Some of Mathematical Modeling for Soil Erosion, Transportation, Deposition and Sediment Yields

By

Mohammad Ezz-Aldeen Mohammad, PhD

Supervisor Professor: Nadihr Al-Ansari Dept. of Civil, Mining and Environmental Eng. Lulea University of Technology Sweden

Table of Contents No. 1 2 3

Table of contents List of symbols Introduction Chapter 1 Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE). Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation, (RUSLE). Chapter 2 Runoff Model. Interception storage. Infiltration. Surface runoff flow Sediment Model. Rainfall detachment. Flow detachment Chapter 3 Runoff Model. Interception storage. Infiltration. Surface runoff flow

Title

Page
2-3 4-8 9-10 11 12 17 18 20 21 21 22 24 25 25 26 29 30 30 32 35

Sediment Model. Rainfall detachment. Flow detachment Chapter 4 Runoff Model. Interception storage. Infiltration. Surface runoff flow Sediment Model. Rainfall detachment. Flow detachment Chapter 5 Runoff Model. Interception storage. Infiltration. Surface runoff flow Sediment Model. Rainfall detachment. Flow detachment Conclusion References

37 37 39 44 45 46 47 53 54 55 56 59 61 61 62 64 67 67 68 69 72

List of Symbols
Symbol
A A Ai Asl ASM B B B BW C C C Cbr CDR CDR Cf Coh COV Cp Ct d D Dc DEPpav Df Df.p DR dr: DS E E ea Ep Eq er

Definition
% of soil organic matter content cross section area of flow area increment computed soil loss from sheet and rill flow in ton/hectare./year antecedent soil moisture is the soil structure code water deficit parameter in the soil an exponent, depend on soil texture bottom width of the channel profile permeability Cover management factor sediment concentration adjustment factor for buried residue cropping and management factor cumulative drainage cumulative infiltration cohesion of the wet soil the ratio of the vegetated area to the project area of the canopy vegetation cover factor sediment concentration at the time of ponding diameter of particle Particle size that 50% of the sample having that size or less cumulative amount of percolation loss below the root zone detachment capacity allowed detachment rate for non erodible surface detachment by flowing water is the rate of flow detachment or deposition detachment by rainfall percolation or drainage rate maximum depression storage kinetic energy of the storm net detachment or deposition rate saturated vapor pressure at temperature potential soil evaporation rate flow erosion rate rainfall energy per unit depth of the rainfall per unit area

ET Ev F f Fc Fs Fsat g G gs H I I1 I30 Ib Ic IC max ICstore Icum Il Im Kc Ki Kr Ks Ksveg Ku L LD M m N ny P P PA PAVE PH

cumulative amount of evapotranspiration evaporation rate in inches per hour during the storm water or rain depth observed by the soil Darcy-Weisbach friction coefficient field capacity infiltration depth at that moment cumulative infiltration at saturated acceleration due to gravity the net capillary drive particle specific gravity depth of surface water layer rainfall rate (intensity) leaf area index the maximum 30 min rainfall intensity, (cm/hr) final or steady state infiltration capacity infiltration capacity with surface inundated maximum volume of interception store which is depends on plant or vegetation type the volume of interception store cumulative interception of rainfall in that event interception loss in inches over project area of the canopy maximum infiltration capacity in excess of Ib a proportionality factor, which may vary according to the geometrical properties of crop detachment index of the soil correction factor for vegetation density saturated hydraulic conductivity saturated hydraulic conductivity of the planting area Soil Erodibility Facror Slope length factor, the leaf drainage particle size parameters number of storm in each year Mannings roughness coefficients number of years used to obtain average R Erosion control practice factor wetted perimeters average acute angle of the plant stems to the ground surface proportion of the non erodible surface to erodible height of plant canopy

Pi PR Ps Ps Q QI QO qp Qv R r(t) RC(h) Rcum Rd Rer RET START RETMAX RETRain RFR RHo RHt Ri Rn RP RQ RR Rr: Sd SF SKDR Smax Sn Sp SQ Ss St St Sw T

dimensionless coefficient relating the rate of decrease in infiltration rate, with increasing soil moisture content hill slope depression storage the precipitation per shower number of particles in transport flow rate per unit width inflow to the elements from the rainfall and adjacent elements outflow rate from the elements peak flow from the event m3/s stream slow volume (m3), hydraulic radius rainfall reach the surface, rainfall minus interception values of soil water retension curve cumulated rainfall rainfall depth average annual rain fall erosivity The initial runoff depression storage. maximum depression storage Rainfall depth for retention storage soil righness ridge height immediately after tillage ridge height rainfall intensity during time interval net radiation flux density, reaching the soil rainfall depth under the plant canopy cumulative amount of surface runoff standard deviation of surface height random roughness Detension storage. surface flow soil erodibility factor canopy storage capacity snow water content average slope steepness subsurface lateral flow Slope steepness factor volume of water stored in the elements storage potential of the soil above the impending strata is the water storage in the vegetation in inches over project area of the canopy Time
6

Ta Tc Tds TIF TP Tr Ts Uc Umin V V V* VE Vf VIP W X Y Yc Ycr Ysd Z e d i s f

sy sy r Vr

average air temperature at 2m height transport capacity fraction of the soil surface disturbed by the tillage implement temporarily intercept storage total volume of pore space within the control depth duration of the storm in hours time of ponding critical shear velocity minimum critical shear velocity is the flow velocity cumulative rainfall excess depth the shear velocity above ground biomass soil particles fall velocity volume of water that can be stored within the control volume prior to its becoming saturated width of flow the direct distance between the two points the actual distance along the surface profile between the two points is the modified shields critical shear velocity critical shear stress from the Shields diagram sediment yield from individual events, (ton) gravitational potential due to gravity Constant for erosion and deposition. effective porosity soil water content in any given day soil moisture deficit initial moisture content saturated moisture content mass density of the fluid suction at wetting front (negative pressure head) is the kinetic energy of the direct rainfall location specific coefficient location specific coefficient raindrop-induced turbulence coefficient duration of the rainfall for the rth increments of the storm which is divided in to m increment of constant intensity in hours, h flow shear stress acting on the soil particles critical shear stress

 cr

unit stream power critical unit stream power latent heat of vaporization psychrometric constant potential head parameter

INTRODUCTION:
The sedimentation can be defined as the process of soil particles settling due to gravity force when the wind or water is unable to carrying these particles due to reducing of transporting capacity. The wind and water detached the soil from a location and transport it, then deposited in another location based on the transportation capacity of the wind or water. This process produce a number of problems, such as the detachment and erosion of soil surface by wind or water produce a loss of surface soil layer which is usually the suitable layer for plants growth. The global yearly loss of predictive land is estimated by a number of millions hectares, therefore the treatment of this problem is necessary. In addition to erosion of soil, the transportation of particles by water flowing due to rainfall detachment within the watersheds or through the surface water flow and river flow also produce another problems. The transport of soil particles in the river is contained to a distance till the sediment concentration becomes greater than flow transport capacity and the sediment is deposited and produce an islands and changes the flow regime due to erosion in some location and deposition in another, which is Chanchiang the flow sections. For all hydraulic structures such as dams, canals, regulators, etc. the deposition process produce a number of problems such as reducing of capacity and economic life in addition the high cost required for maintenance. In designing of such hydraulic structures, this problem must be considered to reduce its effect and to ensure the hydraulic structures can be work with more efficiency with this effects. In designing this structures usually the estimation of sediment load is necessary and the measured data is required. But in some cases especially for seasonal river and catchment areas, no records for flow rate and sediment load are available and to estimate those values, a mathematical computerized model is used. The mathematical simulation of the erosion, transportation, and deposition of
9

soli particles by rainfall and runoff is one of the complex hydrological models. The complicity is due to the large number of factors that effect on it, which is deals with rainfall properties such as intensity and depth, also the surface topography, soil type, land use and land cover. Due to developments of computers and ability of preparing the different data deals with topography, soil classification and use as a digital maps by using the Geographical Information System, GIS, the application of some of those model become more easy and accurately. There is a number of runoff and sediments model available which different in simulation process such as for single events, or continuous simulation models for simulation the runoff and sediment along the year time. The second one (continuous simulation) is more accurately than the first one but required more details data such as weather data in addition to the required data for the single events model.

