Ana S.

Trbovich
Nation-building under the Austro-Hungarian Sceptre
Croato-Serb Antagonism and Cooperation
!n thc ninctccnth ccntury many uropcan nations bccamc politically con
scious ol thcir nationhood, which bccamc onc ol thc lactors in thc crum
bling ol thc two grcat cmpircs in Ccntralast uropc thc Habsburg and
thc ttoman mpirc at thc bcginning ol thc ncxt ccntury. Historians
havc tcrmcd this issuc thc astcrn Qucstion, a qucstion ol lling up thc
vacuum crcatcd by thc gradual crosion ol ttoman rulc in astcrn uropc.
+
Tc astcrn Qucstion involvcd not only a rcpositioning ol thc 8alkan statcs
(cspccially Grcccc, Scrbia, 8ulgaria and Romania) but also ol Russia and
thc Habsburg mpirc, lcading to Grcat Powcr rivalrics and rcsulting in thc
First Vorld Var.
Tc pcoplcs ol luturc Yugoslavia, most notably Croats and Scrbs, ma
turcd as nations during this pcriod. Tcy strivcd lor grcatcr indcpcndcncc
not only by rcsisting lorcign rulc but also by mcans ol diplomacy and coop
cration with nations who sharcd thcir aspirations cithcr out ol idcalism or
out ol intcrcst. Tc Grcat Powcrs, howcvcr, chicy dccidcd thcir latc. Tc
ycar +88 providcs thc most vivid cxamplc, whcn thc bordcrs ol thc South
Slav pcoplcs shiltcd drastically two timcs in lour months as a conscqucncc
ol divcrging intcrcsts ol thc Grcat Powcrs.
:
+
Scc John Marriott, Te Eastern Question (xlord: Clarcndon Prcss, ++), M. S. An
dcrson, Te Eastern Question, :,:,: (Ncw York: Macmillan, +66).
:
!n March +88, Russia, having dclcatcd thc ttomans, attcmptcd to rcsolvc thc ast
crn Qucstion to hcr advantagc by thc tcrms ol thc Trcaty ol San Stclano ( March +88).
Tc agrccmcnt with thc ttomans providcd Russia with ovcrwhclming inucncc in thc
8alkans, including thc muchdcsircd outlct to thc warm scas via a Grcatcr 8ulgaria, dc
lacto a Russian protcctoratc that includcd thc rcgions ol Maccdonia, Vcstcrn Tracc,
a portion ol Albania, and a district ol Scrbia. Russia also awardcd lull rccognition to
Scrbia, crstwhilc an autonomous principality within thc ttoman mpirc (rcduccd in
thc ast by thc Trcaty ol San Stclano to thc advantagc ol 8ulgaria) and Montcncgro
(almost triplcd in sizc). !n July +88, thc Congrcss ol 8crlin, attcndcd by Gcrmany,
8alcanica XXX\!! +6
De.elopment of Serb national mo.ement until :,:,
Modcrn Scrbian history

datcs back to +8o, whcn thc First Scrbian !nsur

rcction against thc ttomans bcgan, born out ol thc dcsirc lor national
cmancipation.

Tis was thc rst national uprising against thc ttomans

among thc pcoplcs ol Southcast uropc, lollowcd by thc Grcck Rcvolution
ol +8:+. Morcovcr, amongst thc conqucrcd Slavs ol luturc Yugoslavia, only
Scrbs succccdcd in crcating an indcpcndcnt statc in +88.

Montcncgro,
which had ncvcr bccn complctcly subjugatcd by thc ttomans, was also
rccognizcd thcn.
6
At thc samc timc, thcsc two statcs did not cncompass all
AustriaHungary, Russia, 8ritain, Francc, !taly and Turkcy, rcviscd thc Trcaty ol San
Stclano, cxploiting thc lact that Russia, although victorious against thc ttomans, was
cxhaustcd by thc war and at thc vcrgc ol bankruptcy. 8ulgaria, which to this day ccl
cbratcs thc day thc Trcaty ol San Stclano was signcd as its national day, was rcduccd,
most ol its cxtcndcd tcrritory having bccn rcstorcd to thc ttomans. Tc Congrcss ol
8crlin did rccognizc an indcpcndcnt Scrbia and an indcpcndcnt Montcncgro, within
bordcrs that suitcd thc Grcat Powcrs, which wcrc thcn impcrsonatcd by thc Conccrt ol
uropc. !t also grantcd AustriaHungary thc right to occupy 8osniaHcrzcgovina and
to control thc allcgcdly indcpcndcnt Montcncgrin port ol 8ar |Trcaty bctwccn Grcat
8ritain, AustriaHungary, Francc, Gcrmany, !taly, Russia and Turkcy, + July +88, +
CTS ++++|.

Tc history ol Scrb statchood is vcry rich, with thc rst Scrbian dynasty cstablishcd in
thc cighth ccntury. !t is not rccountcd hcrc lor thc rcason ol brcvity. For morc inlorma
tion, scc Histoire du Peuple Serbe, cd. uan T. 8atakovi (Lausannc: LAgc dHommc,
:oo).

Tc First Scrbian Uprising has also bccn callcd a Scrbian national rcvolution. 8ru
tally crushcd by thc ttomans in +8+, it sparkcd thc Sccond Scrbian Uprising in +8+,
which lcd to Scrbias scmiindcpcndcncc lrom thc ttomans in +8+, lormalizcd in
+8: by thc Pcacc ol Adrianoplc and hattishcrils in +8:, +8o and +8. Prcssurcd by
Russia, thc Sultan thcn grantcd Scrbia thc right to intcrnal autonomy and its govcrnor a
hcrcditary titlc ol a princc, but continucd to obligc Scrbia to plcdgc a xcd ycarly tributc
to thc Portc. Prior to thc uprisings, thc rights ol thc vassal Scrbia wcrc rcgulatcd by vari
ous dccrccs. Scc Vaync \ucinich, cd., Te First Serbian Uprising :c,-:: (8ouldcr,
Ncw York: Columbia Univcrsity Prcss, +8:), Lcopold von Rankc, History of Ser.ia and
the Ser.ian Fe.olution (London: 8cnn, +88). Plcasc also notc that thc Scrbian clitc
raiscd thc issuc ol national rights and tcrritorial autonomy as carly as +o, at thc cc
clcsiasticalnational dict hcld in Tcmcsvar (prcscntday Romania) and attcndcd by
rcprcscntativcs ol thc aristocracy, high clcrgy and occr corps. uan T. 8atakovi, A
8alkanStylc Frcnch Rcvolution: Tc +8o Scrbian Uprising in uropcan Pcrspcctivc,
Balcanica XXX\! (8clgradc: !nstitutc lor 8alkan Studics, :oo6), +++:.

Trcaty ol 8crlin, + July +88, + CTS ++++ (Articlc XXX!\).

6
Ibid. (Articlc XX\!).
A. S. Trbovich, Nationbuilding undcr thc AustroHungarian Sccptrc +
thc tcrritorics whcrc Scrbs livcd. Until ++:, morc than a hall ol thc Scrb
population livcd undcr ttoman and AustroHungarian rulc.

cspitc thc currcnt rcvisionist claims by thosc lavouring a non

Scrb Montcncgrin idcntity, it is a historical lact that thc aspirations ol thc
Montcncgrins in thc latc ninctccnth ccntury mirrorcd thosc ol Scrbs as a
wholc unication and indcpcndcncc ol Scrbinhabitcd lands. Tc grcat
cst Montcncgrin poct Princcbishop Pctar Pctrovi Njcgo was a lcading
Scrb national gurc in thc ninctccnth ccntury, instrumcntal in codilying
thc Kosovo myth as thc ccntral thcmc ol thc Scrbian national movcmcnt.
8
Tc Pctrovi Njcgo dynasty, which rulcd Montcncgro, cvcn madc a bricl
attcmpt to assumc thc rolc ol thc Scrb lcadcr and unicr, but Montcncgros
small sizc and wcak cconomy cvcntually lcd to thc rccognition ol thc pri
macy ol thc Karadjordjcvi dynasty ruling out ol 8clgradc. Montcncgrins
had Scrbian idcntity but thcy at oncc wcrc proud ol thcir statc, cspccially
in thc arca around Cctinjc, thc capital ol thc Kingdom ol Montcncgro. A
scnsc ol distinct statchood was strong cnough to brccd strong autonomist
scntimcnts in a portion ol Montcncgros population lollowing thc ++8
unication with Scrbia and thc immincnt disappcarancc ol a Montcncgrin
statc.

!n thc ninctccnth ccntury, thc Scrbian national idcntity had lully dc

vclopcd. Tc Scrbs wcrc awarc ol thcir long history and tradition, grcat
mcdicval civilization and cultural unity, rcgardlcss ol thc lact that thcy livcd
undcr dicrcnt impcrial administrations. Trcc clcmcnts, intcrwovcn with
thc lcgacy ol thc mcdicval Scrb Ncmanji dynasty, wcrc impcrativc in thc
lorging ol Scrb national idcntity and its prcscrvation during long pcriods

Slavcnko Tcrzi, Tc Right to Scllctcrmination and thc Scrbian Qucstion in

Te Serbian Question in the Balkans: Geographical and Historical spects, cd. 8ratislav
Atanackovi (8clgradc: Faculty ol Gcography, Univcrsity ol 8clgradc, +), o. Scc Scc
also imitrijc jordjcvi, ,, Les re.olutions nationals des peuples balkaniques (8clgradc: !ns
titut dHistoirc, +6).
8
Scc bclow.

