation and thereby its final disposal cost. They are also encouraged to adopt the approach of self-regulation and strive for ISO 14001 Certification not only to ensure compliance with discharge standards but also to attain competitiveness in the global arena. Efforts are also being stepped up to eliminate indiscriminate disposal of toxic wastes and uncontrolled release of persistent organic pollutants. The management of toxic wastes is based on the cradle-tograve concept. There are laws in place to control their generation, storage, transportation, treatment and disposal. An integrated stateof-the-art treatment and disposal facility has been set up and is in full operation since August 1998 to assist the manufacturing industries in the proper management of their toxic wastes.
to manage sewerage works and sewage disposal in the country since 1994 but currently it is only responsible for 86 out of 144 local authority areas. The management of sewerage in these 86 areas is far from holistic since there are sources that do not come under the company such as private sewage treatment plants, individual septic tanks, sewage from primitive systems and discharges of raw sewage from squatters. There are still a lot of efforts required and measures needed to reduce the sewage pollutant loads so that river water quality can be improved.
sullage is not treated and poses a problem to improving river water quality.
Pig Farming
Pig farming cannot continue to be a backyard industry if it is to flourish in the country. This industry has a high demand for water and discharges large quantities of wastewater with high organic content into the rivers. Designated pig farming areas are required not only to ensure a proper control of its wastewater discharges but also for disease control.
Sullage (Grey-Water)
An important source of point pollution is sullage or grey-water which originates from residential and commercial premises but is often overlooked. The wastewater can come from places such as kitchen sinks, bathrooms, washing machines, restaurants, wet markets and car washing centres. As rivers pass through urban areas and populated places, the sullage will become a major contributor to water pollution. Usually a stream in an urban area does not have enough assimilative capacity to absorb pollutant loads and will contribute organic pollutants, ammoniacal nitrogen and nutrients to a river nearby. At present,
Sewage is a major polluter of our rivers. This is a problem of the past centuries that continues to plague the nation as it enters the 21 st century. Initial efforts to control sewage are very much focused on protecting public health but there is now a gradual shift to protect water resources and the natural environment. A private company has been tasked
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these activities so that runoff pollutants are minimised. S e c o n d l y, f o r e s t r y r u n o f f associated with activities such as timber harvesting, removal of streamside vegetation, road construction and use in forested areas, and mechanical preparation for tree planting. Good forestry practices are required to minimise soil erosion and siltation, destabilisation of stream banks and disruption of river habitats. Thirdly, urban runoff that will deposit many and high amount of pollutants into rivers and other water bodies. Some of the measures that can be implemented include installing storm water filter to treat drainage and runoff, construction of gross pollutant traps at appropriate places, maintaining vegetation as filters along contours, and constructing wetlands wherever feasible as a good re-vegetation practice to improve river water quality. Th e c o n t r o l o f n o n - p o i n t pollution is far from satisfactory but the problem is not unique to this country. Its control is also a major challenge in other parts of the world including the US and countries in Europe.
Plan made by the Drainage and Irrigation Department and the Guidelines for Prevention and Control of Soil Erosion and Siltation issued by the Department of Environment (DOE).
water quality on a continuous basis at strategic locations in major river basins. Water quality levels for specific parameters can be transmitted real-time to the DOE. Between 1998 and 2005, the number of clean rivers has risen from 33 to 80 while polluted rivers remained between nine and 16 (see Figure 1). Over the same period, the number of polluted rivers, as measured in terms of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) ranged between 14 and 31 rivers (Figure 2). This organic pollutant originated from agrobased industries, manufacturing industries, sullage, pig farms and sewage. The estimated BOD loads from agro-based industries, manufacturing industries and pig farms were dwarfed by the BOD loads from sewage (Figure 3). This suggests that while industries and pig farms are the major polluters, sewage, nevertheless, remains as a significant polluter whose loading need to be reduced drastically.
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discharge standards and there is a necessity to review these standards to be in line with current acceptable international standards and availability of treatment technology. Some State Governments are requiring palm oil mills to comply with much stricter discharge standards than those imposed by the Federal Government.
CONCLUSION
The legislative approach in water quality management using the 1974 Environmental Quality Act has been successful in reducing pollution to a certain extent. It has involved pollution control, p r e ve n t i o n o f p o l l u t i o n a n d continuous assessment (monitoring) of the river environment. There are still many challenges that need to be addressed to achieve holistic water quality management. Most of the past and present efforts are very much directed at controlling pollution from point sources while non-point pollution has continued unabated. The necessary technical, institutional and legal arrangements are also necessary to treat sullage (grey-water) adequately before it is discharged into rivers. The nation will continue to use water from its rivers for many years to come and it is imperative for the authorities to reduce pollutant loads and improve river water quality on a sustainable basis.
CHALLENGES
In addition to the challenges outlined earlier, there are a number of other challenges that need to be given consideration. The uniform discharge standard is applicable throughout the country and does not take into account the assimilative
capacity of a river or water body. For better protection, there is a need to develop river or stream standards, and for effluent discharge standards to be set accordingly in order to comply with these river or stream standards. A number of sources are not able to comply with existing
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to express his gratitude to Mohd Rosiskada, Noor Azme and Rosmiza for their assistance in the preparation of this paper. Views expressed are not necessarily those of the Department of Environment. BEM
THE INGENIEUR 27
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they can be non-excludable; (iii) their biological dimensions are poorly understood; (iv) they require an extended planning horizon, and (v) they are joint products. How these three categories of NTVs rate with respect to the above characteristics influences the degree of difficulty in their valuation. Extractive values are easiest to measure because they represent tangible goods, like rattans and honey, that are harvested from the forest and may be sold in local markets. Non-extractive values are harder to measure because they represent somewhat intangible services, like water flow regulation and recreation for which prices are usually unavailable. Preservation values are hardest to measure because they are intangibles, which neither quantities nor prices exist. It can only
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where
Harvested honey comb with honey
be measured with survey-based questionnaires that describe hypothetical markets. This paper attempts to appraise the value of wild bees in the production of honey available from hives build on selected forest trees. This economic value is based on an extractive good in the forests.
HPj Qj
= =
value of wild bees in honey production per tree with hives market price of honey and related products j quantity (kg) of honey and related products j which is estimated to be equal to (2)
Qj
= (m sj Ci)
BASIC MODEL
The value of wild bees in honey production is basically the value of the available stock of honey that can be extracted from bee hives. In this study, the residual value approach is adopted. This approach is a direct application of derived demand: all costs other than that of the wild bees are subtracted from the market price of the product. Firstly, the approach required determining the selling price of the product or products potentially extracted from the bee hives. The product that has a market price is honey, that is based on the price delivered to the middleman. By subtracting all costs from the products final sales price from extracting to transporting, and further deduction for whatever amount deemed necessary to pay to the entrepreneur wild honey collector for his or her contribution, one derived the residual value. This residual value is the economic rent or value of the wild bees in its function for the production of honey. Hence, this rent can be allocated as the value of the returns to the resource owner, that is, the Forestry Department, custodian of the forest.
where proportion of bee hives bearing honey = number of bee hives sj that can be potentially harvested for honey and related product j Ci = number of trees with bee hives in the forest reserve = average direct collecting, ADC transporting and processing cost of honey (not inclusive of collectors equitable profit margin) APMj = equitable profit margin allocated to the collector for harvesting honey and related products j, which is equal to APMj = (HPj)/(1 ) (3) m I =
where = average Malaysian industrial profit margin in percent but adjusted to reflect the risk undertaken by the wild honey collector. In this analysis a of 30% is used which is considered quite representative for this industry in general.