The available models can be summarized as follows: 1- Universal Soil Loss Equation, (USLE). 2- Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation, (MUSLE). 3- Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation, (RUSLE). 4- Areal Non Point Source Watershed Environment Response Simulation, (ANSWERS). 5- European Soil Erosion Model, (EUROSEM). 6- LImburg Soil Erosion Model, (LISEM). 7- Water Erosion Prediction Project, (WEPP). In addition to a number of different models, but this is the considered in this report.

10

Chapter 1

1- UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION (USLE) 1- MODIFIED (MUSLE). 2- REVISED (RUSLE). UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION, UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION

11

1-

UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION (USLE)

is presented by (Wischmeier and

The Universal Soil Loss Equation

Smith 1962, 1965) as quoted by [Department of Interior Bureau of Reclamation, 2006] . Its empirically model based on a large amount of field data collected for soil erosion of agriculture lands (more than 10000 plot-year of runoff and sediment loas). The field data was considered to relate the annula soil loss due to sheet rill erosion to a number of parameters represent the rain properties and soil properties and plannt cover in addition to surface topography which are: 1.1Rainfall properties (energy), R: This factor represent the rainfall kinetic energy at maximum 30min. intensity. The values of ( R ) which represent the average annual value can be estimated from the following equation:

In which: E: kinetic energy of the storm, there are a number of equation can be applied to estimate this energy such as:

)(1.1)

Where, E is the kinetic energy in (J/m2-cm), and (I30) is the maximum 30 min rainfall intensity, (cm/hr).

1.2-

Soil Erodibility Facror, Ku: this factor reflect the soil ability for eroded which is depend on soil type, soil texture,( percent of silt

12

and fine sand) permeability, and

percent of organic materials.

The values of Ku can be estimated from the following equation:

(1.2)
In which: M: is the particle size parameters can be estimated by the following equation:

) (

) (1.3)

a: % of soil organic matter content, b: is the soil structure code, which is value usually 1,2,3,and 4 as follows: (1:very fine granular, 2: fine granular, 3: medium or course granular, 4: blocky, platy, or massive). c: profile permeability, (saturated hydraulic conductivity) (1: rapid 150mm/ht, 2: moderate to rapid 50-150mm/hr, 3: moderate 12-50mm/hr, 4: slow to moderate 5-15mm/hr, 5: slow 1-5 mm/hr, 6: very slow < 1mm/hr) The soil organic matter content is computed as the product of percent of organic matter and 1.72. Slope length factor, L: the ratio of soil loss from the field slope length to soil loss from a 22.1 -m length for the same soil and gradient.

1.3-

13

1.4-

Slope steepness factor, Ss: the ratio of soil loss from the field slope gradient to soil loss from a 9% slope for the same soil and slope.

Sometimes both slope length factor L, and slope steepness factor Ss, considered to gather as one factor which is: Length and

Steepness of Slope, LS: this factor considered the effect of field grade and the shape of its slope. It is not represent the steepest slope which may not have a long length. The steep slope and with long length produce more sediment load than the steepest one with short length. The factor represent the topography which is LS is estimated from the following formula:

) ( (1.4) ( ( ) ) (1.5) (1.6)

In which : S: is the field slope%, and : is the field slops steepness in degree.

1.5-

Cover management factor, C: this factor represent the effect the vegetation or crop rotations, (pasture, legumes, corn, etc...), as shown in table below and management system, ground cover,

14

and soil condition, which considered as tillage method as shown in second table below.

Table of Crop Type Factor Crop Type Grain Corn Silage Corn, Beans & Canola Cereals (Spring & Winter) Seasonal Horticultural Crops Fruit Trees Hay and Pasture Factor 0.40 0.50 0.35 0.50 0.10 0.02

Table of Tillage Method Factor Tillage Method Fall Plow Spring Plow Mulch Tillage Ridge Tillage Zone Tillage No-Till Factor 1.0 0.90 0.60 0.35 0.25 0.25

The considered C values the product of C values from the table of crop type factor and C values from the table of tillage method factor.

15

1.6-

Erosion control practice factor, P: this factor consider the management practice such as constructing of terraces or contour strips, to store water and control flow to reduce erosion problems. The values of P can be obtained from the table below.

P Factor Data Support Practice Up & Down Slope Cross Slope Contour farming Strip cropping, cross slope Strip cropping, contour P Factor 1.0 0.75 0.50 0.37 0.25

The universal soil loss equation considered the above factors to predict the average annual sediment load by the equation in the following form:

..(1.7)

The value of Asl, represent the computed soil loss from sheet and rill flow in ton/hectare./year. The other parameters defined previously.

16

2. MODIFIED (MUSLE).

UNIVERSAL

SOIL

LOSS

EQUATION

The USLE is usually applied to estimate the annual erosion from the agricultural land, while some times we need to estimate the erosion and sediment load from each storm for design purposes of different hydraulic structures, and also in continues simulation models. Williams (1975), as quoted by [Kim, H, S. , 2006], developed the modified universal soil loss equation which is based on universal soil loss equation. This modified equation can be applied to estimate the sediment load for single storm day by day or a total annual load. For the single storm event, the MUSLE having the following form:

(
In which:

(1.8)

Ysd: sediment yield from individual events, (ton), Qv: stream slow volume (m3), from the event from the area under consideration,

qp: peak flow from the event m3/s, Ku: soil erodibility factor, LS: slope length and gradient factor, C: cover and management factor, which is a function of vegetation height, canopy cover, and surface roughness, P: support practice factor, which is a function of slope and conservation practices. sy and sy :location specific coefficient.

17

3. REVISED UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION:

The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation, USLE, is another form of universal soil loss equation USLE, but its included a more climate data to predict the soil erosion. The model was developed by Renald et al. 1997 [Angima, S.D, et al 2003], which is based on empirical data, more than 10000 plot-year runoff and sediment, to predict the average yearly soil erosion and sediment load for different cases of rainfall properties, cropping patterns and soil managements. The RUSLE having the same form of USLE as follows:

..(1.9)

The factors of this equation are defined previously in the USLE with the same units, but the difference here is in the values of these variables and the method of estimating. The first one is the rainfall runoff erosivity factor (R), which is represents usually the average values of this factor for a period of 20 years, and estimated as by the following form:

( )(
In which; Rer: average annual rain fall erosivity,

..(1.10)

ny: number of years used to obtain average R, m: number of storm in each year, E: kinetic energy of the storm, and I30: maximum 30 min rainfall intemsity.

18

The values of (E) (I30), in above equation which is represent the product of rainfall kinetic energy and maximum 30-min intensity occurring in the (n) year, EI, for each storm is estimated as follows:

( )(
In which;

(1.11)

E: rainfall kinetic energy, MJ`/ha/mm er : rainfall energy per unit depth of the rainfall per unit area MJ/ha/mm/hr, Vr: duration of the rainfall for the rth increments of the storm which is divided in to m increment of constant intensity.in hours, h

The value of rainfall energy per unit depth, er, (MJ/ha/mm/hr), is estimated by the following equation.

(
In which; Ir: rainfall intensity for that increment mm/h.