Scc John . Trcadway, Te Falcon and the Eagle, Montenegro and ustria-Hungary,
:,c:,:, (Vcst Lalaycttc: Purduc Univcrsity Prcss, +8), +6+8, :o+, :+o. Tc ++
cdition ol ncyclopacdia 8ritannica dcscribcs Montcncgrins as bclonging to thc Scrb
racc. Sir onald Mackcnzic Vallacc, Princc Kropotkin, C. Mijatovich and J. . 8our
chicr, Short History of Fussia and the Balkan States, rcproduccd lrom thc ++th cdition
ol thc ncyclopacdia 8ritannica (London: Tc ncyclopacdia 8ritannica Company,
++), +:+, +:6. According to Stcvan K. Pawlovitch, History of the Balkans :c,:,,
(London and Ncw York: Longman, +), +o8, Montcncgrin rulcrs considcrcd thcm
sclvcs Scrb, wcrc gcncrally supportivc ol a Scrb causc and willing to coopcratc with
Scrbia, but ncvcrthclcss gavc priority to thcir own tcrritorial objcctivcs.
8alcanica XXX\!! +8
ol lorcign domination thc Scrbian rthodox Church, thc symbolism ol
Kosovo, and thc Scrbian languagc.
Tc idcntication ol thc Scrbian rthodox Church with thc Scrbian
nation is dccply rootcd in national consciousncss. Tc mcdicval rulcrs ol
thc Scrbs wcrc closcly idcnticd with thc Scrbian Church and its strugglc
lor autonomy. Following thc 8yzantinc tradition, mcmbcrs ol thc Scrb
Ncmanji dynasty loundcd monastcrics, somc bccamc monks and achicvcd
sainthood, and in +:+ thc pious St. Sava, son ol Stclan Ncmanja, bccamc
thc rst archbishop ol an autoccphalous Scrbian church, lrccd lrom thc
jurisdiction ol thc Grccklcd Archbishopric ol hrid. Tc Churchs indc
pcndcncc was cxtinguishcd soon altcr +, whcn thc ttomans conqucrcd
Scrbia. Tc Scrbian (Christian rthodox) Church, undcr thc namc ol thc
Patriarchatc ol Pc, rccmcrgcd a ccntury latcr (+), altcr an intcrvcntion
by thc inucntial ttoman vizicr ol Scrbian origin Sokollu Mchmcd Pasha
(Sokolovi) who cxtcndcd its jurisdiction, bringing almost thc cntirc Scr
bian nation undcr its wing.
+o
Tc church was csscntial to Scrbian idcntity
as thc only surviving Scrbian institution during thc long pcriod ol lorcign
rulc and thus a lorm ol a surrogatc Scrb statc. Christian rthodoxy has
bccn onc ol thc main Scrbian traits, though thcrc has bccn an important
Catholic Scrb minority, mainly in almatia.
++
!n addition, many Christian
Scrbs convcrtcd to !slam undcr thc ttomans, particularly in 8osnia and
Hcrzcgovina.
ral lolk traditions constitutcd anothcr clcmcnt nurturing Scrbian
national culturc and a rcassurancc that thc nation would risc against its
opprcssors. A national hcro ol cpic songs, lcgcndary Marko Kraljcvi, is
an cmbodimcnt ol all that thc Scrbs wantcd to bclicvc ol thcmsclvcs his
hcroism, his gcntlcncss, his rcspcct lor thc rcligious and social customs ol
his pcoplc, his machismo, cvcn his cruclty, but abovc all his crcc opposi
tion to thc Turks and his intcnsc national pridc.
+:
Tc rcal Marko Kraljcvi
dicd ghting as an ttoman vassal.
Vhilc Scrb cpic poctry also appcalcd to othcr Slav pcoplcs ol thc
8alkans, thc Kosovo lcgcnds kcpt thc spark ol Scrbian national conscious
+o
Naturally, Sokolovi was Muslim, but thrcc ol thc rst lour patriarchs ol thc rccstab
lishcd Scrbian rthodox Church Patriarchatc ol Pc, in Kosovo and Mctohia, camc
lrom his lamily (thc rst patriarch was his brothcr, thc Scrb rthodox monk Maka
rijc Sokolovi). Scc Frcd Singlcton, Short History of the Yugosla. Peoples (Cambridgc:
Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss, +8), , joko Slijcpcvi, Istorija srpske pra.osla.ne
crk.e |History ol thc Scrbian rthodox Church| (8clgradc: 8!GZ, ++), vol. +, o6,
+8+.
++
Scc bclow.
+:
Singlcton, Short History of the Yugosla. Peoples, .
A. S. Trbovich, Nationbuilding undcr thc AustroHungarian Sccptrc +
ncss alivc lor ccnturics, which burst into amc with Karadjordjcs
+
rcvolt
against thc ttoman Turks in +8o. Lcgcnds ol thc 8attlc ol Kosovo +8o. Lcgcnds ol thc 8attlc ol Kosovo . Lcgcnds ol thc 8attlc ol Kosovo
(+/:8 Junc +8) dominatcd Scrbian litcraturc and art bclorc thc twcnti +/:8 Junc +8) dominatcd Scrbian litcraturc and art bclorc thc twcnti Junc +8) dominatcd Scrbian litcraturc and art bclorc thc twcnti +8) dominatcd Scrbian litcraturc and art bclorc thc twcnti ) dominatcd Scrbian litcraturc and art bclorc thc twcnti
cth ccntury. Historians obscrvc that ncithcr Scrbs nor Turks won thc bat
tlc, whilc both thc Scrbian rulcr and thc ttoman Sultan wcrc killcd in its
coursc. Howcvcr, thc ttoman conqucst ol Scrbia lollowcd,
+
indicating
that this battlc rcprcscntcd a longtcrm loss lor thc Scrbs. Tc Scrbs havc
noncthclcss cclcbratcd thc 8attlc ol Kosovo as a symbol ol thcir rcsistancc
to lorcign occupation, ol national unity and ultimatc sacricc lor homcland
(Scrbdom) and Hcavcnly Kingdom.
+
Prior to ttoman occupation, thc
Scrbs had rcachcd thcir zcnith undcr uan thc Grcat (++), who was ++), who was ), who was
crowncd mpcror ol thc Scrbs, Grccks and 8ulgars.
+6
Tc most ardcnt collcctor ol Scrb oral tradition was \uk Karadi
(+8+86), rcccting thc idcas ol uropcan carly Romanticism. Nota
bly, hc was also thc rclormcr and loundcr ol thc modcrn Scrbian languagc,
building on thc work ol othcr Scrb linguists and philosophcrs, Sava Mrkalj
(+8+8), Luka Milovanov (+8+8:8) and ositcj bradovi (+:
+8++), thc lattcr bcing a rcprcscntativc ol uropcan rationalism. Karadi
+
jordjc Pctrovi known as Karadjordjc was thc lcadcr ol thc First Scrbian !nsurrcc
tion and thc loundcr ol thc Scrb Karadjordjcvi dynasty. For morc, scc Zcljan . Sustcr,
Historical Dictionary of the Federal Fepublic of Yugosla.ia, uropcan Historical iction
arics No. : (Lanham, M/London: Scarccrow Prcss, +), +.
+
Scrbia lost indcpcndcncc only in +, but thc 8attlc ol Kosovo was pcrccivcd as
crucial to thc cstablishmcnt ol thc oo ycars ol ttoman domination ovcr Scrbia. !t
should bc strcsscd that, in thc thirtccnth and lourtccnth ccnturics, thc capital city ol
thc Scrbian Kingdom and thc scat ol thc Scrbian rthodox Patriarch wcrc, rcspcctivcly,
Prizrcn and Pc, two citics in thc modcrnday tcrritory ol Kosovo and Mctohia.
+
Tc 8attlc ol Kosovo took placc on St. \itus ay (!ido.dan). Tc day ol thc Kosovo
annivcrsary was choscn by thc hcir apparcnt to thc Habsburg thronc lor a statc visit to
thc occupicd Sarajcvo in ++, whcn hc was assassinatcd by a local Scrb activist, Gavrilo
Princip, marking thc bcginning ol thc First Vorld Var. Junc :8th was also choscn by
thc rulcr ol thc Kingdom ol Scrbs, Croats and Slovcncs as thc day on which to prom
ulgatc thc \idovdan Constitution in +:+. Awarc ol this symbolism, Stalin chosc this
datc to announcc thc cxpulsion ol thc Yugoslav Communist Party lrom thc Cominlorn
in +8. Tc annivcrsary ol thc 8attlc ol Kosovo has bccn honourcd by othcr nations as
wcll. !n Junc ++8, vc months bclorc thc cnd ol thc First Vorld Var, thc Unitcd Statcs
rccognizcd it as a day ol spccial commcmoration in honour ol Scrbia and all othcr op
prcsscd pcoplcs ghting in thc Grcat Var. Prior to that, in ++6, a nationwidc tributc to
Scrbia was arrangcd in 8ritain to cclcbratc thc annivcrsary ol Kosovo. For morc inlor
mation on thcsc cclcbrations, scc Tomas A. mmcrt, Tc Kosovo Lcgacy in Koso.o,
cd. 8asil V.R. Jcnkins (Alhambra, CA: Tc Kosovo Charity Fund, +:), .
+6
Quotcd in Frits V. Hondius, Te Yugosla. Community of Nations (Haguc: Mouton,
+68), :o.
8alcanica XXX\!! :oo
solidicd Scrbian culturc, sprcading and popularizing national awakcning.
Hc also cxtcndcd thc dcnition ol Scrbdom to cmbracc all who spokc this
languagc, which, according to him, was a Scrbian national hcritagc.
+
Tis
idca rcappcarcd in thc lormation ol thc rst Yugoslavia, but lailcd in prac
ticc bccausc a common languagc was not sucicnt to unitc Scrbs, Croats
and Muslims in onc nation. Morcovcr, thc majority ol Croats had strongly
rcjcctcd Karadis linguistic thcory ol national idcntity, pcrcciving Karadi
as a Scrb nationalist.
!n +8, an unocial plan ol Scrbian lorcign policy was lorgcd, in
spircd by a lcading Polish migr in Francc Count Adam Jcrzi Czartoryski
and his 8alkan agcnt Frantisck Zach who wrotc thc rst dralt ol this docu
mcnt. !lija Garaanin (+8+:), Scrbian statcsman and politician thcn
scrving as Ministcr ol thc !ntcrior, pcrsonally cndorscd Zachs somcwhat
rcviscd plan in a thcn sccrct
+8
documcnt known as Naertanije (ralt).
Likc many ol his contcmporarics, Garaanin acccptcd that Scrbias national
mission was to complctc thc task ol national and social libcration initiatcd
by thc Scrbian insurrcctions ol +8o and +8+. Tc lronticrs ol thc statc
nccdcd to bc cxtcndcd to cncompass all arcas whcrc Scrbs livcd according
to thc most lamous paragraph ol Naertanije:
Tc signicancc and thc loundation ol Scrbian politics is that it not
bc limitcd to its prcscnt bordcrs, but that it sccks to cmbracc all Scrb
pcoplcs surrounding it.
+
Following Karadis lcad, Garaanin dcncd thc Scrb national boundarics
as linguistic and cultural rathcr than cxclusivcly cthnic or rcligious. How
cvcr, thc Naertanije also advocatcd historical bordcrs, cspccially towards
thc South.
Naertanije was a national programmc crcatcd altcr thc lamous na
tional programmcs in uropc dcmanding national libcration and union in
nationstatcs, pursuant to similar proccsscs in Gcrmany or !taly. !n lact, that
+
Mihailo Crnobrnja, Te Yugosla. Drama (Montrcal: McGillQuccns Univcrsity Prcss,
+:), .
+8
Tc Scrbian public was not awarc ol thc cxistcncc ol thc documcnt until +888 and
ol its contcnts until thc bcginning ol thc twcnticth ccntury. Scc Rado Ljui, !lija
Gapaanin o srpskoj dravnosti |!lija Garaanin on Scrb Statchood| in Garaanin: susreti
i .idjenja :cc: |Garaanin: mcctings and pcrccptions :oo+|, cds. Zoran Konstantinovi
and Slobodan Pavicvi (Kragujcvac: Jcmija, :oo:), .
+
Nacrtanijc !lijc Garaanina, rcprintcd in 8clgradc ++, + (translation minc).
nglish copy produccd in Paul N. Hchn, Tc rigins ol Modcrn PanScrbism thc
+8 Naccrtanijc ol !lija Garasanin: An Analysis and Translation, East European Quar-
terly !X, No. : (Summcr +).
A. S. Trbovich, Nationbuilding undcr thc AustroHungarian Sccptrc :o+