COMPUTATION PROCEDURE
Valuation of wild bees in honey production require two basic sets of information: (i) prices and costs, and (ii) potential quantities of honey extracted from bee hives found on selected trees in the forest. The formula for calculating the value of wild bees in honey production, adapted from the formula for stumpage timber value of Davis (1977), and Mohd Shahwahid and Awang Nor (1999) is given below:
From the above equations, the variations in the value of bee colonies within a tract of forest will be influenced by the productivity of bee hives; prices of honey and related products; and costs of collection, transportation and processing.
THE INGENIEUR 29
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STUDY SITE
Various data are needed to compute the value of wild bees in honey production. This included the number of hives per tree, proportion of honey-bearing hives, yield per honey-bearing hive, ex-middleman prices of bottled honey, costs of collecting wild honey, transportation and packing, and a fair profit margin for the wild honey collectors. To obtain these data, field surveys of wild honey collectors are conducted. Analysis is conducted on 12 respondents in three forest areas (see Table 2) located in the state of Pahang. Although 15 collectors were interviewed, three cannot be used for the analysis as the information required was inadequate.
RESULTS
Table 3 shows the average revenue from wild honey collection and the economic value of wild honey bees in the forest. Higher average revenues of RM74.67 per hive and RM 86.63 per hive from honey production are obtained by collectors from the Bera and Kemasul Forest Reserves respectively. Average revenue from the Jerantut Forest Reserve is less than half the amount obtained by the collectors from the earlier two forest reserves. Various reasons can be attributed to the variation in revenues per hive from the forest trees. One possible reason is the number of bee hives available per tree and the number of trees available. Another factor is the influence of the marketing channel adopted by the collectors. Collectors selling direct to consumers at farmers market and by the roadside stalls obtained higher honey prices as compared to those selling to middlemen. The higher prices obtained in the earlier marketing channel is the higher risk involved. Business may not be forthcoming and extra marketing effort is needed.
Since there is no population list of wild honey collectors in the country, the selection of sample is based on snowball non-probability sampling. Forest District Offices are contacted to enquire whether field staff are aware of any wild honey collectors. A survey of one honey collector leads to the identification of another in the district.
Table 3 : Average revenue from honey collection & economic value of wild honey bees
Average Bera RM / hive Direct Production Cost Wages* Production Cost Profit Margin+ Value of Wild Bees Revenue
* = imputed wages of collection crew + = imputed profit margin 25%
Forest Reserve Kemasul (%) 2.70 13.09 15.79 25.00 59.21 100.00 RM / hive 8.67 24.09 32.76 21.66 32.21 86.63 (%) 10.01 27.81 37.82 25.00 37.18 100.00 8.62 8.52 17.15 7.41 5.08 29.63 Jerantut RM / hive (%) 29.10 28.76 57.86 25.00 17.14 100.00 6.43 12.83 19.26 14.72 24.90 58.89 RM / hive
30 THE INGENIEUR
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The breakdown of the average revenue per hive suggested that direct production cost is small (10.92%). If imputed wages of the collecting crew are included, it raised the production cost to 32.71% of the average revenue per hive. Allowing a 25% normal profit margin for entrepreneurial efforts by collectors, a residual value of RM 24.90 per hive is obtained. This value is allocated as the economic rent of wild bees in honey production. Overall, the economic rent represented 42.29% of the revenue generated from honey production. This high proportion allocated as the economic rent is due to the low usage of capital since the honey and honey comb in the hives are self-produced by the bees without any human effort to culture the honey involved. The above average revenue varied among the forest reserves. This occurred due to variations in the direct cost, particularly, the imputed wages and number of honey collection crew, distance to the forest trees with bee hives, and selling price of honey. This explains why Bera and Kemasul Forest Reserves proportionally have higher proportion of the component of wild bee economic value and smaller compositions of direct production cost and imputed wages and profit to the collection crew. Table 3 provides information on the average revenue per hive and the economic value of wild bees in honey production on a per unit hive basis. To obtain the total economic value of wild bees in honey production involve the overall computation during a collecting trip at the forest site. The list of the forest reserves and their associated calculated economic value of wild bee colonies for the production of honey vis--vis the total revenue is provided in Table 4. Bee colonies from forest reserves have a higher number of hives per tree and the number of trees with bee colonies. This is unlike the case in the Kemasul Forest Plantation, where despite the higher rent, it has fewer hives per Acacia tree. Wild bees tend to build a higher number of hives in taller trees with many perpendicular branches which are more readily available in the natural forest than in forest plantation. The honey yield per hive is also higher in natural forest trees. Hence, the total economic value for the Kemasul Forest Plantation is lower. The economic value of wild bees in honey production vary between collection in natural forest and plantation forest. The economic values
Table 4 : Total economic value of wild honey bees in honey production (RM)
Average Bera Economic Rent / hive Average no. of hives / tree Average value of wild bees / tree Average number of trees / collector team Number of collecting team / forest area Average value of wild bees 44.21 6.00 265.26 1.25 Forest Reserve Kemasul 32.21 2.67 86.01 1.00 Jerantut 5.08 5.00 25.40 2.00 Overall Average 24.90 4.56 113.54 1.50
1,326.30
258.03
254.00
681.24
are higher for collection activities from the natural forest as compared to forest plantation if the economic value per hive is equally high. But because the value per hive in Jerantut Forest Reserve is very low, the distinction between natural and forest plantation is not seen. A r e g r e s s i o n b e t w e e n e c o n o m i c va l u e o f wild honey bees with several influencing factors suggested that only direct cost, yield, prices of honey and imputed wages are statistically significant factors. Equation 1 below provides the full econometric diagnostic of the economic value function. This function is also useful for the projection of the economic value of wild bees in respect to honey production. The estimated function is relatively a good fit with an adjusted R 2 of 56.6% and a F test that is statistically significant at 5% significant level. The function showed that the economic value of wild honey bees is positively influenced by the number of hives available and the price of honey but negatively dependent on the number of collecting team members at 5% level of significance.
