A.Define the following terms: 1.Infection: The growth of a parasitic organism within the body.

(A parasitic or ganism is one that lives on or in another organism and draws its nourishment the refrom.) A person with an infection has another organism (a "germ") growing with in him, drawing its nourishment from the person. The term "infection" has some exceptions. For example, the normal growth of the usual bacterial flora in the intestinal tract is not usually considered an infec tion. The same consideration applies to the bacteria that normally inhabit the m outh. 2.Virulence: The ability of any agent of infection to produce disease. The virul ence of a microorganism (such as a bacterium or virus) is a measure of the sever ity of the disease it is capable of causing. The adjective virulent implies extremely noxious, damaging, deleterious, disease -causing (pathogenic). Marked by a rapid, severe, and malignant course. Poisonou s, venomous. The word "virulence" comes from the Latin "virulentia" from "virus" meaning a sl imy liquid, particularly one that is foul and poisonous.

3.communicable diseases, illnesses caused by microorganisms and transmitted from an infected person or animal to another person or animal. Some diseases are pas sed on by direct or indirect contact with infected persons or with their excreti ons. Most diseases are spread through contact or close proximity because the cau sative bacteria or viruses are airborne; i.e., they can be expelled from the nos e and mouth of the infected person and inhaled by anyone in the vicinity. Such d iseases include diphtheria, scarlet fever, measles, mumps, whooping cough, influ enza, and smallpox. Some infectious diseases can be spread only indirectly, usua lly through contaminated food or water, e.g., typhoid, cholera, dysentery. Still other infections are introduced into the body by animal or insect carriers, e.g ., rabies, malaria, encephalitis, Rocky Mountain spotted fever. The human diseas e carriers, i.e., the healthy persons who may be immune to the organisms they ha rbor, are also a source of transmission. Some infective organisms require specif ic circumstances for their transmission, e.g., sexual contact in syphilis and go norrhea, injury in the presence of infected soil or dirt in tetanus, infected tr anfusion blood or medical instruments in serum hepatitis and sometimes in malari a. In the case of AIDS, while a number of different circumstances will transmit the disease, each requires the introduction of a contaminant into the bloodstrea m. A disease such as tuberculosis may be transmitted in several ways-by contact (human or animal), through food or eating utensils, and by the air. Control of c ommunicable disease depends upon recognition of the many ways transmission takes place. It must include isolation or even quarantine of persons with certain dis eases. Proper antisepsis (see antiseptic) should be observed in illness and in h ealth. Immunologic measures (see immunity) should be utilized fully. Some sexual ly transmitted infections are associated with cancer (cervical or penile). Educa tion of the population in rules of public health is of great importance both in the matter of personal responsibility (disposal of secretions, preventing contac t with the blood of others, proper handling and preparation of food, personal hy giene) and community responsibility (safe water and food supply, sterile blood s upply, garbage and waste disposal). Animal and insect carriers must be controlle d, and the activities of human carriers must be limited. 4.pathogenicity. the capacity of a microorganism to produce disease.Pathogenic: Causing disease or capable of doing it.