samc ycar thc projcct ol a Grcatcr Grcccc Megali Idea was publishcd.
:o
8oth thc Scrbian and Grcck national programmcs wcrc bascd on thc prin
ciplc ol inalicnablc historic right, in agrccmcnt with thc national idcologics
in uropc at thc timc. Scrbian political partics lollowcd this idcology within
and without thc princcdoms, kingdoms ol Scrbia and Montcncgro, which
is comparablc to thc implcmcntation ol intcrnal and cxtcrnal right to
sclldctcrmination. Tc most inucntial Scrbian party, thc National Radi
cal Party, in its +88+ programmc thus dcclarcd thc lollowing two goals lor
luturc statc organization: intcrnally pcoplcs prospcrity and lrccdom, and
cxtcrnally statc indcpcndcncc and lrccdom and unication ol thc rcmain
ing parts ol Scrbdom.
:+
Latcr historiography, mainly ol Croat origin, has wrongly accuscd
Garaanin ol cxtrcmc Scrb nationalism.
::
And yct, thc rcading ol thc origi
nal tcxt suggcsts a dicrcnt conclusion. Tc scction titlcd Tc Policy ol
Scrvia towards 8osnia, Hcrzcgovina, Montcncgro, and Northcrn Albania
statcs that onc ol thc main points which should bc sct lorth is thc principlc
ol lull lrccdom ol rcligion cstablishcd by law, and that cvcry cort should
bc madc to protcct thc 8osnians and othcr Slavs and to rcndcr thcm cvcry
mcans ol assistancc. Naertanije lurthcr dcclarcs:
!t would bc advisablc to print a short and gcncral history ol 8osnia,
in which thc namcs ol scvcral mcn ol thc Mohammcdan laith and
thcir rcnowncd dccds would bc includcd. !t is rccommcndcd that
this history bc writtcn in thc spirit ol thc Slavic pcoplc.
Garaanin was a pragmatic statcsman who rcalizcd that only through al
liancc with othcr ncighbouring pcoplcs can shc |Scrbia| solvc hcr luturc
problcms.
:
Vhilc Garanin ccrtainly cnvisioncd a Scrblcd kingdom, at
thc samc timc this was to bc a dcmocratic SouthSlav union. According to
Slobodan Jovanovi, Garaanin was onc ol thc rst statcsmcn to conccptu
alizc thc idca 8alkans to thc 8alkan pcoplcs.
:
!n practicc, union ol lrcc Scrbs with thc Scrbs undcr lorcign rulc
rcmaincd thc Scrbs ultimatc goal. Vhcthcr this union would bc achicvcd
indcpcndcntly or in union with othcr Slav pcoplcs was yct to bc dctcrmincd.
Garaanin was awarc that thc implcmcntation ol his political programmc
:o
Milan St. Proti, Uspon i pad srpske ideje |Tc Risc and Fall ol thc Scrbian !dca| (8cl
gradc: !nstitutc lor 8alkan Studics, +), 68.
:+
Samoupra.a (Scllgovcrnmcnt), no. +, 8 January +88+ |translation minc|.
::
Scc, lor instancc, Mirko \alcnti, Konccpcija Garaaninovog Nacrtanija (+8),
Historijski pregled \!! (Zagrcb, +6+).
:
Naertanije, Appcndix.
:
Slobodan Jovanovi, Politike i pra.ne raspra.e !!!! |Political and lcgal trcatiscs| (+st
cd. +o8, 8clgradc: 8!GZ, +o), :.
8alcanica XXX\!! :o:
would not bcgin immcdiatcly but that it providcd an important stratcgic
vision.
Four ycars altcr thc Naertanije was writtcn, thc Slavs (mainly Scrbs)
living in thc Habsburg provincc ol South Hungary (\oivodina)
:
allicd
thcmsclvcs with \icnna not simply to countcract thc Hungarian rcvolu
tionarics, but primarily to protcct thcir rights lrom thc Hungarian dcnial
ol Scrb idcntity. Tcir strugglc was aidcd by thc Kingdom ol Scrbia in an
action organizcd by Garaanin, as wcll as by Scrbs lrom othcr parts ol thc
Habsburg mpirc. Howcvcr, thc \oivodina Scrbs, to thcir disappointmcnt,
wcrc not grantcd tcrritorial autonomy by \icnna in rcturn, but just anothcr
impcrial patcnt rcconrming thcir prcvious privilcgcs.
:6
Tc uchy ol Scrbia and Tcmcs 8anat cstablishcd on +8 Novcmbcr
+8 was not a scparatc lcdcral unit as such but a scparatc administrativc
district with church and school autonomy. Undcr Hungarian prcssurc cvcn
this status was abolishcd on : cccmbcr +86o, with \oivodina bccom
ing lully incorporatcd into Hungary. !n +868, thc Hungarian authoritics
rcncwcd thc church and school autonomy lor \oivodina Scrbs, but limitcd
in scopc, only to abolish it oncc again in ++:. Tc cxtcnsivc limitation ol
privilcgcs, bcginning with thc act ol +86o, stimulatcd political organization
ol thc \oivodina Scrbs, who gradually bccamc thc lcadcrs ol Scrb political
action in thc Habsburg mpirc.
:
\oivodina (\oyvodina, \ojvodina) is thc Scrbian word lor duchy. Tc provinccs origi
nal historic namc is thc uchy ol Scrbia, shortcncd to Scrbian \oivodina and thcn
just \oivodina upon its incorporation into Scrbia whcn thc attributc Scrbian was no
longcr ncccssary.
:6
Tc Scrbs movcd lrom southcrn Scrbia (mainly Kosovo) to \oivodina in grcat num
bcrs in +6o to cscapc ttoman rctaliation, whosc army thcy had lought togcthcr with
thc Austrians. Tc migration to \oivodina was initiatcd by an !nvitational manilcst
(socallcd Leterae in.itatorie) issucd by thc Habsburg mpcror Lcopold ! to all 8alkan
Christians on 6 April +6o. Spccial privilcgcs wcrc grantcd to Scrbs in \oivodina by
Lcopold ! on :+ August +6o, ++ cccmbcr +6o, :o August +6+ and March +6,
and rcconrmcd by thc dccrccs ol +68 and +6, as wcll as with cach changc ol thc
rulcr ( Joscph ! on August +o6, Charlcs \! on +o April ++ and Maria Tcrcsa on
: April +). Tcsc privilcgcs, allowing lor church and school autonomy (including
lrcc clcction ol church patriarch and military rulcr dukc), cxcmption lrom +o tax
imposcd by thc Catholic Church, and guarantccs ol pcrsonal and propcrty rights, wcrc
limitcd in timcs ol pcacc (undcr prcssurc lrom thc Catholic Church and Hungarian
authoritics) and cxtcndcd in timcs ol crisis sincc thc \oivodina Scrbs rcndcrcd military
scrviccs to thc Austrian rulcrs. For morc inlormation, scc \asilijc j. Krcsti, Gradja o
Srbima u Hr.atskoj i Sla.oniji (:,:,:,) |ocumcnts on Scrbs in Croatia and Sla
vonia (+88++)| (8clgradc: 8!GZ, +), 88++:.
A. S. Trbovich, Nationbuilding undcr thc AustroHungarian Sccptrc :o
Scrbia libcratcd its Southcrn tcrritory (ld Scrbia and Slavic Macc
donia)
:
lrom thc ttoman Turks in thc First 8alkan Var (++:+), but
thcn lought a sccond 8alkan war to dctcrminc hcr bordcrs in rclation to
othcr 8alkan statcs, primarily 8ulgaria, which rcsultcd in thc Trcaty ol 8u
charcst ol +o August ++.
:8
uring that pcriod thc Scrbian govcrnmcnt
madc no ovcrt attcmpts to undcrminc AustroHungarian rulc, awarc that
Scrbia was not strong cnough to ght thc mpirc on hcr own. Howcvcr,
thc rclations with AustriaHungary bccamc incrcasingly straincd, cspccially
altcr +o8 whcn thc ual Monarchy anncxcd 8osniaHcrzcgovina, whosc
rclativc majority population at that timc was Scrb.
:
Pcrcciving thc Scrbs as
thc grcatcst thrcat to thc mpircs intcgrity
o
and an obstaclc to its cxpan
sion to thc ast (Drang nach Osten), thc Habsburgs uscd thc assassination
ol thc archdukc Franz Fcrdinand in Sarajcvo as a prctcxt lor thc punitivc
war against Scrbia.
According to Jovanovi, in Scrbia at thc turn ol thc twcnticth ccntury
thc strongcst idcalorcc was nationalism, which hc idcntics as a positivc
lorcc contributing to Scrbias statc building:
Tc pcoplc nccdcd an indcpcndcnt statc in ordcr to libcratc thcm
sclvcs lrom thc Turks, thc dynasty nccdcd a strong statc powcr lor
its sccurity, thc partics nccdcd a constitutional and parliamcntary
statc systcm in ordcr to govcrn. Fccding itscll on thc componcnts ol
nationalism, dynastism, partyism, thc statc idca grcw strongcr.
+
:
ld Scrbia is a gcographic rcgion that was thc corc ol mcdicval Scrbia, including
Raka, Kosovo and Mctohia, as wcll as thc northwcst ol todays Slavic Maccdonia,
including thc towns ol Skopljc, \clcs and Tctovo.
:8
Trcaty ol 8ucharcst, +o August ++, :+8 CTS ::.
:
Scc imitrijc jordjcvic, Tc Scrbs as an !ntcgrating and isintcgrating Factor,
ustrian History Yearbook , No. : (+6), 88:, :.
o
Samucl R. Villiamson, Jr, ustria-Hungary and the Origins of the First !orld !ar
(London: Macmillan, ++), +o.
+
Jovanovi, !lada leksandra Obreno.ia, . Notc: Tc brcnovi dynasty rulcd in
+8+: and +88+o, and thc Karadjordjcvi dynasty in +8:8 and +o. Tc
two rival dynastics wcrc both nativc, Scrb. Princc Milo brcnovi organizcd thc +8+
assassination ol Karadjordjc. An arbitrary rulcr, Milo was lorccd to abdicatc in +8.
Hc was succccdcd by two ol his sons, Milan (who rulcd only a lcw wccks) and Michacl,
who rulcd lor thrcc ycars. !n +8: Karadjordjcs son Alcxandcr (+8o68) acccdcd to
thc thronc, but was dcposcd in +88, whcn thc brcnovi dynasty was rcinstallcd and
Princc Milo camc to thc thronc lor thc sccond timc. Princc Michacl brcnovi (+8:
68), thc youngcst son ol Milo, cnginccrcd thc total ttoman withdrawal lrom Scrbia
in +86. Howcvcr, altcr his assassination in +868, his rst cousin Milan (+8+o+)
was clcctcd Princc ol Scrbia (King lrom +88:) and rulcd until +88 whcn hc abdicatcd
in lavour ol his son Alcxandcr, thc last rulcr ol thc brcnovi dynasty (+88++o).
8alcanica XXX\!! :o
As a rcsult, thc carly twcnticth ccntury saw Scrbia as a rclativcly modcrn
and lunctional parliamcntary monarchy. Tc +o Constitution (thc rcviscd
+888 onc) rcinauguratcd a dcmocratic rcgimc, with strong guarantccs lor
political and human rights, building upon thc +88 Constitution, which cn
lorccd a scparation ol cxccutivc and judicial powcrs, thc +86 Constitution,
which strcngthcncd thc rolc ol thc National Asscmbly, and thc +888 Con
stitution, which grantcd thc National Asscmbly complctc control ovcr thc
budgct, cstablishing a parliamcntary rcgimc.
:
Public administration rclorm
and a prolcssional civil scrvicc wcrc important building blocks ol a modcrn
Scrb statc, with many civil scrvants coming lrom thc ranks ol AustroHun
garian Scrbs. 8y thc First Vorld Var, almost univcrsal malc suragc had
cxistcd lor at lcast a gcncration in Scrbia (lrom thc +888 Constitution) and
social rights cquallcd il not cxcccdcd thosc ol Vcsturopcan statcs, work
ing timc was limitcd and workcrs cnjoycd thc right to strikc.
As obscrvcd by John Allcock, mcasurcd by thc standard ol thc cx
istcncc ol rcprcscntativc institutions alonc, Scrbia should bc considcrcd
thc most advanccd ol all thc South Slav lands.