THE INGENIEUR 31
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Value = - 318.1 + 43.2Hive + 45.5Yield 45.3Crew + 7.5Price (1) (- 1.4) (3.7)** (1.4) (- 2.1)* (2.3)** Adjusted R2 = 56.6% F = 4.6* where Value economic value of wild honey bees (RM/trip) Hive = number of hives per trip (hive/trip) Yield = weight of honey harvested per trip (kg/trip) Crew = number of collecting team members Price = price of honey (RM/kg) Figures in bracket are the t statistics Adjusted R2 is the adjusted coefficient of multiple determination F is the F statistic **, * are indications of statistical significance at the 1% and 5% levels of significance. Apart from the use of this function to show the partial relationship between the economic value of honey bees with each of the following variables: number of hives, price of honey and the number of team crews, other factors remain unchanged. This function is also useful for projecting the economic value of wild bees with respect to honey production. = Government regulators in setting appropriate user fees for the extraction of wild honey. The first three sets of information are potentially useful for biodiversity conservation of the forests. The ability to appraise the value of the role of wild bees in honey production suggests that other NTVs have a high probability of being valued as well. With the estimation of most of these NTV, there will be sufficient monetary-based information to help better decision making on forest land use.. With this information, it is possible to identify the trade-offs involved when forests are opened for timber harvesting or deforested. A more integrated management of land use should be implemented to avoid the loss of these NTV values. The timber harvesting system can be specified to take into account the multiple-use of the forest resources so as not to forego these NTV benefits. The fourth piece of information is of potential value for policy makers and analysts, as well as the Government agency responsible for licensing the extraction of non-timber forest products. The economic value of potential wild honey available in the forests reflects the resource rent that can be collected by forest resource owners, possibly licensing wild honey collection. The resource rent is the return to resource owners, basically the State Government, the trustee of the forest. A word of caution on the use of these economic values of honey bees should be in order. This valuation exercise is site-specific, particularly to the study locations. Its findings are not directly transferable to appraise wild honey bees in other locations, owing to the variations in bee hives and trees selected by the bees to build their hives, honey prices across the country, accessibility and the cost of extraction, transportation and processing. Further, applying the economic values to computing the total value of all harvestable honey over the whole state can be erroneous. This assumes that the supply of wild honey is infinitely elastic at these prices. Two problems are associated with this: (i) it contradicts an implicit assumption of the residual approach (infinitely inelastic supply); and (ii) the total market in a given area normally exhibits a downward-sloping demand curve with increasing quantity demanded in response to decreasing prices. BEM
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uring these past decades, the growing affluence of M a l ay s i a n s o c i e t y h a s sowed a tremendous increase in awareness of the need to provide animals with proper care and attention... Most owners have had no practical training in animal care and all too often receive dubious advice from fellow owners. This inculcates the need to enhance animal keeping/farming/ranching in the country. It is timely to amplify to the public; the positive angle of quality animal care. Throughout the world, animals are kept in a wide variety of situations. Many species or breeds exist; from the smallest worm to the Gigantic Whale, where they were made to adapt to a broad
range of environmental conditions. The Good Animal Husbandry Practice (GAHP) book endeavours therefore to define standards for the basic principles of animal management. The Department of Standard Malaysia through its arm, SIRIM Bhd. has awarded the STANDARD MALAYSIA Good Animal Husbandry Practice (GAHP) MS 2027:2006. In the case of long cooped-up animals a conducive environment is needed. Thus owners or premise managers must provide the optimum environment to these species in confined areas. Concern for a
1
Codes of Practice is synonymous with Good Animal Husbandry Practices THE INGENIEUR 33
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Ostriches in Malaysia
Good Animal Husbandry Practice Book published by the Department of Veterinary Services.
Concept of Ranching of wildlife promotes sustainability of products and animals in increasing the number of animals and maintains the gene pool
Misunderstood Care
Inappropriate practice together with exorbitant veterinary or licensing fees should be a taboo in the local animal practice. In tangent with the issue is the misuse of drugs, example, beta-agonist, nitro-furan etc. There must be judicious management in the use and monitoring of drugs in animal care and feeding. Withdrawal period should be adhered to and monitored to prevent untoward incidences. Gases generated from animal wastes such as ammonia, methane, sulpha dioxide contribute to the global greenhouse effect, and should be properly controlled. The owners of animal farms must be able to collect the droppings, feceas or guanos and treat the liquid waste effectively, so as not to contaminate the soil as well as the surface and underground water. The storage of dirty water containers could breed pathogens Humidifiers are recommended to avoid wastage, contamination and control water run-offs.
A conducive in-door environment for tropical birds ranched for sale in England
Pollution from animal keeping as in noise or smell can be reduced based on scientific research. For example, as in overcoming noise pollution in edible-nest Swiftlets premises was a colloborative effort of the Ministry of Housing and Local Goverment and The Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-Based Industry, accordance to World Health Organisations limits.
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mating ratio, weights, strength, heights, production targets, land carrying capacity, climate, plants, material used, orientation and others. By taking all this into account can than an almost perfect shelter be built for one or group of animals. We know now that for birds a perch is a must as it is their natural instinct to perch upsidedown or upright. Veterinarians are usually consulted on the matter above to ascertain the design. The comfort of the animal is in the perspective of the animal and not vice-versa.
demonstrating its commitment to provide inputs into for Government regulatory policy and at the same time remain economically viable.
The recommendations in these Codes come from publications and literatures from a variety of international sources. As scientific and technological knowledge advances, management procedures w i l l e vo l ve . M o s t d e ve l o p e d countries are using these as a tool to ban imports from less developed nations. Below are environment friendly production houses for animal production. This is in line with world standards.
Disease Surveillance
For the purpose of achieving competetiveness in the International Animal Trade. Animal disease surveillance, monitoring, control and eradication systems established are in line with the International Standards laid down by the Organization of International Epizootic (OIE). As animal health status becomes a tool in determining conditions for animal trade, it of paramount importance for the country to adhere to quality animal health management standards. AlertThreshold mechanism is a function that needs to be incorporated at every level. These are to rule
Issues Accertained
A continuous scrutiny of animal premises shall ensure that they are sustainable and driven abide by regulations. This is particularly so, where the urban encroachment and the `RIGHT people feel they have to live in a pristine environment free from odour, noise and dropping contaminations. The challenge for the animal husbandry industry is to be proactive in
Close-house system
Modern multi-tier close-house chicken on wheels (mobile), with automated feeders and drinkers. The birds are ready for the market.
Arrow points to birds-nest premise where the faade harmonizes with the building. Use of aluminums louvres to camouflage the ventilation holes give it an aesthetic look
THE INGENIEUR 35
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Examples of Codes
458 Malaysia country code 458 Malaysia country code 0 pet code 1 livestock code --manufacturers code --manufacturers code .. animal sequence .. animal sequence
(iii) ISO 3166-1 Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions Part 1 country code for Malaysia being 458 (1 st three digits) (iv) Followed by the application code one digit i.e: 0 - pets and 1 - food animal/livestock (v) Next should be manufacturers code (next three digits). These are registered manufacturers in Malaysia.
