Cells and organelles: Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells: Animals, plants, protoctists (algae many fungi) have cells

that contain membranebounded organelles such as a nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts. These are eukaryotes and are made up of eukaryotic cells Bacteria and blue-green algae- prokaryotes Prokaryotic cells lack much of the structure and organisation of the eukaryotic cellsthey do not have a membrane bound nucleus- the genetic material is a single strand coiled up in the centre to form the nucleoid or loop and sometimes there are small additional bits of genetic material within the cell called plasmids Cytoplasm contains enzymes, ribosomes and food-storage granules but lacks other features of eukaryotic cells such as endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, mitochondria and chloroplasts Respiration takes place on a special piece of the cell membrane called a mesosome and those prokaryotes that can photosynthesise have a form of chlorophyll but no chloroplasts to hold it Plasmids, mesosome, flagellum and photosynthetic membranes are not present in all bacteria

Characteristics: Cells are actually spheres, cylinders or asymmetrical three-dimensional shapes Typical animal cell: Surrounded by the cell surface membrane Inside this is a jelly like liquid called cytoplasm, containing a nucleus- the two together are known as protoplasm Structure is closely related to the function of the cell

Membranes: Outer boundary to the cell and in the multitude of internal (intracellular) membranes Controlling movement of substances

The protoplasm: Organelles. Detailed organisation is known as the ultrastructure

The nucleus: Usually the largest organelle in the cell (10-20 m), can be seen with a light microscope Electron micrographs show that the nucleus is surrounded by a double nuclear membrane containing holes or pores Chemicals can pass in and out of the nucleus through these pores so that the nucleus can control events in the cytoplasm

Inside the nuclear membrane or envelope, 2 main substances, nucleic acids and proteins Nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid When the cell is not actively dividing, the DNA is bonded to the protein to form chromatin (tiny granules) In the nucleus there is at least one nucleolus- an extra- dense area of almost pure DNA and protein- involved in the production of ribosomes

Mitochondria: Mitochondrion thread granule- tiny rod-like structures in the cytoplasm of almost all cells as seen under the light microscope Powerhouses of the cell ATP- energy Muscle cells use a lot of mitochondria Mitochondria are surrounded by an outer and inner membrane- also contain their own genetic material They have an internal arrangement that is well adapted for their function The inner membrane is folded o form cristae surrounded by a fluid matrix Scientists think that mitochondria originated as symbiotic eubacteria living inside cells

The centrioles: Pair of centrioles in each cell, near the nucleus Each centriole is made up of a bundle of nine tubules and is about 0.5 m long and 0.2 m wide Centrioles are involved in cell division When a cell divides the centrioles pull apart to produce a spindle of microtubules which are involved in the movement of the chromosomes The cytoskeleton: Feature of all eukaryotic cells Dynamic, three-dimensional web-like structure that fills the cytoplasm Made up of microfilaments which are protein fibres and microtubules Tiny protein tubes about 20nm in diameter Microtubules are found , both singly and in bundles throughout the cytoplasm- made up of globular protein tubulin The cytoskeleton gives the cytoplasm structure and keeps the organelle in place Cytoskeleton is closely linked with cell movements and transport within cells

Vacuoles: Not permanent in animal cells Membrane lined closures, formed and lost as needed Contractile vacuoles are important in simple animals that live in fresh water- it allows the water content of the cytoplasm to be controlled

Endoplasmic reticulum: ER spreads through the whole cytoplasm 3 dimensional network of cavities, some sac-like and some tubular, bounded by membranes ER network links with the membrane around the nucleus Large part of the transport system as well as being the site of synthesis of many important chemicals Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum: Outside of the ER is covered with granules called ribosomes- known as RER Function of ribosomes is to make proteins- RER isolates and transports these proteins once they have been made RER has a large surface area for the synthesis of all these proteins, stores and transports them inside and outside the cell SER is also involved in synthesis and transport- for fatty acids and steroids

Golgi body: Made up of stacks of parallel, flattened membrane pockets called cisternae formed by vesicles for the ER fusing together Golgi body is closely linked to the RER Proteins are brought to the GB in vesicles which have pinched off from the RER where they were made Vesicles fuse with the membrane sacs of the GB and protein enters the Golgi stacks Carbohydrate is added to some proteins to form glycoproteins such as mucus

Lysosomes: Break substances into simple chemicals Dark, spherical bodies in the cytoplasm Contain a powerful mix of digestive enzymes Fuse with each other and with membrane-bound vacuole containing either food or an obsolete organelle Enzymes break down the contents into molecules that can be reused Lysosomes can also self-destruct Apoptosis- when the lysosomes may rupture, releasing their enzymes to destroy the entire cell