Tis is not to say that

Scrbia lackcd nondcmocratic clcmcnts. Notably, in +o a sccrct socicty
largcly composcd ol military occrs murdcrcd thc autocratic King Alcxan
dcr brcnovi and Quccn raga, considcring thc couplc to bc a political
cmbarrassmcnt to Scrbia and an obstaclc to hcr dcmocratization. Still, thc
subscqucnt Scrb rulcr, King Pctcr ! Karadjordjcvi, was a truc constitutional
monarch, who had in his youth translatcd John Stuart Mills cssay On Lib-
erty into Scrbian.

!n thc ninctccnth ccntury Scrbia crcatcd a modcrn army

and a civilian burcaucracy, making a uniquc achicvcmcnt in what was to
bccomc Yugoslavia, that ol building thc lramcwork lor a modcrn statc.

De.elopment of Croat national mo.ement and

Croato-Serb relations until :,:,
As in thc casc ol thc Scrbs, languagc and litcraturc bccamc thc building
blocks ol Croat national consciousncss in thc ninctccnth ccntury. Ljudcvit
:
Scc Jovanovi, Politike i pra.ne raspra.e, :o.

John 8. Allcock, Explaining Yugosla.ia (Ncw York: Columbia Univcrsity Prcss, :ooo),
:6.

Grandson ol Karadjordjc Pctrovi, thc lcadcr ol thc First Scrbian !nsurrcction against
thc ttomans, King Pctcr ! was a modcst pcrson and a patriot, Scrb and uropcan,
having lought in thc Frcnch army against thc Gcrmans and woundcd in +8o, as wcll as
taking part in thc +86 Scrb uprising against thc ttomans in 8osniaHcrzcgovina.

Scc John R. Lampc, Yugosla.ia as History. T.ice there .as a country (Cambridgc, Ncw
York: Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss, +6), 6.
A. S. Trbovich, Nationbuilding undcr thc AustroHungarian Sccptrc :o
Gaj (+8o:) lcd this languagc rclorm, modilying thc Latin alphabct to
partially conlorm to thc rulc onc soundonc lcttcr, cstablishcd lor thc
Cyrillic alphabct by \uk Karadi. Gaj also adoptcd thc shtokavian dialcct
ol thc Scrbian languagc as thc Croat litcrary dialcct.
6
His rclorm was an cs
scntial part ol thc socallcd !llyrian movcmcnt, rcsisting thc attcmpts lrom
8udapcst to Magyarizc thc Croats and cntcrtaining thc idca ol a common
!llyrian (that is, South Slav) statc. Scrbs, including Garaanin, mistrust
cd Ljudcvit Gaj and thcrclorc qucstioncd thc authcnticity ol thc !llyrian
movcmcnt, having discovcrcd that Gaj also actcd as a spy lor thc \icnncsc
authoritics.

!n contrast to Slovcnc and Scrb nationalism, which mainly rclatc to

pcoplc, Croat nationalism principally rclatcs to tcrritory, a policy which has
ovcr timc bccomc thc root ol compcting claims bctwccn thc two nations
that inhabit prcscntday Croatia thc Croats and thc Scrbs:
Vhilc Scrbian nationalism was lashioncd so as to appcal to thc
minds and hcarts ol all Scrbian pcoplc, rcgardlcss ol whcrc thcy
livcd, Croatian nationalism, largcly lcgalistic, was prcdicatcd on
tcrritorial claims, without taking account ol who livcd in thcsc tcr
ritorics.
8
Historically, Croatia has bccn an amorphous gcographic conccpt, signi
cantly changing in sizc and owncrship ol sovcrcignty. !t cxistcd as a small
indcpcndcnt statc in thc Middlc Agcs,

but it was absorbcd by thc Hun

garian Kingdom lollowing thc dcath ol thc last Croatian king in a battlc
against Hungarians in +o. Croatia bccamc onc ol many provinccs, ad
ministrativcly linkcd with thc provincc ol Slavonia, most ol which lorms
part ol prcscntday Croatia. A third lormcrly Habsburg provincc which also
lorms part ol prcscntday Croatia, but which, historically, has bccn morc
autonomous than thc original provincc ol Croatia or thc provincc ol Sla
vonia, is almatia. Austrians rulcd almatia, whilc Hungary administcrcd
Croatia and Slavonia in thc mpirc. Finally, thc lourth rcgion incorporatcd
6
For morc, scc Sustcr, Historical Dictionary of the Federal Fepublic of Yugosla.ia, ++8
++.

Scc \asilijc j. Krcsti, Znameniti Srbi o Hr.atima |mincnt Scrbs on Croats| (Novi
Sad: Promctcj, +), +8+.
8
arko 8ilbija, Tc Scrbs and Yugoslavia in Te Serbs and their National Interest, cds.
Norma von RagcnlcldFcldman and usan T. 8atakovic (San Francisco: Scrbian Unity
Congrcss, +), 6. Notc: 8osnia and Hcrzcgovina is anothcr tcrritory ol compct
ing claims bctwccn Croats and Scrbs but this important issuc will not bc discusscd hcrc
duc to thc limitcd spacc.

Mcdicval Croatia rcachcd its pcak in thc rcign ol Tomislav (+o:8), who pro
claimcd himscll king in :.
8alcanica XXX\!! :o6
into todays Croatia is Krajina or thc Military Fronticr, rulcd by thc Austri
ans until +88+ whcn it was placcd undcr Hungarian auspiccs.
o
Dalmatia ccrtainly cnjoycd thc largcst dcgrcc ol autonomy in thc
AustroHungarian Monarchy. !t cntcrcd thc Habsburg monarchy much
latcr than thc othcr SouthSlav provinccs, as a rcsult ol thc Congrcss ol
\icnna in +8+, whcn it was takcn lrom Napolconic Francc. !ndccd, al
matia rctaincd a distinctivc charactcr during most ol its history, not unicd
with thc othcr AustroHungarian provinccs inhabitcd by SouthSlavs until
thc lormation ol thc Kingdom ol Scrbs, Croats and Slovcncs morc than a
hundrcd ycars altcr thc Habsburg conqucst (++8). According to Allcock:
Although Croats had tcndcd to includc almatia within thcir undcrstand
ing ol thc historical Croat lands, thcsc had long bccn \cnctian posscs
sions. Morcovcr, thc Ragusan Rcpublic (ubrovnik) had rctaincd rclativc
indcpcndcncc until +8o8. 8y thc Trcaty ol Campo Formio (+), \cnicc
ccdcd almatia to Austria and, lollowing thc intcrvcning Napolconic pc
riod, Austrian control was rcasscrtcd in +8+.
+
!n +8 almatias population was mostly madc up ol Croats and
Scrbs, with a small !talian minority, which ncvcrthclcss had signicant cul
tural inucncc.
:
Tc cxact proportions ol Scrbs and Croats cannot bc prc
ciscly dctcrmincd. Historians at thc timc madc cstimatcs bascd on languagc
and rcligion, and whilc languagc was considcrcd to bc onc and thc samc,
Scrb Catholics wcrc also a largc group in almatia.

Scrbs livcd mostly

in thc south ol almatia, in thc 8ay ol Kotor (Cattaro) and in ubrovnik.
Tcy wcrc also to bc lound in thc towns ol Zadar and ibcnik and in thc
o
Tc pcninsula ol !stria is somctimcs studicd as a scparatc, lth rcgion although most
historians tcnd to group !stria with almatia.
+
Allcock, Explaining Yugosla.ia, :.
:
According to onc historian, Radc Pctrovi, Nacionalno pitanje u Dalmaciji u XIX
stoljeu |National qucstion in almatia in thc +th Ccntury| (Sarajcvo: Svjctlost, and
Zagrcb: Prosvjcta, +8:), ++8, 8 pcrccnt ol thc population ol almatia spokc only
ScrboCroatian in +8, about 8 pcrccnt spokc both ScrboCroatian and !talian, pcr
ccnt spokc only !talian, quotcd in Nicholas J. Millcr, Bet.een Nation and State (Pitts
burgh: Univcrsity ol Pittsburgh Prcss, +), :. For morc, scc \asilijc Krcsti, History
of the Serbs in Croatia and Sla.onia :,:,:,, transl. Margot and 8oko Milosavljcvi
(8clgradc: 8!GZ, +).

For morc inlormation on Roman Catholic Scrbs, scc Lazo M. Kosti, Katoliki Srbi
|Catholic Scrbs| (Toronto: St. Sava Scrb Cultural Club, +6) and !van Stojanovi,
Po.jest Dubro.ake Fepublike |Tc History ol thc Rcpublic ol ubrovnik|, orig. writtcn
in Gcrman by !van Hristijan v. ngcl (ubrovnik: Srpskc ubrovakc tamparijc A.
Pasaria, +o).
A. S. Trbovich, Nationbuilding undcr thc AustroHungarian Sccptrc :o
hintcrland ol northcrn almatia.

Tc Scrb prcscncc in almatia and its

hintcrland is ccnturics old. !n addition to somc oldcr historical documcnts,
living witncsscs to Scrb prcscncc arc thc Scrbian rthodox monastcrics ol
Krupa and Krka (both datcd to thc lourtccnth ccntury). A bricl account
ol cconomic, cultural, scicntic and political inucncc ol thc ubrovnik
Scrbs is an illustrativc cxamplc ol thc signicant Scrb prcscncc in southcrn
almatia:
For many ccnturics ubrovnik tradcd with its rthodox hintcrland
and rcccivcd immigrants thcrclrom. Tc most rcnowncd inhabit
ants ol ubrovnik, !van Gunduli, poct (+8+68) and Rudjcr
8okovi, scicntist and philosophcr (+++8), lamous in uro
pcan circlcs, wcrc ol Scrbian origin ... !n +8o, thc Scrbian Party
won thc municipal clcction in ubrovnik. Tcy got votcs ol thc
rthodox Scrbs and ol thc Catholic Scrbs as wcll. !n Ston, on thc
Pcljcac pcninsula, St. Sava loundcd an cparchy in +:+.