Conclusion
Animal health must continue to improve with corresponding improvements in animal husbandry and management. Human resource development at all levels, not excluding the veterinarians, must be actively taken by all parties in the animal husbandry industry to ensure vibrany. BEM
REFERENCES
Red-nest from Sarawak, Malaysia White-nest from Johor, Malaysia Yellow-nest from Sabah, Malaysia
D e p a r t m e n t o f Ve t e r i n a r y Services SALT Booklet (2003) Jim Edwards (2002). Veterinary Association Malaysia Congress. M.Ariff Omar, (1999). National Congress on Animal Health & Production R. A.K. Fadzilah (2004).Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of edible-nest Swiftlets, Pets and Exotic Animals. R . A . K . Fa d z i l a h ( 2 0 0 4 ) . Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of edible-nest Swiftlets,. R. A.K. Fadzilah (2004). Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Pets and Exotic Animals.
out false positive or false negative cases. At Davis University, Laurie Wagner has developed a software called EARS (Early Aberration Reporting System)
Identification and traceability of animal products will be the norm with the implementation of AFTA. This is the motto from farm to the fork. Below is an example of and organic product birds nest from a birds nest premise in Malaysia. Adequate tracing of animals in the event of theft, an outbreak or
36 THE INGENIEUR
drug misuse or abuse is critical. Effective control or reprimand depends on rapid traceability and impromtu identification of premises, contact holdings and zones. Ideally, there should be uniform traceability strategies within the animal fraternity. The Department of Veterinary Services Malaysia has outlined standard as endorsed by Department of Standard Malaysia via SIRIM. Bhd. as follows: (i) ISO 11784 Radio-frequency identification of animal-Code structure (ii) ISO 11785 Radio-frequency identification of animal-Technical concept
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Centralized And Decentralized Wastewater Management In Malaysia - Experiences And Challenges (Part 2)
By Ir. Haniffa Hamid, Ir. Dorai Narayana & Engr S. Anusuyah Bai Indah Water Konsortium Sdn Bhd
Part 1 of this article appeared in the June-Aug 2009 issue of Ingenieur.
River pollution
Issues related to river contamination and shortages of water supply have created pressure on parties identified as contributors to river pollution. Often, when water treatment plants are shut down due to high ammonia cal nitrogen or E-coli level, fingers are pointed towards public STPs as the main source of these pollutants. Statistics from Department of Environment (DOE) shows that almost 50% of river contamination originated from sewage related pollution. Public STPs only contribute a fraction of the sewage pollution and there are other sewage polluters i.e. private plants, septic tanks and pour flush systems and sullage from old housing areas that the authorities need to focus to effectively improve river water quality. Figure 5.1 is an illustration of the polluters in a typical local river stretch which demonstrates that public STPs are not the main polluters.
does not belong to the plant operators. Some of the problems faced by the public plant operators are: (a) Certain public sewerage systems or part of the system including public sewers are situated on or run under private land; (b) Periodically, developers merely hand over the sewerage system to the Government for operation but the land was not transferred, and remained in the ownership of a private owner; (c) Some plants are situated within the same compound as the owners residential property; (d) Some private owners insist on payment of market value for land or insist that the plant be removed to enable the owners to develop them. (e) Land acquisition problems for the siting of new sewage or sludge treatment facilities. This land issues need to be addressed for smooth operation and maintenance of the existing public plants including public sewers
Land issues
WSIA does not specifically address land issues. Public STPs are mainly situated on land that
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in other growth areas or to upgrade and expand existing systems to cater for new developments. However, the rate of investment and construction of new facilities by the Government has not kept pace with the development of new land schemes, resulting in proliferation of multipoint sewerage systems in most areas.
these plants are dispersed in development pockets nationwide. These multipoint systems are extremely challenging to operate and maintain efficiently due to the wide variation in the designs, technologies and product options. In contrast, there are only a handful of large STPs over 100,000 PE in capacity located mostly in densely populated cities. Besides the scattered distribution of the sewerage facilities, various treatment systems and equipment are being built into these treatment systems, resulting in numerous combinations treatment process and equipment. For example, there are easily ten types of aeration equipment used locally, while each type of the aeration equipment is made available by several manufacturers who offer variation in design and t e ch n o l o g i e s . I n s h o r t , t h e r e are countless combinations of the treatment processes and equipment at the some 5,000 sewage treatment plants currently under the care of public sewerage service. This presents operational logistics which are extremely complicated.
38 THE INGENIEUR
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and maintain their plants. It is important for the private plants operators to undergo training as well before obtaining their Licence to operate the plants. The sewerage industry needs competent manpower in order that the varied functions involved can be carried out effectively and efficiently. For this, a structured training and skills development programme needs to be instituted. This can be linked to a scheme of accreditation and licensing to ensure that only qualified and trained people are involved in related functions.
entire mechanism based on tariff burden on the customer. For long term sustainability, a combined principle of polluter pays and beneficiary pays must be adopted. This should be equally applicable to CAPEX involved in sewerage infrastructure provision, upgrades, renewal as well as operation and maintenance. The middle path principle of achieving this is basically: 1. Polluter pays would be applied to prevent a change to a more polluting activity whereby they must pay for the damage they cause. Suitability for polluter pays will be in developed countries, where most infrastructures are ready and income gap between poor and rich is narrow.
2. Beneficiary pays would be used to encourage a change to a more environment beneficial outcome whereby whoever benefits from a clean environment should be responsible for pollution control costs. Suitability for beneficiary pays will be in developing countries, where most infrastructure need to be constructed, and income gap between poor and rich is wider. Practical application would be; (a) For O&M of existing systems, and for building new sewerage systems (CAPEX) the full cost recovery is from polluters (b) For improvements, enhancement, upgrades and consequent O&M costs, full cost recovery must be from beneficiaries
THE INGENIEUR 39
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However, due to high CAPEX for centralized systems; this middle path principle could not be applied currently. Figure 5.2 shows the various parties who benefit from water services, and who should bear the costs.
proper sizing of STPs are Sewerage Catchment Area, Population and PE Projection, Buffer, Land Use/ Land Availability and Logistics. As mentioned before, the sewerage system in Malaysia is a combination of centralized and decentralized system. The recommendation is not to prefer one over the other but choosing the appropriate type of sewerage system depending on the area. The appropriate type of sewerage systems in Malaysia based on va r i o u s s c e n a r i o s a r e s t a t e d below: Scenario 1: New sewerage systems for Greenfield Developments Planning for sewerage infrastructure can be done concurrently with development. Centralized sewerage systems are easily implemented, the cost is lower and the disruption will be minimal. The cost will be absorbed as part of development costs. Examples of areas which went through Scenario 1 are Putrajaya and Cyberjaya, where the sizing of STPs can be determined upfront (eg: 100,000 PE 600,000 PE) in a centralized system.