Pathogenic bacteria are disease-causing bacteria. For example, pathogenic E. col i are E. coli that are not innocuous (like most E. coli) but can make a person i ll and even kill them. The word "pathogenic" comes from two Greek roots: "pathos" (disease) + "genesis" (bringing into being) = literally, bringing disease into being. B. What are the types of microorganism causing infection. ?Virus: A microorganism smaller than a bacteria, which cannot grow or reproduce apart from a living cell. A virus invades living cells and uses their chemical m achinery to keep itself alive and to replicate itself. It may reproduce with fid elity or with errors (mutations)-this ability to mutate is responsible for the a bility of some viruses to change slightly in each infected person, making treatm ent more difficult. Viruses cause many common human infections, and are also responsible for a bevy of rare diseases. Examples of viral illnesses range from the common cold, which is usually caused by one of the rhinoviruses, to acquired immunodeficiency syndr ome (AIDS), which is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Viruses may contain either DNA or RNA as their genetic material. Herpes simplex virus and the hepatitis- B virus are DNA viruses. RNA viruses have an enzyme cal led reverse transcriptase that permits the usual sequence of DNA-to-RNA to be re versed so the virus can make a DNA version of itself. RNA viruses include HIV an d the hepatitis C virus. Researchers have grouped viruses together into several major families, based on their shape, behavior, and other characteristics. These include the herpesviruse s, adenoviruses, papovaviruses (papilloma viruses), hepadnaviruses, poxviruses, and parvoviruses among the DNA viruses. On the RNA virus side, major families in clude the picornaviruses (including the rhinoviruses), calciviruses, paramyxovir uses, orthomyxoviruses, rhabdoviruses, filoviruses, bornaviruses, and retrovirus es. There are dozens of smaller virus families within these major classification s. Many viruses are host-specific, causing disease in humans or specific animals only. The Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck (1851-1931) was the first person to use the term "virus" for the invisible disease-causing material that he showed to be self-replicating.

?Bacteria: Single-celled microorganisms which can exist either as independent (f ree-living) organisms or as parasites (dependent upon another organism for life) . Examples of bacteria include: Acidophilus, a normal inhabitant of yogurt, Chlamydia, which causes an infection very similar to gonorrhea, Clostridium welchii the most common cause of the dreaded gas gangrene, E. coli, the common peaceful citizen of our colon and, upon occasion, a dangerou s agent of disease, and Streptococcus, the bacterium that causes the important infection of the throat s trep throat. The term bacteria was devised in the 19th century by the German botanist Ferdina nd Cohn (1828-98) who based it on the Greek bakterion meaning a small rod or sta ff. In 1853, Cohn categorised bacteria as one of three types of microorganisms -

- bacteria (short rods), bacilli (longer rods), and spirilla (spiral forms). The term bacteria was preceded in the 17th century by the microscopic animalcules d escribed by Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723). ?ungus (fnggs) n. pl. fungi (fnj, fngg) or funguses Any of numerous eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Fungi, which lack chlorophyl l and vascular tissue and range in form from a single cell to a body mass of bra nched filamentous hyphae that often produce specialized fruiting bodies. The kin gdom includes the yeasts, molds, smuts, and mushrooms. [Latin; perhaps akin to Greek spongos, sphongos, sponge.] ?Parasite: An organism that lives in or on and takes its nourishment from anothe r organism. A parasite cannot live independently. Parasitic diseases include infections by protozoa, helminths, and arthropods: Protozoa -- Malaria is caused by plasmodium, a protozoa, a single-cell organism that can only divide within its host organism. Helminths -- Schistosomiasis, another set of very important parasitic diseases, is caused by a helminth (a worm). Arthropods -- The arthropods include insects and arachnids (spiders, etc.), a nu mber of which can act as vectors (carriers) of parasitic diseases. The term "parasite" came from the Greek "parasitos" (para-, along side of + sito s, food) meaning "eating at the side of, as at the same table." The sense of the term later changed to that of a poor friend or relative who lived at the expens e of another. Not until the 18th century did "parasite" come into English as a b iologic term. The study of parasites is parasitology. Viral infections occur when viral nucleic acid enters a host cell and the cell begins the process of replication and assembly of new viral particles. The steps below show how vi ral replication occurs. Virions stick to host cell membrane at specific receptor sites. Virions enter cytoplasm and cell proteases uncoat the particles releasing the nu cleic acid Nucleic acid is transported to nucleus where needed enzymes are located Biochemical steps for nucleic acid replication occur (steps vary depending on wh ether it is a double- or single-stranded DNA or RNA virus) Viral mRNA synthesis begins and redirects the ribosomes to assemble only viral p roteins Eventually ribosomes make nothing but viral proteins Mature virions are assembled from the nucleic acid and proteins Cells die and lyse, releasing a new batch of infective viruses. The cell lysis releases factors which can cause fevers and/or inflammation due t