) (1.12)

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Chapter 2
AREAL NON POINT SOURCE WATERSHED ENVIRONMENT RESPONSE SIMULATION, ANSWERS

2.1- Runoff Model. 2.1.1- Interception storage. 2.1.2- Infiltration. 2.1.3- Surface runoff flow.

2.2- Sediment Model. 2.2.1- Rainfall detachment. 2.2.2- Flow detachment.

20

ANSWERS MODEL:
Areal Non Point Source Watershed Environment Response Simulation, ANSWERS model is presented by Beasley et. al. 1980. The model was developed for simulating the runoff and sediment load for a single storm events, which means its consist of two main part, hydrology and upland erosion response. It is a continuous model for daily simulation including in the first part rainfall, infiltration, interception, depression storage, evapotransipation, and runoff. While in the second part include the rainfall and runoff sediment detachment, sediment transport, and deposition, in addition to nitrogen and phosphorous transphormations. The model

considered the catchment consists of a equal size square cells or grids, each of them having the same properties such as elevation, soil type, land use, plant cover, ., etc.) as shown in the figure below. By this method of catchment simulation, the spatial variation of rainfall distribution, , soil type, plant cover, and water content, can be represented in more accurate details within the catchment.

2.1-Runoff Model 2.1.1- Interception storage.

Runoff is usually defined as the excess precipitation, which is usually the main contribution is from rainfall depth or snow melt. Through the rainfall, a specific depth is intercept by plants which values depends on plant type such as grass or trees, planting stage, and other part the rainfall reach directly to the surface depending on land cover. After interception storage is met, the rainfall reaches the ground surface and infiltration process is begin. In ANSWERS model the interception storage is estimated based on Horton equation,(1991), as quoted by [Demissie, M, et al 1997]. Horton

21

(1919) considered the interception storage by plants is the sum of water depth intercept by plant and some of them evaporated to atmosphere, and the evaporation from the plant surface during rainstorm. He present the following relationship as quoted by (Crouse , R. P, et al 2010) to estimate the interception storage.

..(2.1)
In which: Il: interception loss in inches over project area of the canopy. Sw: is the water storage in the vegetation in inches over project area of the canopy. COV: the ratio of the vegetated area to the project area of the canopy. Ev: the evaporation rate in inches per hour during the storm, and Tr: is the duration of the storm in hours. Also Horton found a linear relationship between the interception loss (IL) and precipitation on a per shower basis which has expressed as:

(2.2)
In which

(2.3)

Ps: is the precipitation per shower.

2.1.2- Infiltration.
After the time of rainfall interception is met, which depends on plant properties and rainfall intensity, the infiltration process begin which is

defined as the rate of the absorb of water (rainfall or irrigation) by the soil, which is depends on soil properties such as grain size, apparent specific
22

weight, water content and other factors. In ANSWERS applied the Holtan (1961) and Overton (1965) infiltration equation which can be expressed in dimensionally homogenous form as follows:

(
In which Ic: infiltration capacity with surface inundated. Ib: final or steady state infiltration capacity.

....(2.4)

Im: maximum infiltration capacity in excess of Ib, TP: total volume of pore space within the control depth VIP: volume of water that can be stored within the control volume prior to its becoming saturated. Pi: dimensionless coefficient relating the rate of decrease in infiltration rate, with increasing soil moisture content. Then ANSWERS model was developed in mid of 1990s, to be ANSWERS2000. The Green Ampt infiltration equation, is considered to estimate the infiltration rate (Bouraoui and Dillaha, 1996) which is in the following form:
( ( ) )

..(2.5)

In which Fs= infiltration depth at that moment,(cm) Ks = saturated hydraulic conductivity (cm/s), i: rainfall rate (cm/s) (i must be greater than Ks) ts: time of ponding, (s), which is equal to Fs/I, i = initial moisture content (dimensionless) and s = saturated moisture content (dimensionless). f = suction at wetting front (negative pressure head),

23

2.1.3- Surface runoff flow.

After infiltration capacity decreased with the time increased due to rainfall continues and becomes equal and then greater than infiltration capacity, then the rain accumulated on the surface and fill the micro depressions and the depressions. Then the water accumulated on the surface and surface runoff flow begins. Each grid or cell of the catchent is considered as element and the continuity equation for the flow is applied for each at a considered time intervals. The difference solution of the continuity equation is in the following form:

..(2.6)
In which QI: inflow to the elements from the rainfall and adjacent elements, m3/s, QO: outflow rate from the elements, m3/s, St: volume of water stored in the elements, m3, and t: time (s). This equation is combined with Manning equation for flow to represent stage discharge relation. In this model as shown in figure below, the

catchment area is divide the elements of the catchment to overland flow and channel flow elements. The Manning equation is applied for both cases and the hydraulic radius is considered equal to flow depth for the overland flow elements.

Since the model is a continuous simulation model, the evapotranspiration losses is estimated for the time between tow rainfall events based on Ritchie s method as quoted (Byne, Wes, 2000) in the following form:

..(2.7)
24

In which Ep: potential soil evaporation rate, (kg/m2. s), Rn: net radiation flux density, reaching the soil, (W/m2), I1: leaf area index, (m2 leaf area/m2 soil area), kc: a proportionality factor, which may vary according to the geometrical properties of crop. Delta: proportionality constant dea/dTa, (kPa/Co), in which Ta: average air temperature at 2m height, (Co), ea: saturated vapor pressure at temperature, Ta , (kPa), : latent heat of vaporization (J/kg) : psychrometric constant, (kPa/Co).

2.2- Sediment Model 2.2.1- Rainfall detachment

The sediment sub-model in ANSWER is divided in to two main stages, soil detachment and sediment transportation. In the fist stage the soil detachment by rainfall impact is estimated by considering rainfall

kinetic energy based on Meyer and Wischmeier (1969) equation as follows:

(2.8)

In which: DR = detachment by rainfall (kg min-1), CDR = cropping and management factor, SKDR = soil erodibility factor, Ai = area increment (m2), and Ri = rainfall intensity during time interval (mm min-1).

25

2.2.2- Flow detachment.

Also the soil detachment by overland flow is considered in the first stage based on Meyer and Wischmeier (1969) as modified by Foster (1976) as quoted by [(Byne, Wes, 2000] in the following form:

(
In which Df = detachment by flowing water (kg min-1), SL = slope steepness, and Q = flow rate per unit width (m2 min-1).

The flow detachment in this model is considered based on flow transport capacity on that grid or elements, if the transport capacity in greater than the sediment concentration then detachment process is occurring, and the flow pick up the sediment particle from this element or grid to adjacent one. In the other hand if the transport capacity on that element is less than sediment concentration, the settling process is occurring on that element. Therefore it is necessary to estimate the flow transport capacity on each element. In this model the transport capacity is estimated based on flow type, laminar or turbulent flow. For laminar flow the following equation is applied

.................... for Q<= 0.046 m2 min-1:

.(2.10)
While for turbulent flow the following equation is applied:

26

.................... for Q > 0.046 m2 min-1

.(2.11)
In which Tc = transport capacity (kg m-1 min-1). SL, and Q as previously defined.

This means, the soil detachment by flow depends on flow transport capacity and sediment concentration, while rainfall detachments is occur depends only on rainfall energy. The flow transport capacity is estimated based on modified form of Yalin equation which is estimate the sediment load of cohesive soil in a viscous fluid in the following form:

.(2.12)
where:
( )

.. (2.13)

.(2.14)

..(if Y<=Ycr,

.(2.15)

(
27

.(2.16)
In which Tc = transport capacity (kg s-1), Ps = number of particles in transport, = mass density of the fluid (kg m3), Ycr = critical shear stress from the Shields diagram (Pa), V*= (g R S)0.5 = the shear velocity (m s-1), gs = particle specific gravity (kg m-3), S = slope of the energy gradeline, R = hydraulic radius which is assumed to equal the flow depth(m), d = diameter of particle (m), and g = acceleration due to gravity (m s-2).