Trcc nations thcrclorc claimcd this rcgion Scrbs, Croats and !talians. Yct
it should bc notcd that prior to and undcr Habsburg rulc, many alma
tians idcnticd thcmsclvcs simply as almatians or Slavs, rathcr than Scrbs,
Croats or !talians.
6
Krajina

is thc rcgion cstablishcd by \icnna in thc +:os as a mili

tary lronticr zonc bctwccn thc Habsburg and ttoman cmpircs, on cmpty
land bordcring thc provinccs ol almatia, Croatia and Slavonia to thc wcst
and 8osniaHcrzcgovina to thc cast. Tc pcoplc who camc to inhabit this
rcgion, prcdominantly Scrb,
8
lought lor thc Habsburgs against thc t
tomans. !n rcturn, thcy cnjoycd a largc dcgrcc ol autonomy that includcd
indcpcndcnt schooling and an autonomous church. SlavoScrbian (thc lan

Scrbs bcgan to scttlc in thc coastal city ol Rijcka only altcr thc Sccond Vorld Var,
lollowing thc cxpulsion ol most ol its !talian inhabitants by thc Yugoslav Communist
authoritics.

Jovan !li, Tc Scrbs in thc Formcr SR Croatia in Te Serbian Question in the Bal-
kans, +.
6
As latc as +86o, a almatian politician rcportcd no morc than scvcn proSlavic poli
ticians in almatia, lurthcr noting that scvcral ol thcsc dcclarcd thcmsclvcs as Slavo
almatians, also considcring almatians to bc a scparatc cthnic group. For morc, scc
Josip \randci, Nacionalnc idcologijc u almaciji u +. stoljcu |National idcologics
in almatia in thc +th ccntury| in Dijalog po.jesniara-istoriara |ialoguc ol histori
ans |, cds. uan Gamscr, !gor Graovac and livcra Milosavljcvi (Zagrcb: Fricdrich
Naumann Stiltung, :oo+).

Military 8ordcr or Fronticr in nglish, Militargrcnzc in Gcrman.

8
For onc ol thc carlicst autochthonous dcmographic accounts ol Krajina, scc Spiridon
Jovi, Etnografska slika Sla.onske .ojne granice |thnographic Picturc ol thc Military
8ordcr in Slavonia| (+st cd. +8, 8clgradc: igoja tampa, :oo), csp. 8.
8alcanica XXX\!! :o8
guagc that prcdatcs thc currcnt vcrsion ol thc Scrbian languagc) was uscd
as a languagc ol instruction, and Scrb rthodox clcrgy ovcrsaw schools
in Krajina. !t was thc Statuta !alachorum,

a dccrcc issucd by mpcror

Fcrdinand !! in +6o, that placcd Krajina undcr thc dircct rulc ol \icnna,
rcmoving thc jurisdiction ol thc Croatian ict and ccctivcly crcating a
scparatc rcgion at thc cxpcnsc ol thc CroatiaSlavonia provincc. !ntcrnal
organization ol thc Krajina was bascd on local autonomy, with courts lor
cach ol thrcc captaincics, clcctcd lor ycarlong tcrms by thc cldcrs ol cach
district. Tis civil govcrnmcnt and courts wcrc in chargc ol all civil pcnal
tics, with military courts limitcd to corporal punishmcnt, and that only lor
thc military. Tc Statutc also claboratcd military rcquircmcnts: a minimum
ol six thousand soldicrs was to gathcr within thrcc hours ol any alarm. Tc
Krajina inhabitants wcrc cxcmpt lrom various land and protcction taxcs
imposcd on othcrs.
o
Upon thc crcation ol Krajina, Croatian noblcmcn dcmandcd that
thcir lcvy powcr bc cxtcndcd to this arca. !n thc cightccnth ccntury, thc
Croatian rcprcscntativcs in thc Hungarian ict cvcn dcmandcd thc cn
actmcnt ol laws and rcgulations which would makc lilc impossiblc lor thc
Scrbian pcoplc and lor thc rthodox Church
+
such as thosc prcvcnting
thc organization ol Scrbian high schools, thc building ol Scrb rthodox
churchcs, and so on. Howcvcr, \icnna rcjcctcd thcsc dcmands, nccding thc
Krajina manpowcr to ght thc ttoman onslaught. !n turn, thc inhabitants
ol Krajina wcrc cxtrcmcly loyal to thc Habsburgs, rcgarding thcm as thc
guarantors ol thcir privilcgcd status. According to Gunthcr Rothcnbcrg:
At thc timc whcn scrldom and subscrvicncc to lcudal lords wcrc still
thc gcncral rulc, |thcy| rcgardcd thcmsclvcs as lrcc tcnants ol thc
cmpcror who wcrc lar supcrior to ordinary pcasants.
:

Tc lcgislation had thc samc namc and purposc as thc socallcd \lach law ol +68,
undcr which thc ttomans grantcd privilcgcs to Scrbs in vassal Scrbia. Howcvcr thc
AustroHungarian law grantcd morc cxtcnsivc rights, at oncc crcating an autonomous
rcgion and an ccctivc military systcm dclcnding thcir mpirc. Tc intcgral tcxt ol thc
Statuta !alachorum, proclaimcd on ctobcr +6o, is rcproduccd in Latin, Scrbian and
nglish in inko avidov, Srpske pri.iliegije |Scrbian Privilcgcs|, (Novi Sad, 8clgradc:
Matica srpska, !nstitutc lor 8alkan Studics, Svctovi, +), ++.
o
Millcr, Bet.een Nation and State, +o++.
+
dmond Paris, Genocide in Satellite Croatia. Fecord of Facial and Feligious Prosecu-
tions and Massacres (Chicago: Amcrican !nstitutc lor 8alkan Aairs, +6+), ++.
:
Gunthcr . Rothcnbcrg, Te Military Border in Croatia, :,c:: (Chicago: Uni
vcrsity ol Chicago Prcss, +66), .
A. S. Trbovich, Nationbuilding undcr thc AustroHungarian Sccptrc :o
Howcvcr, thc Austrians tcndcd to ovcrlook local dcrogations to privilcgcs
at a timc ol a low war dangcr. Tc Catholic Church uscd this to lorcclully
convcrt thc rcsidcnts ol thc Military Fronticr:
As long as thc scrvicc ol thc rthodox Grcnzcr wcrc nccdcd, thcir
rcligion was rcspcctcd, but whcn thc nccd had passcd thc thronc
did nothing to rcstrain thc corts ol thc Catholic hicrarchy, which,
with thc zcalous collaboration ol thc military, attcmptcd lorcibly to
convcrt thc rthodox or at lcast to cocrcc thcm to acccpt thc Uniatc
ritcs.

cspitc thc lorccd convcrsions, and thc taxing dcmands ol thc Croat noblc
mcn, thc Scrbs and thc Croats gcncrally livcd pcacclully in Krajina, whcrc
Scrbs wcrc a majority.

Tc Krajina Scrbs also had good rclations with othcr

Habsburg provinccs whcrc Croats lormcd thc majority Croatia, Slavonia
and almatia. Scrious scholars havc thcrclorc rclutcd thc postulatcd agc
old antagonisms bctwccn Scrbs and Croats.

Tc Croats ol Croatia-Sla.onia cnjoycd a limitcd political autonomy

lrom thc Habsburgs lrom thcir ocial incorporation into thc AustroHun
garian Monarchy in ++o:. Howcvcr, many prcscntday Croat historians
nd thc position ol Croatias subscrvicncc to Hungary in thc Habsburg
mpirc (latcr AustriaHungary) impossiblc to acccpt, bccausc it tcstics to
thc loss ol Croatian statchood in thc Middlc Agcs. Contrary to thc cstab
lishcd scholarly cvidcncc, thcy tcnd to dcscribc thc Croat position within
thc ual Monarchy as a voluntary sharing ol powcr and a pcrsonal union
bctwccn Croatia and Hungary: !n thc carly MiddlcAgcs Croatia cntcrcd
into somcthing ol a commonwcalth with Hungary.
6
Somc Croat historians go bcyond this cxplanation and dcpict Croatia
as onc ol thc thrcc statcs constituting thc Habsburg mpirc which, accord

Ibid., :. Plcasc notc that Grcnzcr is thc Gcrman tcrm lor thc Krajina inhabitants.

Scc rago Roksandi, Srbi u Hr.atskoj |Scrbs in Croatia| (Zagrcb: \jcsnik, ++),
o.

Scc, c.g., Lampc, Yugosla.ia as History, o.

6
Stcphcn Gazi, History of Croatia (Ncw York: 8arncs & Noblc 8ooks, +), ix.
A documcnt titlcd Pacta Con.enta, not prcscrvcd but supposcdly signcd in ++o:, was
claimcd by lcading Croatian historians to bc a contract stipulating pcrsonal union ol
Hungary and Croatia. Howcvcr, cvcn il its authcnticity wcrc acccptcd, it still would not
rcprcscnt anything morc than a contract bctwccn thc lcudal rulcr ol Croatia, Hungarian
King Koloman, and his Croatian vassals, i.c. it would not bc pcrccivcd as an intcrstatc
agrccmcnt in thc domain ol intcrnational law. Marko Kostrcni, s. v. Pacta convcnta,
Enciklopedija Jugosla.ije (Zagrcb, +), o, Nada Kali, Pacta convcnta ili tobonji
ugovor izmcu plcmstva dvanacstoro plcmcna i kralja Kolomana ++o:. godinc |Pacta
con.enta or thc allcgcd contract bctwccn twclvc tribcs and king Koloman ol ++o:|,
Historijski pregled : (+6o).
8alcanica XXX\!! :+o
ing to thcm, was only nominally a ual monarchy.

Historical lcgalism
bascd on thc continuity ol thc Croat statc
8
is charactcristic ol Croatian
historiography,

and it lollows in many aspccts, and is a rcaction to, similar

Hungarian dcsigns. Croatian historical lcgalism was rcjcctcd by thc Hun
garian and othcr historians such as Hondius who vicwcd it as a complcx
and national malaisc |ol thc Croats|.
6o
Ncvcrthclcss it is important to cm
phasizc thc rm bclicl ol most Croats in its lactuality sincc nationhood
tcnds to bc bascd on bclicl rathcr than rcality.
6+
Tc bclicl in thc idca that
Croatian statchood had ncvcr bccn cxtinguishcd contributcd to thc cmcr
gcncc ol modcrn Croat national consciousncss in thc ninctccnth ccntury,
with a goal ol rcunication ol thc allcgcd Triunc Kingdom ol thc Middlc
Agcs (Croatia, almatia and Slavonia).
An undisputablc lact is that Habsburg rulc was lcss opprcssivc than
ttoman, sharing Roman Catholic rcligion and cultural vicws with thc
Croats who rctaincd thc institutions ol a parliamcnt and a govcrnor (ban),
who was ncvcrthclcss choscn by \icnna or 8udapcst, which also had lull
control ol thc provinccs nanccs.
6:
Noncthclcss, according to Singlcton,
dominant Croat lamilics did not display any strong national lcclings, Croat
or Hungarian:
Tcy wcrc morc conccrncd with thc consolidation ol thcir cstatcs
and with thc cxpansion ol thcir pcrsonal powcr. Two ol thc lcading
lamilics, thc Zrinski and thc Frankopan, hcld land in both Croatia tia

Scc, c.g., Milan \ladisavljcvi, Hr.atska autonomija pod ustro-Ugarskom |Croatian

autonomy undcr AustriaHungary| (8clgradc: Politika A, +).
8
Scc also milio Pallua, A Survcy ol thc Constitutional History ol thc Kingdom ol
almatia, Croatia, and Slavonia, Canadian-merican Sla.ic Studies : (+o), +:
+.