Scenario 2: Existing Sewerage Infrastructure in developed areas Existing systems serving an area has now to be expanded to serving a large area as well as increased density. These areas might consist of many different types of systems: public sewage treatment plants, private sewage treatment plants, individual septic tanks, primitive systems and sullage wastes connected to drains. It needs a phased programme consisting of upgrading of systems, renewal, refurbishment as well as new facilities. It is more expensive and disruptive to carry out these wo r k s . Th e l a n d ava i l a b i l i t y issues may force a decentralized concept. Sizing of STP may vary from 200,000 PE 1.8 million PE with priority of funding, land availability and technology. Examples: Pantai Catchment (Kuala Lumpur) and Greater Georgetown Catchment (Penang). Scenario 3: Sewerage Infrastructure for Slow Paced Development Area Basically there are two main sewerage practices in slow paced development areas which are onsite sewerage treatment systems and communal multipoint system. There are no centralized sewage treatment facilities. Examples of such areas are Terengganu and Kelantan. Sizing is determined to meet development needs which can vary from 5,000 PE 50,000 PE. Scenario 4: Sewerage Infrastructure for Redevelopment Projects
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sewerage systems in existing areas with mixed sewerage systems. An example of such area is Wilayah Pembangunan Iskandar (Johor). Sizing is determined on the phasing of development and practicality of implementation which can vary from 50,000 PE -500,000 PE. These four scenarios summarize the recommendations as stated below: (a) Regional systems must be focused to cater for large urban areas (b) Planning control must be in place to minimise number of multipoint plants (c) There must be a standardised designs and equipment to help reduce overall cost and procurement and operational efficiency (d) There still can be a minimum number of on site systems (decentralized system) but confined to small scale development in isolated areas. (e) Th e t i m e f a c t o r i s a l s o significant. As time passes, more urban area may warrant centralized systems.
(i) Need for Nationwide Sewerage Catchment Strategy Sewerage catchment strategies have been completed for most areas. The next step is to review these reports and enable the Sewerage Catchment Strategies to provide the base information and Strategic framework which can be the basis for the formulation of Action Plans to meet Strategic Goals set by SPAN. A proper Nationwide Sewerage Catchment Strategy must be in place which acts as a timetable that defines the types of improvements which will take place in each Catchment area in a set timeframe. This will be done as part of the business plan formulation process, with targets including coverage, centralization, growth coverage, sullage issues, property connection and provision of basic systems for all areas. (ii) Need for Integrated CAPEX Investment Strategy Emphasis needs to be placed on planning and schemes to facilitate integrated investments of CAPEX by various parties, particularly the Government and the Developers. Policy, funds allocation and institutional support are the three key thrusts needed in this respect to mitigate the issues faced currently, including: (a) P r o l i f e ra t i o n o f s e w e ra g e systems (b) Non- standard systems (c) Poor quality of facilities (d) Wasteful investment (iii) Need for Whole Life Concept and Net Present Value Currently, developers who construct the centralized and decentralized systems do not use
a whole life concept in building these assets. Most of the time, they purchase the cheapest materials and equipments in the market in order to save cost. Although the initial construction cost is lower, but due to the inefficiencies of equipment, the cost of operation and maintenance will be higher. So there is a need to apply the whole life concept and choose the best options through the Net Present Value Calculation. A Whole-Life cost refers to the total cost of ownership over the life of an asset. Also commonly referred to as cradle to grave or womb to tomb costs. Typical areas of expenditure which are included in calculating the Whole-Life cost are: Planning Design Construction/acquisition Operations Maintenance Renewal/rehabilitation Financial (e.g. depreciation and cost of finance) (h) Replacement or disposal (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (iv) Need for Seed Fund Mechanism Government investment in providing sewerage infrastructure i n a dva n c e o f d e ve l o p m e n t , to enable new developments t o c o n n e c t t o t h e ava i l a b l e infrastructure rather than build their own would be ideal. However, this is often not possible. Policy and regulatory control can be used to encourage developers t o wo r k w i t h e a ch o t h e r t o develop sewerage infrastructure in line with national goals. However, these may also not be fully effective, unless a mechanism to financially assist developers in this endeavour can
THE INGENIEUR 41
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be put in place. It is proposed that a Seed Fund be created, to be utilised for this purpose. The fund can be utilised for the following purposes: (a) Purchase of land for siting of sewerage facilities in accordance with Catchment Strategies in areas where substantial growth is expected, so as to enable construction of the facilities by developers (b) Construction of sewerage i n f ra s t r u c t u r e i n a dva n c e o f development, so that extensions of the networks or construction of new modules can be done by developers. (c) Construction of spur sewers, enabling extension of sewer networks to areas where large-scale new developments are expected (d) F i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e t o developers carrying out sewerage infrastructure developments in accordance with Catchment Strategies, where additional land or capacities (for STP, inlet works or trunk sewers) are required (e) Provision of off site sludge facilities to serve multiple developments Other instances where seed funding is necessary to enable d e ve l o p e r i nve s t m e n t s t o b e channelled in line with National sewerage goals. (v) Need for Suitable Land for Ultimate Facilities New land sites are required for implementation of new sewerage infrastructure under the Capital Works projects. There are two methods of land acquisition:
42 THE INGENIEUR
(a) Application for State Land (b) Compulsory purchase under the Land Acquisition Act 1960 (LAA) The selection of suitable land sites for the purposes of STP, PS, sewerage network and sludge treatment/ disposal site is done t h r o u g h s e w e ra g e c a t ch m e n t strategy and sludge strategy. Consideration should also be given to the following aspects: (a) Utilise the same site for immediate, short term and long term project (b) Type of system suited with the existing surrounding land use (c) Social aspect (vi) Need for Standardization within the Sewerage Sector Standardisation of equipment, engineering design, and quality of work is essential to achieve overall industry efficiency and sustainability. As mentioned before, currently there are a large number of decentralized systems in Malaysia which consist of various types of design, equipment and treatment processes. The quality of most constructed sewerage works vary greatly from one work to another in terms of design, workmanship, reliability, performance, whilst the registered products available in the market range from best to worst, expensive to cheapest for the same range and types of products. It is impossible to regionalize all these areas in order to have one standardized system in place. Standardisation must be approached holistically to ensure successful adoption and implementation. It must attain commitment from various levels
of stakeholders who would be required to adopt the same p r i n c i p l e s , s i m i l a r p ra c t i c e s , equivalent products/materials and follow systematic procedures of the proposed Standardisation Programme. The Standardisation Programme will focus on the following priority areas: (a) Design and construction (b) Operation and maintenance (c) Refurbishment and upgrading work (d) Product and equipment (e) Repair and replacement (f) Certification of works approval (vii) Need for Effective Energy Management and Optimization for Efficiencies There are a large number of inherited sewage treatment plants in Malaysia and most of them are not energy efficient. The Federal Government has emphasised the importance of energy efficiency in the public sectors. Government effort would only be effective if the private sector also improve energy management at their private facilities. Many major exercises have been carried out to upgrade the conditions of the existing sewerage infrastructures to improve their performance. Several Guidelines have also been published to guide the development of new sewerage infrastructure in the private sector to ensure consistent quality at the completed facilities. However energy management has never been emphasised in the Guidelines and the common practices in this industry. Therefore an effective energy management plan would only be possible if all key stakeholders involved in the decision making are conscious about the importance of energy efficiency. The designers
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must ensure that the designs are efficient and are appropriate for the application. At the same time the technology recommended should be energy efficient. During the purchasing of the mechanical and electrical equipment, the contractors should ensure these equipment are energy efficient and are installed appropriately to minimise energy wastage due to unwarranted losses. When the operators take over the operation of the facilities, it is important that they are clearly aware of the operating environment such as influent characteristics and the facilities capabilities. This would help the operators to identify the most appropriate operating strategy to ensure that facilities are operated at their utmost efficiency and energy wastage is minimised. Hence commitment from all stakeholders are crucial in ensuring the smooth implementation of an energy management plan.