The Figure Showing Elements (Grid) Classification In ANSWER Model.

28

Chapter 3
EUROPEAN SOIL EROSION MODEL , EUROSEM

3.1- Runoff Model. 3.1.1- Interception storage. 3.1.2- Infiltration. 3.1.3- Surface runoff flow.

3.2- Sediment Model. 3.2.1- Rainfall detachment. 3.2.2- Flow detachment.

29

EUROPEAN SOIL EROSION MODEL:

The European Soil Erosion Model, , EUROSEM, is a soil erosion model was developed by European scientist and based on scientific European research in runoff and soil erosion, which is deals with the erosion and sediment problem in this countries. Chisci and Morgan (1988) as quoted by [Morgan et al. (b) 1998] suppose this model based on European work as other American models. The objective of the model is to identify the erosion problem and select suitable way to prevent it or reduce its effect. The model is estimate the runoff , erosion and sediment load for fields and small catchments for single event. The model composed of a number of sub-model each of them treat a specific process of runoff and sediment which can be described as follows:

3.1- Runoff Model 3.1.1. Rainfall interception:

The rainfall input data for the model is the rain depth for each time step considered, therefore the rainfall intensity and the rainfall

volume is computed by the model based on time step and area respectively. The rainfall divided in to two part, some rain pass through the gaps between the canopy plants and reach the soil surface directly, while the other part is intercept by plant leaf and branches. The percent of each part is depends on plant cover density and it is estimated by the following equation:

.(3.1)

In which:

30

Il: interception rain fall depth by plants, Rd: rainfall depth, COV: plant cover percentage to the total considered land. in European soil erosion model, the rainfall is considered to reach the surface from the rainfall time begin and some of the depth is intercept by plant, which differ from other models that considered the interception

storage depth is filled firstly then the rain will fall on soil surface. The interception storage is estimated based on formula presented by Merriam (1973) in the following form:

) .(3.2)

In which: ICstore: the volume of interception store; IC

max:

maximum volume of interception store which is depends on plant or

vegetation type; Rcum: cumulated rainfall; The depth of rainfall that intercept by canopy and do not stored as interception storage its reach the soil surface as stream flow or leaf drainage, which is a temporarily interception store . An equation presented by van Elewijck (1989a; ,b) which is based on laboratory experiments is considered to estimate the interception stream flow in the following form:

( (
In which:

) For Grass .(3.3) ) For other plants .(3.4)

31

SF: surface flow; TIF: temporarily intercept storage; and PA: average acute angle of the plant stems to the ground surface.

And

the leaf drainage is estimated as the difference between the

temporary intercept storage and the surface flow as:

(3.5)
In which: LD: the leaf drainage. Therefore, the net rainfall that reach the soil surface and represent the infiltration depth and runoff depth is equal to:

..(3.6) ...(3.7)
All the variables are defined previously.

3.1.2-

Infiltration:

The infiltration in EUROSEM is based on infiltration equation presented by (Smith and Parlange, 1978), in the following form:
( ) ( )

..(3.8)

In which: Ic: infiltration rate or infiltration capacity at time t, (cm/min), Ks: saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil, (cm/min), F: water or rain depth observed by the soil, (cm), B: water deficit parameter in the soil, (cm).

32

The value if B can be estimated by the following equation:

(
In which: G: the net capillary drive, (cm),

)(310)

S: saturated water content of the soil,(cm3/cm3), i: initial soil water content,(cm3/cm3). The value of G can be determined by the following equation:

In which:

( )

(3.11)

: the metric potential of the soil, (cm), K(): function of the soil hydraulic conductivity. The values of G, Ks and S is based on soil type and can be detirmined from specific tables. The vegitation cover will effect on infiltration capacity of the soil since in the planting area the percent of organic materials is usually high, also the land tiilage will reduce the apperant gravity of the soil and increased the infiltration capacity. Also the plats reduced the surface flow velocity and increades the infiltration depth. To considering this effects in infiltration equation, the EUROSEM modify the saturated hydraulic conductivy of the planting area as compared with bare area as follows:

..(3.12)

33

In which: Ksveg: saturated hydraulic conductivity of the planting area, (cm/min) Ks: saturated hydraulic conductivity of the bare soil, (cm/min) COV: fraction of the land coverd with plant to the total land , as a partional of total land, usually between 0 and 1.

The soil surface roughness usually effects on the depth of rainfall that stored on the surface before runoff flow started, and then infiltrated to the soil or evaporated. This rughness based on soil type and theeffect of different management and process in planting area such tillage and others. Also the depression on the soil surface is store additional rainfall depth which is called thedepression storage. In EUROSEM the the surface roughness is estimated by the relation depends on the direct or straight or direct distance between two points on the surface to the actual distance measured along the variation of surface profile between the two points. The soil roghness is estimated by the following equation:

.(3.13)
In which: RFR: soil righness, X: the direct distance between the two points, Y: the actual distance along the surface profile between the two points. Then a relation presented by Auerswald (1992) based on regression analysis is considered which is relate the soil roughness with detention (storage) depth (Sd) in the following form:

34

.(3.14)

3.1.3-

Surface runoff flow:

After the rainfall begin and all the storage such as plant interception, depression storage, and the soil infiltration rate is become less than the rainfall intensity, the surface runoff flow start. In EUROSEM, the surface water flow is considered to be turbulent since is usually occur with rain storm with high intensity or depth which disturb the flow. The some other models may consider laminar and turbulent runoff flow. The Mannings equation is applied to estimate the flow velocity for both overland and channel flow. Usually the Mannings roughness coefficient for over land flow is greater than for the channel flow due to the effect of grass , rock fragments , soil surface roughness depending on flow area, which increasing the flow depth and decreasing the velocity. Specific tables for this Mannings coefficient, which is based on different studies is usually used to

estimate its value. Also the sediment concentration will increase the flow velocity, but usually its concentration is less than in channel flow, therefore the tabulated Mannings coefficients can be dependents for estimating flow velocity for both overland and channel flow. The general form of flow equation usually is:

.(3.15)
Comparing considered V: is the flow velocity; : (S)0.5/n the last equation with Mannings equation, we

35

S: hydraulic line energy, n: Mannings roughness coefficients, m: 5/3 The flow rate is equal to:

.(3.16)
In which: Q: flow rate, (L3/t) A: cross section area of flow, (L2), and V: flow velocity, (L/T)

The continuity equation of flow can be written in the following form:

( )
In wchich: t: time;, (T) x: flow distance, (L),

( ) ..(3.17)

r(t): rainfall reach the surface, rainfall minus interception, (L/T) other variables as defined previously. By combining the above flow equation with continuity equation results:

(
In which: R: hydraulic radius, (L), P: wetted perimeters, (L) Other variables are defined previously.
36

) .(3.18)

3.2- Sediment Model. 3.2.1- Rainfall detachment:

In the EUROSEM the rainfall detachment is considered consist of two main parts, the direct rainfall detachment due to rain that reach the soil surface directly which is pass through the space between the plant covers, and the other detachment due to water drain from the plant leaf. The rainfall energy of the first one in estimated by the following presented by Brandt (1989) :

(
In which: (

) .(3.19)

): is the kinetic energy of the direct rainfall (J/m2/mm1),

I: rainfall intensity, (mm/hr). and for the rain drained from the plant leaf, the kinetic energy is estimated by the following experimentally equation developed by Brandt (1990) as quoted by [Morgan et al. (a) 1998] in the following form:

(
In which: (

..(3.20)

): the kinetic energy of the leaf drainage (J/m2/mm1),

PH: height of plant canopy, (m).