CroatoAmcrican historians Charlcs and 8arbara Jclavich sharc thc Croat vicwpoint
that Croatia and Hungary rcmaincd as scparatc kingdoms unitcd through thc crown.
Rathcr than having bccn conqucrcd, Croats had, in this vicw, clcctcd thc rulcr ol Hun
gary as thcir monarch in ++o:, and, by thc samc rcasoning, in +: altcr thc dclcat ol
Hungary by thc Turks, Croatia clcctcd thc Habsburg cmpcror as hcr king. Scc Charlcs
and 8arbara Jclavich, Te Establishment of the Balkan National States, :c,:,:c (+st
cdition +86, Scattlc, London: Univcrsity ol Vashington Prcss, +), :.
6o
Hondius, Yugosla. Community of Nations, :o
6+
Scc 8cncdict R. G. Andcrson, Imagined Communities: Feections on the Origin and
Spread of Nationalism (London: \crso, +8), Maria N. Todorova, Imagining the Balkans
(xlord, Ncw York: xlord Univcrsity Prcss, +).
6:
Charlcs Jclavich, Tc Croatian Problcm in thc Habsburg mpirc in thc Ninctccnth
Ccntury, ustrian History Yearbook , No. : (+6), +oo.
A. S. Trbovich, Nationbuilding undcr thc AustroHungarian Sccptrc :++
Slavonia rcgion and Hungary and movcd lrccly bctwccn thcir
lands.
6
Howcvcr, an cra ol ccntralization and Magyarization cnsuing in thc latc
ninctccnth ccntury placcd CroatiaSlavonia undcr thc dircct rulc ol 8uda
pcst:
Tc railways wcrc bcing constructcd as an intcgral part ol thc Hun
garian railway systcm. Also, Hungarian ags, cmblcms, coats ol
arms, and inscriptions wcrc bcing crcctcd cvcrywhcrc.
6
Croat nationalists lrom Croatia and Slavonia dcvclopcd an incrcasing an
imosity towards thc Hungarians, whom thcy thcn vicwcd as opprcssors,
whilc othcrs rcmaincd loyal to 8udapcst.
!t was not until thc ninctccnth ccntury that thc provinccs ol Croatia
and Slavonia had a rst govcrnor ol Croatian origin, Josip Jclai, prcvi
ously a midranking Austrian military occr. Jclai cntcrtaincd a good rc
lationship with thc Habsburg Scrbs. Hc rclcrrcd to thc Croat and Scrbian
Pcoplc in his proclamations, and dcclarcd on Scptcmbcr +88: Rcligious
dicrcnccs makc no barricrs bctwccn brothcrs in social or public lilc. Vc
proclaim lull cquality |bctwccn Croats and Scrbs|.
6
Vhcn thc Hungarians bcgan to dcmand grcatcr rights lrom thc Aus
trian Habsburgs, thc Croats and thc Scrbs in thc mpirc, lcd by 8an Jclai,
lought lcrvcntly on thc Austrian sidc. Croats, who wcrc undcr Hungar
ian rulc in thc mpirc, rcsistcd Magyarization and hopcd to obtain grcatcr
rights lrom thc Austrian cmpcror. Tc Krajina Scrbs supportcd thc Croats
not only bccausc ol Jclais lair trcatmcnt ol Scrbs and Croats, but also
bccausc thc Hungarians had bcgun cncroaching on thc Austrian rulc in
Krajina. Finally, thc Hungarians had dircctcd thcir Magyarization policy
not just against Croats but also against Scrbs and othcr cthnic groups in thc
provinccs undcr thcir rulc. A kcy lactor in lorging a CroatoScrb military
coalition against thc Hungarians was thc uprising ol thc \oivodina Scrbs
(thcn a part ol Southcrn Hungary) against thc Hungarian authoritics during
thc +88 rcvolution.
66
Tc Krajina Scrbs dcmandcd that Jclai providc
military aid lor thcir brcthrcn. Tc Scrb Patriarch Josil Rajai, who had
consccratcd Jclai as a ban, sccondcd this dcmand.
6
Although thc Croat
6
Singlcton, Short History of the Yugosla. Peoples, 6.
6
Alcksa jilas, Te Contested Country: Yugosla. Unity and Communist Fe.olution,
:,:,:, (Cambridgc: Harvard Univcrsity Prcss, ++), +.
6
8ranko \incic, History ol Scrbs in Croatia, Krajina: Tragedy of a People (Hamilton,
N: CanadianScrbian Council, +8), +.
66
Scc abovc.
6
Rothcnbcrg, Military Border, ++.
8alcanica XXX\!! :+:
Scrb army thcn dclivcrcd a scrious blow to thc Hungarian lorccs, thcy lost
thc battlc. Tc Hungarian rcvolution was qucllcd by Russian troops who
aidcd thc Austrian crown, bound by thc Holy Alliancc.
68
Tc good rclations bctwccn thc Scrbs and thc Croats in thc Habsburg
mpirc wcrc lurthcr strcngthcncd in +86, whcn thc Croatian ict dcclarcd
that thc Scrbian and Croatian nations and thcir languagcs wcrc cqual.
6
Howcvcr, this dccision was not always rcspcctcd. Notably thc rst Croat
tcachcrs gcncral asscmbly in +8+ concludcd that tcaching was to bc in
Croatian only.
o
Pcrhaps this changc in attitudc camc as a rcsult ol thc +868
CroatoHungarian agrccmcnt (Nagodba).
+
Tc agrccmcnt dcaling with
CroatoHungarian rclations was a conscqucncc ol thc AustroHungarian
Compromisc ol +86, which had turncd thc Habsburg Monarchy into a
ual Monarchy, now placing thc provincc ol CroatiaSlavonia complctcly
in thc sphcrc ol Hungary.
Tc CroatoHungarian agrccmcnt dclincatcd Croatian autonomy
within Hungary with Croatian as thc ocial languagc. Yct it strcsscd in
thc rst articlc that Hungary and thc provinccs ol Croatia, Slavonia and
almatia lormcd onc and thc samc political community,
:
with 8udapcst
rctaining control ovcr thc choicc ol govcrnor, nanccs and thc most impor
tant port, Fiumc (Rijcka). Vhilc Croats placcd thcir hopcs in this agrcc
mcnt, pcrcciving it as a documcnt apt to strcngthcn thcir rights within thc
mpirc, Hungarians considcrcd it a rst stcp in Croatias translormation
68
Articlc !! ol thc Holy Alliancc Trcaty, signcd on :6 Scptcmbcr +8+ by thc sovcrcigns
ol Austria, Prussia and Russia, stipulatcd that thc solc principlc ol lorcc, whcthcr bc
twccn thc said Govcrnmcnts or bctwccn thcir Subjccts, shall bc that ol doing cach othcr
rcciprocal scrvicc, and ol tcstilying by unaltcrablc good will thc mutual acction with
which thcy ought to bc animatcd, to considcr thcmsclvcs all as mcmbcrs ol onc and thc
samc Christian nation. dward Cccil Hcrtslct, Te Map of Europe by Treaty (London,
+8) (acccsscd +o Fcbruary :oo), availablc lrom http://www.napolconscrics.org/rcl
crcncc/diplomatic/alliancc.clm
6
Saborski spisi sabora kralje.inah Dalmacije, Hr.atske i Sla.onije od godine :&:&
|Parliamcntary Acts ol thc Parliamcnt ol thc Kingdoms ol almatia, Croatia and Sla
vonia +86+8| (Zagrcb, +oo), o8.
o
ccision quotcd in \asilijc j. Krcsti, I. istorije Srba i srpsko-hr.atskih odnosa |From
thc History ol Scrbs and ScrbCroat Rclations| (8clgradc: 8!GZ, +), :+o:++.
+
!ntcgral tcxt ol thc political compromisc bctwccn Croatia and Hungary ol +8 No
vcmbcr +868 rcproduccd in Franois Rodolphc, Les Constitutions ModernesFecueil des
constitutions en .igeur dans les di.ers Etats dEurope, dmerique et du monde ci.ilise (Paris:
Challamcl, ++o), \ol. !, o, and in Snczana Trilunovska, !, o, and in Snczana Trilunovska, Yugosla.ia through Documents
from its Creation to its Dissolution (ordrccht: Martinus Nijho, +), o8.
:
Ibid. (translation minc). riginal tcxt: La Hongric ct la Croatic, Slavonic ct alma
tic lormcnt unc sculc ct mcmc communaut politiquc
A. S. Trbovich, Nationbuilding undcr thc AustroHungarian Sccptrc :+
into an intcgral part ol Hungary. Hungarian and othcr lorcign historians,
including thosc writing in that pcriod,

constantly cmphasizcd thc limits

to Croatias autonomy within Hungary, whilc Croatian historians tcndcd to
cxaggcratc its scopc.

Notably, just as Hungarians wantcd to rcndcr Croats

a Hungarian political nation, Croats prclcrrcd to vicw thc Scrbs as politi
cal Croats, a vicw that Scrbs crccly rcjcctcd.

Tis issuc lormcd thc corc ol

CroatoScrb antagonism, which dcvclopcd as Croatian nationalism ripcncd
in thc sccond hall ol thc ninctccnth ccntury.
Conscqucntly, Croatias lrustrations rcgarding its position in thc
AustroHungarian Monarchy wcrc not soothcd with thc Nagodba. Tirtccn
ycars latcr (+88+), thc Habsburgs dissolvcd thc Krajina provincc undcr grcat
prcssurc lrom Hungary, incorporating it into CroatiaSlavonia. From that
point, altcr thc occupation ol 8osniaHcrzcgovina in +88 diminishcd thc
importancc ol Krajinas rolc in thc dclcncc ol thc mpircs castcrn bordcrs,
thc Scrbs bccomc an important lactor in thc CroatoHungarian conict:
Vith thc ncw lands, Croatia addcd 6+ pcrccnt morc tcrritory and
66,ooo morc pcoplc, ol which pcrccnt wcrc Scrbs. Tis simplc
translcr ol land and pcoplc lrom onc jurisdiction to anothcr upsct
thc cquilibrium ol Croatian politics by inscrting a nonCroatian
clcmcnt into what had bccn a largcly Croatian land. 8y ++o, r
thodox Scrbs madc up approximatcly : pcrccnt ol Croatia |Slavo
nia|s population.
6
Vhilc thc majority ol thc Scrbs living in thc AustroHungarian mpirc
wcrc pcasants, somc wcrc also bankcrs and wcalthy landowncrs. !n +8,
Scrbian larmcrs collcctivcs bcgan to bc lormcd in thc AustroHungarian
mpirc, providing smallscalc aid in thc lorm ol sccds, lccd, cducational
matcrials, and classcs to Scrbian pcasants. Linking all thc collcctivcs was
thc Scrbian 8ank and thc inucntial Scrbian conomic Socicty with its
ncwspapcr, Pri.rednik (Tc Tradcsman), scatcd in Zagrcb. Startcd in +888,

Scc, c.g., Hungary of Today, cd. Pcrcy Aldcn (London: Fawsidc Housc, +o), .