(viii) Need for Structured Training and Certification Programme As the new WSIA Act is in place, the sewerage industry will be handled by Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara (SPAN) as the regulator, Service Licensees (Operating and Maintaining Public Plants), Class Licensees (Operating and Maintaining Private Plants) and Facility Licensees (Owners). At present there are no specific requirements or standards that govern the sewerage operators even though IWK has been imparting knowledge and skills over the years. A structured programme to develop, train and certify sewerage operators are needed which is also in line with the requirement in the WSIA. The programme shall: (a) Ensure that sewerage operators have the required, necessary and/or minimum competencies to perform
sewerage services efficiently and effectively, and; (b) set a minimum standard for wastewater operators and the service licensees to comply in order to obtain and/or renew their license or the relevant permit from SPAN. Currently, public sewerage s e r v i c e s h ave b e e n a c t ive l y developing its own workforce as well as related people in the industry in various aspect of sewerage management. To this end there are a multitude of structured training and development programmes and materials specifically formulated for the following three categories i.e.: (a) Category A -- focus on planning, design and certification of sewerage systems with 28 training modules aimed at executives, engineers and managers. Some of these modules are being used for
Figure 6.2: Water Cycle and Integrated Water Resources and Reuse
THE INGENIEUR 43
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the Water Executive Training Post Graduate Diploma course offered by UTM. (b) Category B -- focus on the construction of sewerage systems targeted for professionals in the construction sector. (c) Category C -- focus on operation and maintenance of sewerage systems with over 45 modules covering the existing public sewerage assets. Trainings is conducted at regular interval to keep employees up-to-date on equipment operation and maintenance (ix) Need for Integrated Services for Maximum Sustainable Benefits One of the considerations i n i n t e g ra t e d wa t e r- s e w e ra g e management as proposed by the Government is to look at the water cycle as a whole. The management of the supply of clean water and the removal and treatment of sewerage by a single entity is expected to bring much logistical advantage as well as economics of scale. Besides this, the common customer for water and sewerage services means that customer services, billing and related aspects can be streamlined and duplication eliminated. The possibilities of reuse and recycling of sewage effluent are also opened with water-sewerage integration. Emerging technologies such as membranes have brought water reclamation possibilities closer to economic reality.
in Malaysia consisting of a mix of centralized and decentralized systems. All these systems function at various degrees of efficiency. While it may be idealistic to follow the model of centralisation, economic considerations and affordability must be taken into account as well. Moreover, with the possibilities of recycling and reuse of effluent, biosolids and biogas; the strategies adopted must consider these in deciding the degree of Centralisation to be adopted as well as the timeframe. The key is to adopt the most appropriate system for a given area, for a given period of time, and the Catchment Strategy will be the document which will help in this decision. The concept of centralized system and decentralized system
must be driven by the Sewerage C a t ch m e n t A r e a , t a k i n g i n t o consideration Population and PE Projection, Buffer, Land Use/Land Availability and Logistics. The recommendation is not to prefer one over the other but choosing the appropriate type of sewerage system depending on the area. Cost and non-cost elements must be considered with appropriate weightages in the evaluation. For the areas where centralisation is not adopted, strategies and planning directives must be in place to effectively manage the decentralized sewerage systems in the most effective manner. These may include setting appropriate standards, standardisation, regulation and adoption of appropriate technology. BEM
REFERENCES
Ujang.Z and Henze.M (2006) Municipal Wastewater Management in Developing Countries: Principles and Engineering, IWA Publishing, London,UK (Chapter 11: Management of Decentralised Sewerage Systems [Pg 293-332] Haniffa Hamid and Zaini Ujang) Crites. R and G. Tchobanoglous (1998) Small and Decentralized Wastewater Management Systems, The Mc-Graw Hill Companies, Inc, United States. Ir. Dorai Narayana (2007) IWKs Asset Management Strategy, Planning and Engineering Department, IWK , Malaysia. Planning Services Section (2008) Integrated Sewerage Planning Strategy and the Need for Planning Directives, IWK, Malaysia. Planning Services Section, Sewerage Catchment Strategy Reports, IWK, Malaysia. SPAN Act 654: Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara Act 2006, Percetakan National Berhad, Malaysia. WSIA Act 655: Water Services Industry Act 2006, Percetakan National Berhad, Malaysia. SSA 1993: Sewerage Services Act 1993, Sewerage Services Department, Percetakan National Berhad, Malaysia.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The historical factors behind the development of sewerage systems in Malaysia have resulted in the current sewerage systems
44 THE INGENIEUR
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Distribution, it can be seen from Fig 3 that the number of fatalities among utility staff and their contractors staff is almost equal, even though the total number of
accidents involving utility staff is substantially higher. What are the causes for this high number of accidents involving electrical workers?
THE INGENIEUR 45
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its inspectors to check on the electrical industry or electrical installations. Electricity Supply Act 1990 and Electricity Regulations 1994 This Act and the accompanying Regulations govern the supply of electricity in Malaysia and provides for the Energy Commission to be the agency responsible for this function. The Act has a section on Competent Control which makes it mandatory for all electrical installations to be operated by or under the control of Competent Persons. The Regulations then define the Competent Persons required according to voltage level of the installation. All Competent Persons need to be certified by the Energy Commission before being allowed to work at an installation. The Commission has a rigorous testing procedure involving theory, practical and oral tests to determine a candidates knowledge and practice of safe work procedures. The Regulations provide some guidelines on safe operations of an installation but do not go into details. The Regulations are also silent about some vital aspects of electrical safety, especially the provision of mandatory Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE) for electrical workers.
Ut
y lit
l Re si
ia nt de
Fig 3: Utility and contractor staff involved in electrical accidents at TNB Distribution, 2002/03-2007/08
Legislation
Legislation concerning safety for electrical workers comprises the following Acts and Regulations: O c c u p a t i o n a l S a f e t y a n d Health Act 1994 & Regulations and Orders This is a general piece of legislation covering all workers,
including those in the electrical industry and electrical workers in other industries. It defines the duties of employers and employees regarding safety and makes it obligatory to report all accidents but there are no specific clauses for electrical workers. Neither does the Department of Occupational Safety and Health ( D O S H ) h av e p r o v i s i o n s f o r
Industry Codes There are two Industry codes widely in use in the country, IEE Wiring Regulations (also known as BS 7671) and MS IEC 60364. Both of these Codes provide guidance on selection and erection of wiring and electrical equipment to ensure safe installation for the occupiers, especially low voltage installations. There are no instructions on safe work procedures for electrical workers.