The total raindrop energy is considered equal to the summation of both the energy of direct rainfall times the depth of through fall, and the leaf energy times the depth of leaf drainage. This energy is considered to estimate the total weight of soil detachment by raindrop impact based on the following equation:
37

(
In which:

...(3.21)

DR: soil detachment by raindrop impact (g/m2), ki: detachment index of the soil (g/J), depending on soil type and can be obtained from a specific tables, KE: raindrop kinetic energy (J/m2), b: an exponent, depend on soil texture and ranged from 0.9 to 3.1, h: depth of surface water layer, (mm).

for the case of surface consist of erodible and non erodible surface such as rock outcrops, and concrete surfaces, the following formula is applied to estimate the detachment rate:

(
In which:

) (3.22)

DEPpav: allowed detachment rate for non erodible surface, PAVE: proportion of the non erodible surface to erodible, usually between (0-1).

Due to rain drop soil detachment, the sediment concentratiuon at the time on which the soil begin to ponding, i.e the rainfall rate is equal or greater than the soil infiltration rate, then the surface water begin to accumulated on surface and the sediment concentration can be estimated based on the following equation:

38

...(3.23)

In which: Ct: sediment concentration at the time of ponding, Vf: soil particles fall velocity, (m/s). The last equation is also applied to estimate the sediment concentration at the upper part of slopes plane where there is no runoff flow enter it.

3.2.2- Flow detachment.

The soil detachment due to runoff flow is estimated based on the theory presented by smith et al (1995) [ as quoted by Morgan et al. (a) 1998] that considered the transport capacity of runoff flow is reflect the balance equation of continuous process, erosion and deposition. This theory considered that the erosion process is dos not affected by the sediment concentration of the flow, but its depend on flow energy and the shear stress between the water and the bed particles. The soil detachment by flow is estimated by the following equation:

In which, Df: net detachment rate of soil particles, Eq: flow erosion rate, W: width of flow, C: sediment concentration.

..(3.24)

39

The value of Eq is based on and related to deposition at a rate equal to W.C.Vf, which means depending on flow width, sediment concentration, and fall velocity. The rate of flow detachment is usually based on flow transport capacity and sediment concentration, in addition to settling velocity of sediment particles in the following form:

(
In which: Tc: sediment transport capacity.

)..(3.25)

The last equation considered the soil is loose and the rate of detachment based on flow transport capacity and flow sediment concentration. In fact there is a cohesion between the soil particles, therefore the last equation is corrected by a coefficient which is a flow detachment efficiency coefficient ( Rose et al ,1983 and Styczen and Nielsen 1989) [Morgan et al. (a) 1998] has the following form:

)(3.26)

For case deposition, (negative value of flow detachment) the value of is equal to 1, and for cohesive soil the value of is less than 1 and the detachment is positive, when transport capacity is greater than sediment concentration. The cohesion of the soil is represented by J, (kpa) for J less than 1 is considered = 0.335, and for larger values of J, the value of is computed by the following equation

..(3.27)

40

The flow transport capacity in EUROSEM is divided for two case, rill transport capacity and interil transport capacity. For rill transport capacity, Govers (1990) presented the following equation for particles size between 50 to 150 m based on stream power in the following form:

(
In which:

) (3.28) .(3.29)

V: flow velocity, and S: slope. : critical unit stream power, = 0.4cm/sec, c, : exponentially derived coefficients. Based on particles size, which can be estimated from the following equations:

( (

) )

(3.30) (3.31)

the last equations is suitable for grain size d50 from silt to coarse sand, slope between 1 to 12% and discharge between 2 to 100 cm3/cm/s. for interill flow the transport capacity is estimated by the following equation:

((

) .(3.32)

Based on Experimental work of Everaert (1991), who used the modified stream power based on work of Bagnold (1966), the value of can be estimated by the following equation which is suitable for particle size from 33 to 390:

41

(3.33)

the values of n is 5 and b is based on the particle size and estimated by the following equation:

.(3.34)

And the value of c is estimated from the following equation:

( )

..(3.35)

And

..(3.36)

Whrer, yc is the modified shields critical shear velocity, based on particles Reynolds number

The sediment flow rate is considered as a weight per unit volume of flow at that time, and its estimated based on dynamic mass balance equation in the following form:
( ) ( )

)(3.37)

In which, A: cross sectional area of flow, m2, C: sediment concentration, Kg/m3, Q: discharge, m3/s, qs: sediment flow per unit width, kg/s/m, e: net detachment or deposition rate, kg/s/m,
42

x: horizontal distance,m and t: time, sec.

For a hill slope soil erosion, the net erosion (e) is estimated by the following formula:

).(3.38)

When the sediment concentration is greater than transport capacity due to rainfall detachment, the value of e its negative and represent deposition rate.

For the channel erosion, the same procedure for hill slope is adopted, but the main difference in comparison with the hill slope erosion is the neglecting of rainfall detachment which has no effect due to relatively high flow depth and no effect of rain drop on soil surface. The only important factor is flow erosion. The result equation in the following form:

.(3.39)

In which: BW: bottom width of the channel.

43

Chapter 4
LIMBURG SOIL EROSION MODEL, LISEM

4.1-Runoff Model. 4.1.1- Interception storage. 4.1.2- Infiltration. 4.1.3- Surface runoff flow.

4.2- Sediment Model. 4.2.1- Rainfall detachment. 4.2.2- Flow detachment.

44

LIMBURG SOIL EROSION MODEL:

The LImburg Soil Erosion Mo del, LISEM, is built in the Netherlands, Limburg to study the effect of small scale soil conservation on the soil erosion. The model is a physically based model for simulating and estimation of runoff and sediment load from small catchment areas ranging between 10 to 300 ha. The simulation process is begin with the rainfall time and continued with continuation of rainfall and run off, then stopped with the release of the runoff, this mean that the model is suitable for single storm. This model is not a black box as most simulation model, this means that the user can change any parameters effect on simulating process such as infiltration, surface roughness, planting type, etc., and know what he is doing. The LISEM is considered one of the simulation models that are compatible with the Geographical Information System (GIS), Roo et a. (1996). This mean that the model is able read the input data a raster map (such as remote sensed maps) which means more easily and accurately that the other manual method, also the output data is displayed as a raster map and data which is also gives an ability to analysis and evaluate the results, in addition to ability of processes the output with any other software. The main process of the model includes:

4.1- Runoff Model:

The rainfall data which includes the rainfall intensity is required as an input data for this model, which is able the read the data from more than one gauge station reading for one catchment area. This is done by identifying the location of each station on the map, then the effect of each station on the catchment area is considered by the

45

Thiessen polygons method or on a geomorphological analysis. Within the continuation of rainfall, the water is accumulated over the grid cell and its depth is calculated as follows:

( )..(4.1)
In which: h: the water depth above the cell surface, (mm), Rd: the rainfall depth (mm), in that time step, a: slope angle of the cell, which considered have a one direction slope.

4.1.1 Rainfall Interception:

The interception of rainfall by crops or vegetation is estimated by considering the canopy as a small storage. The considered method to estimate the interception depth in LISEM model is the Astons (1979) as quoted by [Keizer,et al ] empirical equation, in the following form:

(
In which:

).(4.2)

Icum: cumulative interception of rainfall in that event, (mm), Cp: vegetation cover factor, Smax: canopy storage capacity, (mm), kr: correction factor for vegetation density, Rcum: cumulative rainfall, (mm).

46

In above equation the values of kr, and Smax , is estimated as follows:

.(4.3)
and

.(4.4)
In which COV: the average leaf area of the fraction of the grid cell under vegetations.