Scc, c.g., Gazi, History of Croatia, ix.

Scc Tihomir Cipck, blikovanjc hrvatskoga nacionalnog idcntitcta. Primordijalni

idcntitctski kod u ranoj hrvatskoj politikoj misli |Shaping ol Croatian national idcnti
ty. Primordial idcntity codc in carly Croatian political thought| in Dijalog po.jesniara-
istoriara, Mirjana Gross and Agncza Szabo, Prema hr.atskome gradjanskom drut.u.
Drut.eni ra..oj u ci.ilnoj Hr.atskoj i Sla.oniji e.desetih i sedamdesetih godina :,.
stoljea (Zagrcb, +:), +:+.
6
Millcr, Bet.een Nation and State, +8. !mportantly, Scrbs constitutcd absolutc majority
in morc than a dozcn towns and a rclativc majority in many morc. Scc Popis itclja od
+. prosinca ++o. u Kraljcvinama Hrvatskoj i Slavoniji |Ccnsus ol + cccmbcr ++o
in thc Kingdoms ol Croatia and Slavonia| in Publikacije Kr. .emaljskog statistikog ureda
u Zagrebu LX!!! (Zagrcb, ++), o+.
8alcanica XXX\!! :+
it was dcvotcd to cconomic cducation and gcncral advanccmcnt ol Scrbs
who dominatcd Croatias cconomy until ++.

Tc Matica Srpska, Scrbian scholarly and cultural organization, was

loundcd in 8udapcst in +8:6, but subscqucntly translcrrcd to Novi Sad
(\oivodina), thc hub ol Scrb publishing activitics. Howcvcr, whilc promot
ing Scrb intcrcsts, thc Scrb banks, cultural institutions and party organiza
tions, according to Millcr, also scrvcd to scgrcgatc Scrbs lrom thcir ncigh
bours and inculcatc an insular scnsc ol community.
8
Anxious about thc tcrmination ol Krajina in +88+, thc Scrbs rcccivcd
rcassuranccs lrom mpcror Francis Joscph that all mcasurcs havc bccn
takcn to placc |thc inhabitants ol Krajina| on cqual status with all othcr
inhabitants ol |Habsburg| lands ol thc Hungarian crown.

!n rcturn lor
thc prcscrvation ol thcir prcvious privilcgcs, thc Scrbs optcd lor loyalty to
thc Hungarian govcrnor ol CroatiaSlavonia, Count Charlcs KhucnH
drvary (+88:+o). KhucnHdrvary bcgan a dividcandrulc policy in
thc rcgion by granting grcatcr privilcgcs to thc Scrbs. !n dircctly placing
thc Hungarian govcrnmcnt rathcr than thc Croatian ict in thc scrvicc ol
Scrbian intcrcsts, KhucnHdrvary drcw Scrbs into thc Hungarian, rathcr
than Croatian, administrativc contcxt. !n +88 and +888, thc Parliamcnt
passcd two laws, onc lcgalizing thc usc ol thc Scrbian languagc and Cyrillic
alphabct, and thc othcr assuring thc cxistcncc ol Scrbian rthodox schools
in thc districts whcrc Scrbs wcrc a majority.
8o
Many Scrbs wcrc dissatiscd
with thc scopc ol thcsc laws, which thcy bclicvcd to bc lcss gcncrous than
thc privilcgcs grantcd to Scrbs in +868, cmphasizing rcligious and cultural
rathcr than national rights.
8+
Tc +88/8 lcgislation was imprccisc and it
did not apply to thc cntirc tcrritory ol thc Scrbinhabitcd provinccs. For in
stancc, thc +88 Law rcgulating thc activitics ol thc astcrn Grcck Church
and thc usc ol Cyrillic stipulatcd that thc Cyrillic alphabct could bc uscd in
court procccdings thcrc whcrc Scrbs livc in grcatcr numbcrs.
8:
Count KhucnHdrvarys actions gcncratcd a strong Croatian op
position. Hc was portraycd as a tyrant in Croatian historiography, although

All thcsc organizations wcrc loundcd by mcmbcrs ol thc Scrbian !ndcpcndcnt Party.
8
Millcr, Bet.een Nation and State, :.

ocumcnt quotcd in Rothcnbcrg, Military Border, +:.

8o
Millcr, Bet.een Nation and State, .
8+
Scc arko Miladinovi, Tuma po.lastica, .akona, uredaba i drugih naredjenja srpske
narodne crk.ene a.tonomije u Ugarskoj, Hr.atskoj i Sla.oniji |!ntcrprctation ol privilcg
cs, laws, dccrccs and othcr ordcrs ol thc Scrb national church autonomy in Hungary,
Croatia and Slavonia| (Novi Sad, +8), +oo+o+.
8:
Articlc , Law rcgulating thc activitics ol thc astcrn Grcck Church and thc usc ol
Cyrillic, passcd on + May +88, produccd in Krcsti, Gradja, 8.
A. S. Trbovich, Nationbuilding undcr thc AustroHungarian Sccptrc :+
during thc cntirc twcnty ycars ol his rulc cxactly onc man was shot.
8
Tc
Croatian nationalism that dcvclopcd vcry timidly in rcsistancc to Hungar
ian rulc, aiming at thc unication ol Croatia, Slavonia, thc Military Fronticr
(Krajina), almatia and 8osnia and Hcrzcgovina into a singlc statc accord
ing to a national programmc draltcd by Janko rakovi in +8:,
8
was
rapidly cnhanccd by KhucnHcdcrvarys actions and dircctcd against thc
Scrbs who agrccd to thc bans conccssions hopclul to prcscrvc thcir own
culturc rcprcscntcd by thc Christian rthodox laith and Cyrillic alphabct.
According to Millcr:
Scrbs bchaviour in Croatia was rootcd in thcir lcar ol losing thcir
collcctivc idcntity. Tcy wcrc conscious ol thcir history and proud
that thcy had maintaincd thcir idcntity through ccnturics ol tto
man and Habsburg administration. ... |Tcy| could do nothing but
acccpt KhucnHcdcrvarys patronagc, givcn thc attitudc ol thc most
popular Croatian political partics and thcir lcadcrs.
8
Croatian politics bccamc onc ol rcsisting thc granting ol any rccognition to
Scrbian institutions and cultural pcculiarity without prcvious acccptancc by
Scrbs ol thc conccpt that thc only political nation in Croatia was thc Cro
atian.
86
Tis politics was cmanatcd by thc cxtrcmc nationalist Antc Starcvi
(+8:6) and thc Croatian Party ol Rights.
Starcvi, likc many othcr Croat intcllcctuals, bclicvcd that Croatian
statchood had ncvcr bccn cxtinguishcd, that thc Croatian statc had mcrcly
bccn rulcd by lorcigncrs. According to him, this statc cncompasscd all thc
!llyrian provinccs ol thc Roman mpirc, and was inhabitcd cxclusivcly by
Croats. Starcvi not only dcnicd any claim to Scrbian nationhood, but cvcn
argucd that mcmbcrs ol thc mcdicval Scrbian Ncmanji dynasty had bccn
thc purcstbloodcd Croats.
8
Starcvi turncd crccly antiScrb altcr lailing to obtain prolcssor
ship at thc Univcrsity ol 8clgradc and lrom thcn on rcgardcd Scrbs as a
political prclcrcncc, an inlcrior racc amidst thc Croats that cithcr was to
abandon its national consciousncss and bccomc Croat or to bc cxtcrminat
cd. Not only did Starcvi launch thc slogan Tc Scrbs arc a brccd t only
lor thc slaughtcr housc,
88
but hc also claimcd Slovcncs as cthnic Croats.
Hc aspircd towards a Grcatcr Croatia that would cncompass Slovcnia, thc
8
Hondius, Yugosla. Community of Nations, +.
8
Scc Gazi, History of Croatia, +.
8
Millcr, Bet.een Nation and State, :.
86
Ibid.
8
cnnison Rusinow, Te Yugosla. Experiment :,,:,, (London: C. Hurst and
Company, +), +.
88
Paris, Genocide, ++.
8alcanica XXX\!! :+6
provinccs ol Croatia, Slavonia, almatia and Krajina, as wcll as 8osnia and
Hcrzcgovina. !n bricl, Starcvi was thc progcnitor ol cxtrcmc Croatian
nationalism, which sought to supprcss and pcrhaps cvcn to cxtcrminatc all
thosc who had a dicrcnt national consciousncss.
8
cspitc ovcrwhclming
historical cvidcncc to thc contrary, howcvcr, modcrn Croat historians havc
idcnticd Starcvi as onc ol Croatian most cmincnt libcrals, cnlightcncd
by thc idcals ol thc Frcnch Rcvolution and committcd to dcmocracy and
thc rulc ol law.
o
Anothcr idcology that cmanatcd lrom Croatian rcsistancc to
Magyarization was thc Croat vcrsion ol Yugoslavism, which lorcsaw union was thc Croat vcrsion ol Yugoslavism, which lorcsaw union
ol South Slavs into onc, highly lcdcralizcd, rcgion bascd on thc allcgcd
historical rights. Tc goal was not indcpcndcncc but autonomy in thc lorm
ol a scparatc lcdcral unit dominatcd by Croats. Tc champion ol this idcol
ogy was 8ishop Josip Juraj Strossmaycr, who had also bricy contcmplatcd
unication ol thc SouthSlav lands ol thc ual Monarchy with Scrbia in
thc mid+86os.
Scrb politics in thc AustroHungarian mpirc at thc bcginning ol
thc twcnticth ccntury was dividcd bctwccn thosc supporting coopcration
with thc Croats (thc !ndcpcndcnts), and thosc who supportcd somc coop
cration but insistcd on lorming an cntity scparatc lrom thc Croats in thc
luturc and joining with thc Kingdom ol Scrbia (thc Radicals).
Tc !ndcpcndcnt Scrbian Party (latcr thc Scrbian National !ndcpcn
dcnt Party) was loundcd in August +88+ as thc rst Scrbian opposition
party in Croatia, dcmanding Scrbian church and school autonomy, budgct
ary support lor Scrbian institutions in Croatia, cquality ol thc Cyrillic with
thc Latin alphabct, thc right to y thc Scrbian ag, and a rcvision ol thc
agrccmcnt with Hungary.
+
Tc partys lcadcr, Svctozar Pribicvi, was thc
most activc and inucntial Scrb politician in Croatia lrom latc +o:. 8orn
in Kostajnica in Krajina, hc was brought up in such a way as to havc dccp
dcvotion toward thc Scrbian national idca and lully uncritical lovc towards
Scrbia, Montcncgro and Russia.
:
His party advocatcd a broadcr vcrsion ol
Scrbdom sccing Scrbs as part ol a largcr, ScrboCroatian nation.
A morc vocal party, thc Serbian National Fadical Party, camc into
lorcc in +88. !t was not activc in thc cntirc provincc ol CroatiaSlavonia,
which thcn includcd Krajina, but bascd its political activity on thc privilcgcs
8
jilas, Contested Country, +o6+o.
o
Scc Pavo 8arii, Antc Starcvi (+8:+86) in Liberalna misao u Hr.atskoj |Libcr
al !dca in Croatia|, cds. Andrca Fcldman, \ladimir Stipcti and Franjo Zcnko (Zagrcb:
Fricdrich Naumann Stiltung, :ooo), +o+:o.
+
Millcr, Bet.een Nation and State, 8.
:
Ibid., .
A. S. Trbovich, Nationbuilding undcr thc AustroHungarian Sccptrc :+
grantcd to Scrbs by thc carlicr Habsburg monarchs. Tc party goal was
to cxtcnd thc Scrbian church and school autonomy to thc political rcalm,
building a basis lor Scrb tcrritorial autonomy. According to thc Radicals
Autonomy Programmc ol +8, Scrbs should scck thc right ol autonomy
not only in thc church/school and propcrty/nancial |clds| but also in thc
political arcna.