46 THE INGENIEUR
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are quite dated and need to be reviewed with recent advances in technology. The major problem however, is the situation in nonutility installations. Most of them do not have published Safety Rules in operating their electrical e q u i p m e n t . Th e E l e c t r i c i t y Regulations only provide a general guide in isolating supply, working on a switchboard, etc. It is thus left to the skill and judgment of the operator, who may not even be competent, as noted above. A generic code, detailing the steps for switching and isolation, as well as related operations, is needed for the industry. 4. Improper Personnel Protective Equipment All personnel operating electrical equipment or even coming within a certain distance of live equipment need to wear the relevant PPE in case of a flashover or other incident. Unfortunately, there is no legislation making this mandatory or specifying the type and standard of PPE to be worn. Utilities provide PPE for their technical staff and have made its use mandatory via the Electricity Safety Rules. However, checks with international standards like NFPA 70E show that PPE provided, especially for arc flash protection, are not adequate. Another problem is the storage, maintenance and regular inspection of the PPE which rarely follow the recommendations of the manufacturer, thus making the warranty null and void. Utilities also do not enforce use of PPE by its contractors, which probably explains the higher fatality rate as shown in Fig 3. Non-utility installations are far worse off. The provision of PPE depends on the recommendation of the Competent Engineer in charge of the installation and the generosity
THE INGENIEUR 47
the equipment in its network. Unfortunately when an accident occurs, it is sometimes found that the actual person doing the operation was not certified, and therefore not authorized, to operate the equipment. Sometimes, the operator may have been trained and duly certified, but accidents still occur due to failure to adhere to proper procedures when handling equipment. This can be a result of over-confidence or simply fatigue due to long hours on the job. 3. Lack of safe work procedures Utilities have their Electricity Safety Rules which lay down the procedures in working on their installations, especially details about switching, isolating supply, etc. However, some of these Rules
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of its owners. It can be observed that in many cases, PPE is limited to gloves and hard hats. Even these items may not be used properly, for example rubber gloves may be used for both electric shock and arc flash protection.
Conclusion
Electrical accidents can be prevented or reduced. A comparison of our electrical accident statistics per KWh consumed with those of other countries like the UK, US and Canada shows we have a markedly higher number of accidents, especially fatalities. The current trend shows no signs of improvement. All parties need to play their part to improve the
situation. Legislation has to be strengthened, especially with regard to the provision and specifications of PPE for electrical workers. A National Code for safe operations of electrical installations, including switching and isolation procedures, is sorely needed. An international standard, like NFPA 70E, would be a good source of reference for the drafting of this code. The Energy Commission has to be beefed up to oversee electrical installations and confirm that regulations pertaining to maintenance of equipment and Competent Control are adhered to. Employers, including utilities, n e e d t o i nve s t i n e q u i p m e n t maintenance, PPE, and training and subsequent retraining of their staff. Finally, it is the electrical
worker himself who has to take responsibility for his own safety and welfare, and ensure that he comes safely home to his family after work. BEM
REFERENCES
Energy Commission Annual Report 2007 Energy Commission Analysis of Electrical Accidents in Malaysia for 2002-2006 Electricity Regulations 1994 NFPA 70E, Electrical Safety in the Workplace
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48 THE INGENIEUR
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imber is one of the most useful building materials available and when kept in a favourable environment will last indefinitely. When we talk about timber, we cannot run away from the durability aspect which has a direct influence on the performance of timber in service. Timber is an organic material, mainly made up of cellulose and lignin. One of the major drawbacks associated with usage of wood products is
the susceptibility of wood materials to biological deterioration and when timbers are put into service, they are subjected to weathering and biological attacks and not m a ny t i m b e r s p e c i e s e x h i b i t natural resistance against these physical and biological elements. Knowledge on natural durability is important especially when selecting timber for structural purposes. The biodegradable aspect makes it a potential food source for a variety
of fungi and insects. These wood destroying organisms are capable of breaking down the complex polymers which make up the wood structure. Bio-deterioration of wood products by microorganisms and insects are a major problem causing great losses to property owners, especially those living in high humid conditions such as tropical Malaysia. The problem of termites (Figure 1), insect borer (Figure 2), sapstain
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(Figure 3), mold (Figure 4) and decay fungi (Figure 5) is very rampant. The problem of decaying timber begins immediately after the felling process. When felled, timber is wet, becoming very susceptible to sapstain, mold and decay fungi, especially if the drying of timber is delayed. At semi- or fully-dry state, wood borer and termite attack in timber is common. Hence, effective process and wood protection are very crucial to ensure that the timbers are fully protected while in service. However, demand is currently towards preservatives that have a high degree of efficacy against termite and other wood destroying organisms, while also safe for humans and the environment.
Classification of Timbers
Malaysian timber is classified into softwoods, light, medium and heavy hardwoods (Table 1). There are very few true softwoods of commercial significance in Malaysia and none are durable in the tropics. The main difference between the timber of hardwoods and softwoods (conifers or cone bearing plants) is the absence of vessels (pores) in softwoods. N o r m a l l y t h e s o f t wo o d s a r e characterised by needle-shaped leaves eg. Pine, Damar Minyak. Hardwoods are timbers that come from angiosperm ie. Dicotyledons. They are characterised by broad leaves and seeds are enclosed in a seed case. Hardwoods are divided into light, medium and heavy. Light hardwoods include all the relatively light weight timbers which range in density from 400 to 720 kg/m3 at 15% moisture content. They are general utility timbers of Malaysia such as meranti, rubberwood, ramin,
Figure 5 - Rot under the floor joists due to wood decay fungi
Light hardwood
< 720
Softwood
360 - 705
50 THE INGENIEUR
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dark red meranti and medang. In addition to general utility purposes many of these light hardwoods are excellent for high class joinery work, cabinet making, furniture, decorative panelling, etc. Provided that proper precautions are taken against attack by wood destroying agents especially termites, borers and fungus, the light hardwoods as a whole make very satisfactory timbers for general construction. Medium hardwoods are m o d e r a t e l y h e av y t o h e av y constructional timbers ranging in density from 720 to 880 kg/m3 at 15% moisture content. Some of these timbers are heavy and strong enough to be classified as Heavy Hardwoods but under tropical conditions they lack sufficient natural durability when exposed to
the weather or in contact with the ground unless they are properly treated with preservatives before use. Examples of moderately heavy hardwoods are Kapur and Kempas. Heavy hardwoods are heavy or very heavy constructional timbers ranging in density from about 800 to 1,120 kg/m 3 at 15% moisture content. They are naturally durable as they contain within their tissues some toxic materials, e.g. alkaloids or other substances repellent to wood destroying agents and can therefore be safely used without preservative treatment even in positions exposed to fungus or termite activities; the sapwood of these timbers, however, is not durable. Examples of heavy hardwoods are Bitis and Chengal.