4.1.2- Infiltration:
The infiltration depth can be estimated in LISEM by different methods, which is Holton equation, Green Ampt infiltration equation for one or two soil layers, a finite difference solution of Richard Equation, which is including the vertical soil water movement, in addition to change in soil potential during rainfall storm, and Subtraction of Ksat. The choosing of suitable formula or sub-model is based on available input data. The input data for this sub-model are maps of soil properties which affect the infiltration process, such as map of initial soil water content, porosity, and saturated hydraulic conductivity. a- The first infiltration is sub-model I based on soil water movement by Richard equation with Darcy equation and the continuity equation.

( )*
In which:

+(4.5)

K: saturated hydraulic conductivity,(m/s)

47

h: the pressure potential (water depth), (m), : volumetric water content, (m3/m3), z: gravitational potential due to gravity, or height above datum, (m), t: time (sec). by appliing the soil water capacity C(h)= d/dh, in above equation we obtain:

( )

( )*

+..(4.6)

The values of soil water retension curve RC(h), can be estimated, and the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity can be estimated from available method to appliy in above equation.

b- Halton method: This method is based on empirical measurments without need to knowing the detailes physical data of the soil properties. This submodel can estimate the soil infiltration capacity through the time of low rainfall depth or zero. The main facors considered in this equation is the accumulative infiltration depth, and initial water content, which is the main factors affecting the instantious infiltration capacity of the soil. The form of the equation as follows:

) ..(4.7)

In which Ic: infiltration rate (mm/hr), Ib: constant infiltration rate at steady state, (mm/hr),
48

Im: maximum possible increase in infiltration rate over the steady state, Ib, (mm/hr), St: storage potential of the soil above the impending strata, (mm),: total porosity(TP) minus the intecedent soil water (ASM),

(
TP: total porosity, (% volume),

EfDF: effective depth of the impending strata, (mm), ASM: antecedent soil moisture, (% saturated), CDR: cumulative drainage, (mm), Cf: cumulative infiltration, (mm), Pr: dimensionless coefficient relating the rate of decrease in infiltration with the rate of increase in water content.

The drainage is considered to occur when the soil water exceed the field capacity, and the drainage rate is estimated based on the following equation:

(
In which:

)..(4.9)

dr: percolation or drainage rate (mm/hr), Fc: field capacity, (% saturation).

The main advantage of

Holtan infiltration equation is based on

accumulative infiltration rate rather the time is estimating infiltration rate. This gives undifficulty in estimating the infiltration rate of the soil in compare with other infiltration models, even when the available infiltration water is less than soil infiltration capacity within the storm.
49

The disadvantage or the difficulty in Holtan equation is the value of control zone depth (DF), which considered the first impending layer is considered as the control zone depth. If the impending layer is not clear, (Beasly and Huggings, 1982) suggested a value equal to 0.250.75 of the A-horizon is considered, Skaggs et al (1969) as qouted by [Jetten, 2002] control zone depth: suggest the following equation to eatimate the

(4.10)

In which: Fsat: cumulative infiltration at saturated, (mm), All other variables asdefined previously.

c- Green-Ampt infiltration equation: The Green Ampt infiltration equation is based on Darcy equation in wetted zone for the one dimensional flow. The equation having the following form:

(
and

)(4.11)

(
In which:

(4.12)

Ic: infiltration rate (mm/s), Cf: accumulated infiltration over the time, (m),
50

k: hydraulic conductivity in the wetted zone, (m/s), it is not necessary the saturated hydraulic conductivity. t: time from the start of infiltration, (s), : potential head parameter, (m), According to Fok and Hansen (1966), the value of the following equation: is estimated by

)(

)..(4.13)

hc: average capillary suction head at the wetting front ho: ponded head water level at the surface, w: water content of the wetting zone, i: antecedent moisture contents. The above parameters can be changed to dimensionless form as follows:

(4.14)
These parameters are applied in infiltration equation, which can be written as follows:

.(4.15)
Also

.(4.16)

51

By replacing the logarithmic term with a power series and dropping, the resulting function can be solved and have the following positive root:

) ].(4.17)

Then the last equation can be rewritten in dimensional form as follows:

* (

)+

(4.18)
This is the last form of Grren-Ampt infiltration equation applied in LISEM model, if the result is negative its mean no meaning. The saturated hydraulic conductivity and initial moisture contents are the most important and sensitive factors in this equation.

d- Subtraction of Saturated hydraulic conductivity: In this model a constant value which is equal to saturated hydraulic conductivity is subtract from the rainfall which represent the constant infiltration rate. This is quick and easy estimation of infiltration rate and infiltration depth but its not accurate.

In LISEM model the micro depression storage not considered as a threshold value such as other method for estimating the depression storage. Therefore the runoff may begin before some grid reach the considered threshold values. The set of equation presented by Onstad (1984) and Linden et al (1988) as quoted by [Jetten, V 2002] is considered to estimate the depression storage as follows:

52

.(4.19)
In which: RETMAX: maximum depression storage (cm), RR: standard deviation of surface height (cm), S: terrain slope, (%). The required rainfall depth to fill all depressions is estimated by the following equation:

.(4.20)
In describing the depression storage Moor and Larson (1979) as quoted by [Jetten, V 2002] divide the process in to three stages, which is i- Microrelief storage in which no runoff, ii- Additional micro-relief storage accompanied with runoff, and iii- Runoff only with micro-relief storage. In the first stage all the excess runoff becomes in depression storage, and the value of this storage can be estimated by the following equation:

.(4.21)
In the second stage i.e., from RETSTART to RETMAX both additional depression storage and runoff occur, then after RETMAX the depression storage is filled and all the excess rainfall become runoff.

53

4.1.3- Surface runoff flow:

The flow velocity is calculated based on Manning formula in the following form:

..(4.22)
In which: V: flow velocity, (m/s), R: hydraulic radius, which considered equal flow depth for overland flow, (m), S: surface slope (fraction), n: Manning roughness coefficient, (dimensionless). The discharge is calculated by the following equation presented by Chow(1988) as follows:

(4.23)
In which

((

) .................(4.24)

b: equal to 0.6, and A wet cross section (m2) The four point finite difference method presented by (Chow 1988) is

applied to estimate the flow depth based on Kinematic wave equation and Manning formula for the both of overland flow and channel flow.

4.2- Sediment Model.

The erosion process in LISEM model is considered consist of two parts, rainfall erosion due to rain drop detachment and runoff erosion due to runoff flow. Therefore the total load is based on transport

54

capacity which is reflecting the erosion or deposition process as follows:

(4.25)
In which: Er: amount of suspended sediment, DR: detachment of sediment by raindrop splach, Df: detachment of sediment by runoff flow, and Dp: deposition of sediments.

4.2.1- Rainfall detachment

The rainfall detachment is usually depends on rainfall kinetic energy, soil properties, and water depth above soil surface.

(
In which;

(4.26)

DR: soil detachment y rainfall splash, (g/s), As: aggrigate stability, (median number of drops to decrease the aggregate by 50%), Ke: rainfall kinetic energy, (J/m2), h: surface water layer depth, (mm), RP: rainfall depth under the plant canopy in that time step, (mm), A: surface area on which splash (rainfall) take place, (m2). The kinetic energy of the rainfall is estimated by the following equation: ( ) And the kinetic energy of the plant canopy throghfall is estimated by the following equation:

55


In which: I: rainfall intensity, (mm/hr), and hp: height of the plant, (m).