Tc Radicals bascd thcir claims on thc sct ol privilcgcs

grantcd by Habsburg mpcror Lcopold ! in +6o, rclusing thc changcs
introduccd by thc subscqucnt CroatoHungarian agrccmcnt. According to
Millcr, thc Serbian Fadical Party, lcd by Jaa Tomi, rcprcscntcd a tricd and
truc vcrsion ol Scrbianncss: that thc Scrbian community was |Christian|
rthodox, isolatcd, thrcatcncd with assimilation, and nccdlul ol vigilancc.

Tis vigilancc dcvclopcd in rcsponsc to Magyarization and thc Croats in

crcasing dcnial ol Scrbian idcntity
!n Scptcmbcr +o:, Srbobran (Scrbclcndcr), ncwspapcr publishcd
by thc Independent Serbian Party, rcprintcd an articlc titlcd Scrbs and Cro
ats lrom Srpski knjie.ni glasnik (Scrbian Litcrary Hcrald), thc lcading lit
crary journal in thc Kingdom ol Scrbia. Tis articlc by a young Scrb studcnt
lrom 8osnia argucd that thc Scrbs, having a strongcr culturc, would cvcntu
ally culturally absorb thc Croats. !t causcd a grcat uproar among thc Croats,
who protcstcd in Zagrcb, looting and dcstroying many Scrbian banks and
busincsscs.

Tc cxtcnt ol thc violcncc shockcd thc Scrbs across thc m

pirc.
6
Trcc ycars altcr this incidcnt, howcvcr, a small group ol cnlight
cncd Scrbs and Croats lormcd an ocial political coalition, rcalizing that
Magyarization thrcatcncd thcm both and that thc \icnncsc authoritics did
not support a lurthcr lcdcralization ol thc mpirc. Tus, at thc turn ol thc
ccntury, a policy ol CroatoScrb coopcration prcvailcd, born out ol thc +8
unication ol thc Croat and Scrb youth organizations into thc Unitcd Cro
atian and Scrbian Youth. Tc youth lcadcrs latcr lormcd partics that cntcrcd
into a ScrboCroatian govcrnmcnt coalition, rcccting Pribicvis bclicl
that thc ScrboCroatian conict cannot bc considcrcd a national qucstion,
bccausc Scrbs and Croats arc not two dicrcnt nations but parts ol onc and
thc samc nation.

Quotcd in Millcr, Bet.een Nation and State, o.

Ibid., +.

Ibid., :.
6
Scc corrcspondcncc ol Scrb notablcs dcscribing thc +o: riots, rcproduccd in Krcsti,
Gradja, .

Svctozar Pribicvi, Misao vodilja Srba i Hrvata |Guiding !dca ol Scrbs and Croats|
in Jovan 8anjanin ct al., Narodna misao (Zagrcb: ionika tiskara, +8), o.
8alcanica XXX\!! :+8
nc ol thc goals ol thc CroatoScrb coalition was unication ol
almatia with CroatiaSlavonia, with thc purposc ol strcngthcning thc
strugglc against thc AustroHungarian dominancc. Conccrncd about thc
prcvious nationalist Croatian policy, thc Scrbs joincd thc Coalition undcr
onc important condition, containcd in thc Zadar Rcsolution:
Conccrning thc dcmands ol our Croat brothcrs lor thc rcincorpora
tion ol almatia into Croatia and Slavonia thc Scrbian partics
arc prcparcd to |support this| il thc Croatian sidc bindingly rcc
ognizcs thc cquality ol thc Scrbian nation with thc Croatian.
8
n + Novcmbcr +o, thc parliamcntary club ol thc Croatian Party and
thc club ol thc Scrbian National Party signcd a dcclaration in thc alma
tian parliamcnt to that ccct, stating that thc Croats and Scrbs arc onc
pcoplc, cqual to onc anothcr. Tc two parliamcntary clubs lurthcr agrccd
to intcrchangcably usc Scrbian and Croatian languagc and ags, to allow
lor Scrbian culturc and history to bc aptly rcprcscntcd in cducation and
lor judicial usc ol Cyrillic script whcn cascs arc lcd in that script.

Tis
agrccmcnt was a corncrstonc ol a coalition that was announccd a month
latcr, bccoming a signicant lactor in CroatiaSlavonia altcr thc clcctions
ol May +o6.
!n +o 8an Rauch ol CroatiaSlavonia attcmptcd to dismantlc thc
CroatoScrbian political coalition by trying ltythrcc Scrbs (mostly sup
portcrs ol thc Scrbian !ndcpcndcnt Party) lor high trcason, lor cncouraging
Scrbian nationalism aiming to dcstroy thc mpirc. !t was cvidcnt that this
trial was purcly political, and Rauch lailcd to dismantlc thc Coalition. At
thc samc timc thc trial dcmonstratcd thc cxistcncc ol a strong Scrbian na
tional consciousncss in thc AustroHungarian mpirc, cvcn il it could not
provc its subvcrsivc naturc.
Alcksa jilas cxplains how thc CroatianScrbian Coalition succcss
lully joincd thc Croatian and thc Scrbian intcrcsts:
Tc Yugoslavism ol thc CroatianScrbian Coalition was madc pos
siblc by its cmphasis on libcraldcmocratic political institutions
and on thc univcrsal right ol nations to sclldctcrmination. Argu
mcnts lor political lcgitimacy had movcd away lrom thc irrcconcil
ablc Croatian and Scrbian national idcologics bascd on historical
8
Stenogracki .apisnici sabora Kralje.ine Hr.atske, Sla.onije i Dalmacije (:,c::,c&)
|Minutcs ol thc Parliamcnt ol thc Kingdom ol Croatia, Slavonia and almatia| (Za
grcb: Tisak kraljcvskc zcmaljskc tiskarc, +o), v. , pt. :, 66, quotcd in Millcr, Bet.een
Nation and State, 8.

Minutcs ol thc mccting in Zadar hcld on + Novcmbcr +o, printcd as a documcnt

Sporazum sa Hrvatima |Agrccmcnt with thc Croats| by thc Scrb ubrovnik printing
housc, kcpt in thc Archivcs ol thc Scrbian Acadcmy ol Arts and Scicnccs, r F. Niki
Fund, no. +.:8, rcproduccd in Krcsti, Gradja, :::.
A. S. Trbovich, Nationbuilding undcr thc AustroHungarian Sccptrc :+
mcmorics. Tc Coalition opposcd thc participation ol clcrgy in . Tc Coalition opposcd thc participation ol clcrgy in
political aairs and hcld that rcligious bclicls and valucs wcrc thc
privatc conccrn ol thc individual. Tis scparation ol thc churchcs
lrom politics hclpcd to rcmovc an important obstaclc to Croatian
and Scrbian coopcration and unity.
+oo
Ncvcrthclcss, thc Scrbian Radicals rapidly abandoncd thc Coalition, claim
ing that Scrbian intcrcsts could not bc lorwardcd in conjunction with thc
intcrcsts ol thc Croats in thc AustroHungarian mpirc, and that Scrbs
should strivc lor autonomy lrom both thc Habsburgs and thc Croats.
vcn thc Scrbian !ndcpcndcnts had important disagrccmcnts with
thc Croatian political partics. nc ol thcsc involvcd a strong opposition to
thc anncxation ol 8osnia. Although thc !ndcpcndcnts considcrcd that 8os
nia should bccomc part ol thc Kingdom ol Scrbia, thcy wcrc only ablc to
protcst against thc AustroHungarian anncxation indircctly, objccting that
it was carricd out against thc prcccdcnt ol thc 8crlin agrccmcnt ... |and
that| thc pcoplc ol 8osnia and Hcrzcgovina wcrc not consultcd.
+o+
Although party politics and parliamcntary action signicantly ma
turcd in thc ninctccnthccntury provinccs ol CroatiaSlavonia and al
matia, Allcock concludcs that, as in Slovcnia, thc political class was cx
trcmcly small. Tc dicrcncc was that somc Croat nobility survivcd, and
that Croats had not bccn marginalizcd within thc urban middlc strata to
thc samc cxtcnt as had thc Slovcncs.
+o:
Yct, thc clcctoratc amountcd to lcss
than two pcrccnt ol thc population, o6o ol which wcrc statc ocials.
Tc ncw clcctoral law ol ++o incrcascd thc numbcr ol cligiblc votcrs to
only cight pcrccnt.
+o
SctonVatson also obscrvcd a lack ol dcmocracy in
Croatia ol that pcriod (CroatiaSlavonia provincc): Public voting and tax
qualication which was cxtrcmcly high lor so poor a country, madc lrcc
dom ol clcction in Croatia a mcrc larcc.
+o
Tc AustroHungarian Croats and Scrbs cntcrcd thc twcnticth ccn
tury with thcir rcspcctivc national consciousncss lully awakcncd, but with
dicrcnt and cvcrmorc opposing national goals. A comprchcnsivc but high
ly uncritical Croatian History, originally publishcd in vc volumcs bctwccn
+8 and +++, thus spcaks about thc Croatian strugglc lor nationhood and
rcunication ol Croatian lands, ignoring Scrbian intcrcsts and cvcn thcir
+oo
jilas, Contested Country, .
+o+
Millcr, Bet.een Nation and State, +:.
+o:
Allcock, Explaining Yugosla.ia, :.
+o
Charlcs Jclavich, Tc Croatian Problcm in thc Habsburg mpirc in thc Ninctccnth
Ccntury, ustrian History Yearbook , No. : (+6), .
+o
R. V. SctonVatson, Te Southern Sla. Question (London, +++), +o+o.
8alcanica XXX\!! ::o
prcscncc,
+o
whilc Scrbs lail to undcrstand thc Croat attachmcnt to what
thcy pcrccivc to bc thcir historical statc rights. Tc cnsuing world wars
and civil wars brought thc CroatoScrb conict to thc lorc, with both thc
rst and thc sccond Yugoslavia lailing to accommodatc thc two nations op
posing aspirations.
+o6
Faculty of Economics, Finance
and dministration
Uni.ersity of Singidunum
Belgrade
+o
\jckoslav Klai, Po.ijest Hr.ata |Croatian History| !\, :nd cd. (Zagrcb: Nakladni
zavod Maticc Hrvatskc, +).
+o6
For morc, scc Ana S. Trbovich, Legal Geography of Yugosla.ias Disintegration (x
lord, Ncw York: xlord Univcrsity Prcss, lorthcoming).
UDC ,,:(-:&.,:. ,:)
:&.,::.:J(-:&.,:. ,:)