o non-specific reaction to cell contents released in response to the infection. This is the usual result of infection with the virus of the common cold. In some cases (such as infection with the poliovirus), the loss of cell function (neurones) causes serious physiological consequences. Other viruses cause damag e to normal immunological mechanisms (HIV virus causing AIDS), or in some cases, begin the process of tumor formation that may lead to either benign (eg warts) or malignant tumours (carcinomas). Many relatively common diseases are caused by viruses (eg the common cold, hepat itis, measles, mumps, glandular fever and many more), and normally healthy indiv iduals recover completely in a relatively short time. Apart from the infected person's own immune system, there are few pharmacologica l agents that can stop the viral reproduction process. Antibiotics DO NOT work o n viruses. For this reason, doctors rarely prescribe anything other than Panadol for pain and fever relief and rest for viral infections. Pathogenic Bacteria The effects of infection by pathogenic bacteria are also variable and can includ e fever inflammation antibody synthesis shock (only in extreme cases) impaired blood clotting (only in extreme cases) Some of the diseases caused by bacteria include tetanus, whooping cough, pneumon ia, gonorrhoea, meningitis and some forms of tonsillitis. Bacterial toxins are soluble substances that alter the normal metabolism of host cells with harmf ul effects on the host. They are the reason for some of the signs and symptoms o f many bacterial diseases. It is likely that the disease processes caused by some fungi, protozoa and worms are also due to the effects of toxins. Toxins are often classified as either exotoxins or endotoxins. Exotoxins are usually secreted by bacteria into the surrounding environment, end otoxins are only found on the surface membrane of a few types of bacteria and ar e only released in special circumstances. Bacterial toxins vary in their specificity. Some act on certain cell types only, others can affect a wide variety of cells and tissues. Bacterial toxins work at extremely low levels, and they include the strongest poisons known (eg 1 gram o f tetanus toxin is enough to kill about 10 million people). Toxins cause damage in various ways, they may lyse host cells stop cell growth by inhibiting protein synthesis enhance or inhibit normal cellular function. Antibiotics have been discovered as natural anti-bacterial agents (for example penicillin wa s first isolated from a fungus), and other similar, chemically synthesised compo

unds have also been found to kill bacteria without harming the infected host. Most of these chemicals rely on the subtle differences between prokaryotic (bact erial) cells and the eukaryotic host's cells. Therefore, a doctor who suspects t hat a patient has a bacterial infection will prescribe an antibiotic and may sen d a sample of infected tissue to a lab. where tests can be done to determine exa ctly which of the dozens of antibiotics is best at killing that particular strai n of bacteria. A parasite is an organism that completes some part of its life cycle in another organism. I t does not necessarily cause disease whilst infecting in the host, but those par asites that do cause damage whilst in the host are said to be pathogenic. Parasites usually belong to the Kingdom Protista, although there are some signif icant worms and insects (Animals) which cause disease in animals and significant destruction of plant tissue. The organism in which a parasite completes the adult stage of its life cycle is known as the primary host. For most human parasitic infections, the human is the primary host (eg tapeworm), but the organism leaves the human to enter another animal (secondary host) or the environment (reservoir) in which it completes the other stages of the life cycle. In some cases, the organism is carried between hosts by another animal (a vector), without any perceptible damage to the vector . The diagram below illustrates this idea.

c. What are the types of infection Respiratory Infections Respiratory infections are quite common. Some are much more serious than others and a lot of how dangerous some of these infections are has to do with the age a nd general health of the patient. When patients are very old or very young, they tend to be at greater risk for serious complications as a result of these types of infections. Also, anyone with underlying health problems may also experience serious complic ations. That being said, it is important to keep in mind that ANYONE could potentially e xperience such complications. Each patient and infection is different, so there is no way to say for sure that just because you are young and healthy you will b e immune to serious effects of a respiratory infections. Some examples of respiratory infections include bronchitis, sinusitis and pharyn gitis.