(4.27)

4.2.2-Flow detachment or deposition:

In the LISEM model the rate of deposition is considered depending on cell width, sediment concentration, and fall velocity. The applied equation is ion the following form:

..(4.28)
In which: Dp: deposition rate, W: width of flow, (m), C: sediment concentration, (kg/m3), Vf: setteling velocity of the particles, (m/s). In sediment concentration at transport capacity, represent the flow at which the rate of detachment is equal to the rate of deposition and the both process are in balance, this means that the net erosion is zero. Based on this logic the equation of soil detachment or deposition can be expressed as follows:

(
In which;

(4.29)

56

Df.p: is the rate of flow detachment or deposition, (kg/s), Tc: transport capacity of the flow, (kg/m3), Y: dimensionless efficiency factor, which based on cohesion of soil, When sediment concentration is greater than transport capacity, then deposition take place and value of Y considered 1, while its computed by the following equation in case of sediment

concentration is less than transport capacity and erosion process is occur:

(
In which: Umin: minimum critical shear velocity, (cm/s), Uc: critical shear velocity, (cm/s). Coh: cohesion of the wet soil (kpa).

)(4.30)

The flow transport capacity is estimated based on the following equation:

(
In which:

) (4.31)

Tc: volumetric flow transport capacity, (kg/m3), : material density, (2650 kg/m3), : stream power (equal to flow velocity* energy slope),(m/s) cr: critical stream power, around 0.4(m/s), for wide range of soil material, c, and d: exponential coefficients depending on median texture (D50) of the material. Therefore the above equation becomes in the following form:
57

(4.32)

in above equation the values of c, and d can be calculated by the following equations:

*
And

..(4.33)

..(4.34)

In this model the detachment and deposition rate are check to be logically, that in case of deposition, the deposition rate must not exceeds the sediment load in flow, and in cased of detachment, the detachment rare is checked to not exceed the flow transport capacity.

58

Chapter 5
WATER EROSION PREDICTION PROJECT MODEL (WEPP)
5.1-Runoff Model. 5.1.1- Interception storage. 5.1.2- Infiltration. 5.1.3- Surface runoff flow.

5.2- Sediment Model. 5.2.1- Rainfall detachment. 5.2.2- Flow detachment.

59

WATER (WEPP):

EROSION

PREDICTION

PROJECT

MODEL,

Water Erosion Prediction Project Model (WEPP) is a physically based continuous simulation model presented by (Flanagan and Nearing, 1995) as quoted by [Srivastava, A , 2010] for estimation of soil erosion based on essential data affect on the soil erosion, sediment transport, and deposition, which is weather or climate data, soil physics infiltration, hydrology, flow and properties,

hydraulic, plant cover, watershed

topography, and mechanism of erosion. This means its need a specific details data for different factors affecting on the runoff and sediment mechanism. The climate data includes 1- Snow accumulation and density, snow quantity and melt. Also the routine predict the precipitation is rain or snow based on climate data. The snow melt quantity is also estimated within the time. 2- Daily precipitation depth or if its available more details such as intensity and duration. 3- The daily minimum and maximum air temperature.

The estimation of erosion and sediment load is depending on rainfall properties and runoff. Based on rainfall data and soil properties, the infiltration rate and depth is estimated in order to identify the water depth entering the soil which is necessary for water balance equation and estimation evapotranspiration and plant growth, while the remaining depth on the surface represent the runoff depth after

subtracting the depression storage.

60

5.1- Runoff Model.

The model including a contious water balance equation of precipitation, evaporation from soil, transpiration from plants, seepage. The water balance equation is in the following form:

(
In which:

) .(5.1)

: the soil water content in the root zone in any given day (m), i: the initial soil water in the root zone (m), Rcum: the cumulative precipitation (m), Il: precipitation interception by vegetation (m), Sn: the snow water content (m) ( (+) for snowmelt and it equals daily snowmelt, (-) snow accumulation , RQ: the cumulative amount of surface runoff (m), ET: the cumulative amount of evapotranspiration (m), D: the cumulative amount of percolation loss below the root zone (m), SQ: subsurface lateral flow or flow to drain tiles (m).

5.1.1- Interception storage.

Before precipitation reaches the soil surface a specific amount is holding by plants, which is called interception storage. This storage is estimated using the method described by Savabi and Stott (1994) in the following form.

(
In which; Ip: precipitation interception by vegetation (m) VE: above ground biomass in kg.m2
61

)(

5.1.2- Infiltration.
In WEPP the infiltration rate is estimated based on Green-Ampt infiltration equation:

.(5.3)

In which: the subscripts i and i 1 refer to the current and previous time intervals respectively, = cumulative infiltration depth (m), and t = time (s). the pounding occur at a that time when rainfall intensity is greater than the infiltration rate,

The values of the indicator

Cu (m), that determines if ponding occurs

within a given interval of rainfall intensity estimated by Chu (1978) as quoted by (Srivastava, 2010), in the following form:

(
In which Rcum: the cumulative rainfall depth (m), V : the cumulative rainfall excess depth (m),

).(5.4)

Ke: effective saturated hydraulic conductivity (m.s 1), : average capillary potential (m),

62

d : soil moisture deficit(m.m1), and I: the rainfall rate (m.s 1). The value of d is computed by:

in which: e : effective porosity (m.m1) and

(5.5)

v : initial volumetric water content (m.m1). therefore the rainfall excess can be estimated by:

(5.6)

In which, Vi , Rcum,i , and Icum,i as defined previously. The time to ponding, tp (s), is computed as:

(5.7)

The cumulative infiltration depth is computed after ponding time using:

+.(5.8)

After knowing the interception and the infiltration depth, the excess rainfall is known but this not represents the runoff depth. An additional depth must be estimated which is the depression storage depth. The value of this depth depends on soil surface roughness and features, which is also affected by soil mechanical process such as tillage. The maximum

63

depression storage in this model is estimated based on the method developed by Onstad (1984) as quoted by (Natural Resource

Conservation Service, 1995) in the following form:

(
In which DS: maximum depression storage (cm), Rr: random roughness (cm), and Sp: average slope steepness (%).

In the hill slope, the depression storage is less than the flat or low slope surfaces, therefore the runoff on a hill slope begin before the maximum storage is attained. The hill slope depression storage PR is estimate by the following equation:

...(5.11)
5.1.3- Surface runoff flow:
The main input data affect on sediment detachment, transport and deposition in addition to rainfall and runoff is the soil properties. The soil properties which is affecting on infiltration and erosion process is; a) random roughness, b) ridge height, c) bulk density, and d) effective hydraulic conductivity. Random roughness is usually associated with tillage process and plant cover. While ridge height depends on soil arrange in tillage process and oriented roughness. Random roughness is estimated

64

in WEPP based on measured averages for an implement, similar to form presented by (Williams et al., 1984), as follows:

.(5.12)
In which: RRi : the random roughness immediately after tillage (m), RRo : the random roughness created by a tillage implement, RRt 1 : the random roughness of the soil surface on the day previous to the tillageoperation, and Tds : the fraction of the soil surface disturbed by the tillage implement. After time of the tillage the random roughness is estimated by the following equation which is predicted from a modified equation of Potter (1990) as quoted by (Natural Resource Conservation Service, 1995) in the following form:

..(5.13)

In which; RRt : the random roughness at time t (m), Cbr : the adjustment factor for buried residue, Rcum : the cumulative rainfall since tillage (m), and b : a coefficient the value of Cbr is estimated by the following equation:

(
In which:

65

br : the mass of the buried residue in the 0-to 0.15-meter soil zone (kg.m2).

also the ridge height is estimated by the following equation:

.(5.15)

In which: RHt is the ridge height (m) at time t, RHo is the ridge height immediately after tillage (m), and Cbr, Rc, and b are as defined previously. The flow characteristic is described by the Darcy-Weisbach equation in the following form:

..(5.16)
in which: f,: Darcy-Weisbach friction coefficient, g : acceleration due to gravity (m.s 2), R : hydraulic radius (m), S : average slope, and V : flow velocity (m.s 1).