Timber durability
The durability of timber is defined as the number of years the timber can last based on the performance of test sticks in graveyard testing or stake test (Figure 6) against wood destroying organisms and weather. The natural durability of timber, however, usually refers only to its degree of resistance to attack by biological agents and no wood is permanently resistant to all forms of biodeterioration. The most acceptable scientific study in evaluating the durability of timber is by the graveyard test, where timbers of standard size are buried in the ground and the length of time taken by these timbers to remain sound is computed as the durability rating
THE INGENIEUR 51
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of the timbers. While this method gives an excellent relative durability of the timbers tested, it does not really reflect the actual durability of the timber during service, especially under conditions that are not similar to those employed in the test. Those who are not familiar with durability test of timbers may assume that the published data on the durability of timbers are directly comparable, ignoring the fact that the tests were performed under different environmental conditions. For example, Kempas which is rated as Moderately Durable (2-5 years) when tested under the Malaysian conditions has been found to last for 25 years in the United Kingdom. Kempas excluding sapwood free from fungi and subterranean termites attack can last for about 20 years in service. Through observation some proportion of untreated medium to heavy hardwoods timber lasts for about 100 years under the ordinary conditions of its use. This long durability used to be a characteristic of most timber houses and other buildings which can be seen clearly in some ancient houses. An example is the Istana Seri Menanti in Negri Sembilan. Why is the timber less durable now? The most likely explanation is that the timber thats being used today comes from immature and smaller diameter trees and the majority contains a high proportion of sapwood. Timber is also made up of less durable species of wood than that used previously. The knowledge of the natural resistance of timber to fungal attacks, termites and other degrading organisms is essential for a more judicious and rational
52 THE INGENIEUR
together and simply sold as chap-char resulting in the usage of both light and heavy timbers in construction.
use of wood with a view to bridging up the gap between supply and demand of wood. Besides the use of the more common timbers like balau, resak, chengal, keranji, kekatong and kempas for building construction, unknown or lesser known timbers have been utilized in Malaysia in the form of chap-char (mixed woods) for a long time. Most of the time, consumers do not know exactly the type of timber species they use. The use of chap-char is therefore, guided by the weight of the timber. To many people once the timber is heavy, it is going to be durable and strong. Thus, in the trade, very often we will come across the sale of timber in the form of hard chap-char (equivalent t o h e av y t o m e d i u m - w e i g h t mixed woods) and soft chapchar (equivalent to mixed light woods). For obvious reasons, the hard chap-char will find their way to the construction industry for use as roof-trusses, door and window frames, piling, outdoor structures and many others. Soft chap-char on the other hand, will be used for boxes, crates, broom sticks, cladding, low-cost furniture and other temporary purposes. Sometimes, however, both the hard chap-char and the soft chap-char are mixed
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highly recommended for structural components especially for rooftruss, columns, beams, rafters and floor joists which are not in direct contact with the occupants. Eventhough CCA is banned in certain countries due to arsenic content, there is still no alternative in effectiveness against termites until now. In Malaysia due to the rampant problem with termites, C CA i s s t i l l b e i n g u s e d f o r structural timber and joinery. There are several methods used for treating timber with p r e s e r va t i v e s . H o w e v e r, t h e vacuum pressure impregnation process is the most widely used method. In this method, dry timber is loaded into a cylinder and the wood preservative is forced into the timber through the use of a high hydraulic pressure. This method known as the full cell process or Bethell Process was invented by John Bethell in 1838. Today, the basic principles of operation remain unchanged. The advantages of this process is that it enables a considerable amount of preservative to be forced into
the timber, a large quantity of timber could be treated at the same time and by adjusting the treatment schedule, control over the retention and penetration of preservatives can be achieved (Figure 7). Treatment of timber using CCA for different hazard classes can be based on Malaysian Standard MS 360:2006. Evidence of treatment process should be recorded by the plant operator in the charge sheet. The charge sheet gives useful details of the treatment charge, the quantity of timber treated, the results achieved from the treatment as well as details of the treatment cycle.
the fixation process. Therefore, the chemical distribution and depth of penetration remain at the same level upon releasing from pressure vessel. Quality control need to be carried to determine that standard requirements are met. Procedure in MS 360 has to be followed strictly to ensure good treated timber is obtained. This treated timber is ready for use in wood construction.
engineering nostalgia
emengor Dam is one of the Southeast Asias largest rock-fill dam, 537m in length and 127m in height. It is located in the North-Western part of Perak. Physical construction of 15 miles of access road through the virgin jungle commenced in 1972 for the main project to commence in 1974 and to complete in 1978 to meet the shortage of power supply. The official opening of the project was performed by His Royal Highness, the then Sultan of Perak on September 19, 1979. The Power Station has four generating units comprising Francis turbines vertically coupled to water-cooled generators. Four power tunnels are designed to supply 87.5 MW unit each. At full operating condition the project will contribute 348
MW installed capacity and an average output 900 million units annually. In spite encountering many unforeseen obstructions such as attack by armed terrorists causing more than three-month stoppage, delay in extraction of timber in the reservoir area and shortage of workers, the project was completed in time for impounding of reservoir in the monsoon season of 1977. Generation of power commenced in 1978 and within the budgeted cost of RM340 million - a feat we seldom hear of nowadays. The dedicated and brave workers, engineers, administrative and other technical staff who were involved in the construction of this project can cast their names in a Malaysian construction industry history with pride!
Looking downstream of Sg. Perak in 1973, it shows the original site of the project area at the conference of Sg. Perak and Sg. Temengor after the dense jungle had been cleared and burnt. At the narrow gorge the depth of water of Sg. Perak was about 40 feet flowing at critical velocity.
Commencement of construction of low level upstream cofferdam to divert water from Sg. Perak and Sg. Temengor flowing through the completed two Diversion tunnels to downstream of the dam site to enable the filling of the rock-fill dam to commence. The closure of Sg. Perak was witnessed by the then Menteri Besar of Perak, Tan Sri Ghazali Jawi on 17/7/1975.
Tan Sri Ghazali Jawi accompanied by TNB Resident Engineer, Ir. Liaw Y.P., Hans Kolle, R.E. of Shawinigan Engineering Co. Montreal and Kumakura, the Deputy Project Manager and the Liaison Officer, Mr Itai of Hazama Gumi of Japan, inspecting the construction of one of the four Power Tunnels on 24/5/1976. 54 THE INGENIEUR
The Armed Forces Chief of Staff, Indonesia, accompanied by Defence Minister, Tan Sri Ghazali Shafee and the Malaysian Armed Forces Chief plus other VIPs visited the Site on 10/1/1977. The visit was conducted by Ir. Liaw Y.P. and Edward Irwin.
engineering nostalgia
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