Urinary Tract Infections As the name implies, a urinary tract infection refers to any infection that take s hold in the urinary tract. The exact type of infection will depend on where in the urinary tract that the infection occurs. For example, an infection occurrin g in the bladder is called cystitis. An infection in the kidneys is called pyelo

nephritis. Treatment for most urinary tract infections will involve taking some type of med ication to cure the infection. Patients will also be asked to avoid any activiti es that may aggravate the condition. For example, using tampons or having interc ourse.

Skin Infections There are many varieties of skin infections and most are able to be treated with a topical medication. In some cases, doses of oral medication can also be requi red. It is important to treat skin infections as soon as you notice them as they can be quick to spread. They can not only spread on the skin, but to other parts of the body as well.

Yeast Infections Yeast infections most commonly occur in the vaginal area, but can also be presen t in the mouth. Men can also get yeast infections in the genital area. Yeast inf ections erupt when naturally occuring bacteria become too numerous. Usually, the infection can be effectively treated by using over the counter medication. In r are cases, a prescription medication may be required. In addition to the examples listed above, there are many other types of infectio ns as well. Some are less serious than others, but in many cases, the patient wi ll benefit from at least seeking the advice of a doctor. In some cases, there may be no other choice than to allow the infection time to clear up on its own. In other cases, the only way that healing will take place i s with medicinal intervention. When dealing with various types of infections, or any other medical issue, it is often wise to follow the better safe than sorry line of thinking. If you go to the doctor and it is not serious, you have not lost anything. If, however, you f ail to go and the infection gets worse, you could lose a lot. Not all infections are serious, but it is best to let the doctor make the call.

D. Differenciate nosocomial infection from iatrogenic infection A nosocomial infection (hospital-acquired infection, HAI) (nos-oh-koh-mi-al) n. an infection whose development is favoured by a hospital environment, such as on e acquired by a patient during a hospital visit or one developing among hospital staff. Such infections include fungal and bacterial infections and are aggravat ed by the reduced resistance of individual patients[1]. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate th at roughly 1.7 million hospital-associated infections, from all types of microor

ganisms, including bacteria, combined, cause or contribute to 99,000 deaths each year.[2] In Europe, where hospital surveys have been conducted, the category of Gram-negative infections are estimated to account for two-thirds of the 25,000 deaths each year. Nosocomial infections can cause severe pneumonia and infection s of the urinary tract, bloodstream and other parts of the body. Many types are difficult to attack with antibiotics, and antibiotic resistance is spreading to Gram-negative bacteria that can infect people outside the

Iatrogenic: Due to the action of a physician or a therapy the doctor prescibed. An iatrogenic disease may be inadvertently caused by a physician or surgeon or b y a medical or surgical treatment or a diagnostic procedure. Puerperal fever (ch ildbirth fever) was an iatrogenic infection; it was carried from one woman to an other by the doctor before the days of antisepsis. If in the course of a procedu re, an artery is nicked and bleeds, that is an iatrogenic accident. The word "iatrogenic" comes from the Greek roots "iatros" meaning "the healer or physician" + "gennan" meaning "as a product of" = due to the doctor.

E. Draw the chain of infection: Explain each links A nosocomial infection (hospital-acquired infection, HAI) (nos-oh-koh-mi-al) n. an infection whose development is favoured by a hospital environment, such as on e acquired by a patient during a hospital visit or one developing among hospital staff. Such infections include fungal and bacterial infections and are aggravat ed by the reduced resistance of individual patients[1]. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate th at roughly 1.7 million hospital-associated infections, from all types of microor ganisms, including bacteria, combined, cause or contribute to 99,000 deaths each year.[2] In Europe, where hospital surveys have been conducted, the category of Gram-negative infections are estimated to account for two-thirds of the 25,000 deaths each year. Nosocomial infections can cause severe pneumonia and infection s of the urinary tract, bloodstream and other parts of the body. Many types are difficult to attack with antibiotics, and antibiotic resistance is spreading to Gram-negative bacteria that can infect people outside the