66

5.2- Sediment Model

The main equation in this sub-model is the continuity equation for the sediment, detachment, deposition, shear stress and transport capacity. The sediment continuity equation that described the sediment flow in the rill is in following form:

.(5.17)
in which x: represents distance downslope (m), G : sediment load (kg.s 1.m1), Di : interrill sediment delivery to the rill (kg.s 1.m2), and Df : rill erosion rate (kg.s 1.m2). Df is usually positive for erosion and negative for deposition. This value is the process of sediment delivery to concentrated channel flow or rill. The detachment process is happen when the flow shear stress is greater than critical shear stress and the sediment concentration is less than the transport capacity.

5.2.1- Rainfall detachment.

The rill (rainfall) detachment is estimated based on the following equation:

(
In which

) .(5.18)

Dc: detachment capacity by rill flow (kg.s 1.m2), and Tc: sediment transport capacity in the rill (kg.s 1.m1).

67

The detachment capacity of the flow is considered when the flow shear stress is exceed the critical shear stress of the soil, and detachment capacity is estimated by the following equation:

(
In which

) (5.19)

Dc: is the detachment capacity by rill flow (kg.s 1.m2), Kr : a rill erodibility parameter (s.m1),
f

is flow shear stress acting on the soil particles (Pa), and is the rill detachment threshold parameter, or critical shear stress, of the

soil (Pa). for the above equation, when the shear stress is less than the critical shear stress, then the detachment rate is considered to be zero.

5.2.2- Flow detachment.

When the sediment concentration is greater than the transport capacity, then deposition process is occurred and can be estimated by the following equation:

(
In which

)..(5.20)

Vf : is effective fall velocity for the sediment (m.s 1), q : flow discharge per unit width (m2.s 1), and r : a raindrop-induced turbulence coefficient.

68

In this model the values of , is considered to be 0.5 for rain drop impacting , and a value of equal to 1.0 is considered for snow melt.

CONCLUSION:
The surface water flow through the catchment area due to rainfall, and also the river flow usually carrying sediment load, resulting from rainfall and flow detachments. The amount of sediments depends on soil type, topography, and plant cover, in addition to rainfall and flow properties such as rainfall intensity, flow rate, flow velocity and depth. The soil detached from a specific location is transport by the water flowing and then may deposits in another location when the flow capacity to carrying this load is reduced with reducing flow velocity, rate and energy slope. The erosion of soil surface and deposition process are both produce a different problems, such as loss of surface soil due to erosion which is usually suitable for plant growth and may effect of agriculture product especially when the depth of upper surface soil is limited. Also the deposition in the rivers and channels effect of the flow regime such as consisting of island in rivers and producing of design capacity of the channel. In addition to the different problem in hydraulic structures such as, the dams structures and the life of the reservoirs. To reduce this problems, the estimation of sediment load, (erosion and deposition) are necessary. The field measurement are the most efficient way for that estimation, but in case of seasonal river without gauging station, the mathematical models are usually applied to this purpose, especially in the middle east where the gauging station on such rivers are very limited. The available models to estimate the sediment load are usually divided in two main types, models based on laboratory or field experiments, and
69

models based on physical relation and formulas, the models basen on field experiments are the Universal soil loss equation, USLE, Modified Universal Soil loss equation, MUSLE and Revised universal soil loss equation, RUSLE, while the other models such as ANSWER, UOROSEM, LIsem, and WEPP. The both types of the models can applied for a specific

location but usually required an evaluation by comparing the expected output with a measured values to select the most suitable one for that location. Also the models can be classified as a single events model such as, MUSLE, ANSWER, UOROSEM, LIsem, or continues simulation

models such as WEPP. The first one estimate the runoff and sediment load for each rain storm individually and therefore required a data such as (soil properties and rainfall intensity) in addition to land topography. While the continuous simulation model that simulate the rainfall, flow rate, sediment load evaporation, and transpiration, along the time, therefore its required more input data to simulate the different outputs. Generally, the continuous simulation model is the more efficient in estimating the runoff and sediment load, in which the input data includes the soil properties, such as classification, water content, land use and land cover, the weather data including the daily temperature, wind, sunshine, humidity, and rainfall, in addition to the surface topography which represent the most of parameters that effect on runoff and sediment simulation. The USLE, MUSLE, and RUSLE is usually applied to estimate the average annual sediment load. Now after applying the Geographical Information System, GIS, some of these models are prepared to be compatible with this system such as ( ANSWER, LISEM, and WEPP ). This models is considered the most efficient models that have the ability of reading the input data as a digital data, in which the surface topography data inputs as a digital elevation model DEM by dividing the studding area in to equal size grids of
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dimension between 250 to 30m or less depending on available data. for each grid the average elevation is considered the elevation of that grid, also the different soil properties, land use and land cover can be feed to the model as a digital data. Also in the GIS model the input data can be prepared by a digital maps and read by the computer directly which is help in describing the different site properties more efficiently. The table below, showing the comparison of basic concept and different components of the considered models.

Table showing the different components of considered sediment models.

Characteristic USLE MUSLE Average Simulation Average annual Annual or single storm Holton Infiltration Eq. ------Holton Smith and Parlange equation, Green Ampt and Richard Manning Runoff flow Eq. ------and continuity eq. Erosion Eq. Empirical Empirical Empirical Physically based Manning and continuity eq. Physically based Stream Transport capacity Eq. Modified Yalin power theory and modified theory Stream power theory Shear stress theory Manning and continuity eq. Physically based Physically based DarcyWeisbach eq. Green Ampt Average annual Single storm Single storm Single storm Continues RUSLE ANSWERS EUROSEM LISEM WEEP

---

---

---

The selection of suitable model based on the purpose of runoff and sediment estimation, this means that for the case of average annual values

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is required to satisfy the purpose of study, then the USLE, MUSLE, or RUSLE are suitable and can considered which easy to apply and required a limited input data. In case of the runoff volume and sediment load

estimation is required for each storm individually such as to evaluate the effect of some parameters related to rainfall properties or soil properties, land use, land cover, etc.. , the ANSWER, or EUROSEM is suitable for this purpose. While a continuous simulation models (such as WEPP) are required for both runoff and sediment load estimation, in some case of studies such as design of different hydraulic structures such as reservoirs, canals, barrages, ..etc. which is required a long time of simulation to estimate the sediment load distribution with the time and its total amount,

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18- Morgan , R. P. C., Quinton J. N., Smith R. E., Govers G. 3, Poesen J. W. A.3, Auerswald K.4, Chisci G., Torri , D. And Styczen , M. E., and folly, A. J.V.,(b) 1998, The European Soil Erosion Model (EUROSEM): documentation and user guide, Silsoe College, Cranfield University, United Kingdom, P 124. 19- Natural Resource Conservation Service, Forest Service, Bureau Of Land Management, And National Soil Erosion Research Laboratory , USDA-ARS-MWA Water Erosion Prediction Project, WEPP, 1995, Agricultural Research Service, , Technical Documentation, pp 284. 20- Roo, A. P. J. Wesseling C. G., Jetten V. G., Ritsema C. J., 1996, Lisem: A Physically-Based Hydrological And Soil Erosion Model Incorporated In A Gis, (Proceedings Of The Vienna Conference,). IAHSs Publ. No. 235. Pp.395-403. 21- Silvio, G., D., and Basson. D., 2008, Erosion and sediment dynamics from catchment to coast, International Hydrological Programme (IHP) of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), P, 54. 22- Srivastava, A., Application And Evaluation Of WEPP In A Forested Watershed With Perennial Streams,2010, M.Sc. Thesis, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama., pp. 162. 23- Toy, T. J., Foster, G.,R., and Galetovic, J. R., 1998, Guidelines for theUse of the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) Technology Transfer Western Regional Coordinating Center, and surface mining Offices. 148P.

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