Joint European MSc Degree

Marine Environment and Resources

Joint European PhD Degree
QUALITY
AWARD
MICINN 2008-2012
Ref MO2006-00744

VA3TER TlE3l3 PR0JECT
STUDY OF THE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN
FISHERMEN AND DUGONGS () IN
THE NOSY HARA MARINE PARK, MADAGASCAR
carr|ed out |n partnersh|p w|th 6ommun|ty 6entred 6onservat|on (63} Hadagascar
E|od|e 6|a|re Har|e 6amprasse
6ommun|ty 6entred 6onservat|on
Le|oa, 8eptember 2010
1
Joint European MSc Degree
Marine Environment and Resources
Joint European PhD Degree
QUALITY
AWARD
MICINN 2008-2012
Ref MO2006-00744

0r lorar Var|rez
as leac||r slall ol l|e VER Vasler ol l|e ur|vers|ly ol 8||oao
CERTlFlE3:
T|al l|e researc| Wor| erl|l|ed: 8tudy of the |nteract|ons between f|shermen
and dugongs (} |n the Nosy hara Har|ne Park, Hadagascar
|as oeer carr|ed oul oy E|od|e Carprasse
|r Vadaascar (Corrur|ly Cerlred Corserval|or)
urder l|e superv|s|or ol Cal|er|re 3|rl|e|d
|r order lo ac||eve 30 ECT3 as a parl ol l|e VER Vasler prorar.
lr 8||oao, 3epleroer 1
l|
2010
3|red: Tulor: Cal|er|re 3|rl|e|d 3uperv|sor: lorar Var|rez
2
1ABLE OF COA1EA1S
Page
Executive summary ............................................................................................................................... p. 6
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................................. p. 8
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. p. 9
2. METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................. p. 15
1/ Study site ............................................................................................................................................ p. 15
2/ Bycatch and dugong questionnaires .................................................................................................. p. 17
3/ Fishing ground mapping .................................................................................................................... p. 19
a/ Pilot study .......................................................................................................................................... p. 19
b/ During the Ampasindava Iield trip .................................................................................................... p. 20
c/ During the Vahilava Iield trip .............................................................................................................. p.21
4/ Net Iishing ground questionnaires ..................................................................................................... p. 23
5/ Data analysis ....................................................................................................................................... p.23
3. RESULTS ................................................................................................................................ p. 25
1/ Bycatch questionnaires ................................................................................................................... p. 25
2/ Dugong questionnaires ...................................................................................................................... p. 27
3/ Net Iishing ground questionnaires ..................................................................................................... p. 38
4/ GIS analysis ....................................................................................................................................... p. 39
4. DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................................... p. 42
5. CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................................................... p. 58
ReIerences .............................................................................................................................................. p. 59
3
List of figures
Figure 1: drawings oI several views oI a dugong and its skeleton (Irom Husar, 1978, aIter Kingdon,
1971) ................................................................................................................................................... p. 10
Figure 2: photographs oI dugongs (photographs Pierre Larue, Irom Mry et al., 2009) ................... p.10
Figure 3: known distribution oI dugongs (Irom Marsh and LeIebvre, 1994) ...................................... p.11
Figure 4 : map oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park and its zonation (courtesy oI Mr Jaomanana) .............. p. 18
Figure 5: sites visited in the Nosy Hara Marine Park Ior the study oI the interactions between dugongs
and Iishers in the marine park (source: GoogleEarth) ......................................................................... p.19
Figure 6: occupation oI the Iishermen interviewed in the Nosy Hara Marine Park ........................... p. 25
Figure 7: repartition oI the types oI gear used by Iishermen in the Nosy Hara Marine Park ................ p. 26
Figure 8: Irequency oI Iishing trips given by the inIormants interviewed in the Nosy Hara Marine
Park ........................................................................................................................................................ p. 27
Figure 9: percentage oI inIormants interviewed in the Nosy Hara Marine Park Ior each age category
.............................................................................................................................................................. p. 28
Figure 10: past and present dugong observations by the inIormants oI the Nosy Hara Marine
Park ........................................................................................................................................................ p. 28
Figure 11: types oI habitats where live dugongs were observed within the Nosy Hara Marine
Park ........................................................................................................................................................ p. 29
Figure 12: temporal variation in live and dead dugong observations within the Nosy Hara Marine Park
Irom 1970 to 2009 .................................................................................................................................. p. 30
Figure 13: causes oI death when dead dugong observations took place within the Nosy Hara Marine
Park ........................................................................................................................................................ p. 30
Figure 14: activity oI the respondents at time oI dugong observations in the Nosy Hara Marine
Park ........................................................................................................................................................ p. 31
Figure 15: decades where Iemale/calI pairs where observed in the Nosy Hara Marine Park ............ p. 31
Figure 16: locations where Iemale dugongs have been observed with their calI within the Nosy Hara
Marine Park ............................................................................................................................................ p. 32
Figure 17: number oI inIormants who have captured dugongs in each village visited in the Nosy Hara
Marine Park ............................................................................................................................................ p. 33
Figure 18: Irequency oI dugong captures in the Nosy Hara Marine Park .......................................... p. 33
Figure 19: Iate oI dugongs captured by the inIormants oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park ..................... p. 34
Figure 20: perceived changes in the number oI dugongs in the Nosy Hara Marine Park ..................... p. 35
Figure 21: decade oI perceived changes in the number oI dugongs in the Nosy Hara Marine Park ..... p. 36
Figure 22: reasons explaining the increase or decrease in the number oI dugongs according to the
inIormants oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park .......................................................................................... p. 37
4
Figure 23: decade in which interviewees oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park have consumed dugong
meat ........................................................................................................................................................ p. 37
Figure 24: map oI the net Iishing grounds oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park and their relative risk Ior
dugong, in relation to live dugong sightings Irom 1970 to 2009 ........................................................ p. 41
List of tables
Table 1: sites where live dugongs were observed within the Nosy Hara Marine Park between 1970 and
2009 and number oI observations per site ............................................................................................. p. 29
Table 2: number oI dugong hunters in each village oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park according to the Iishers
oI each location ................................................................................................................................... p. 34
Table 3: Iactors taken into account Ior the analysis oI relative risk Ior dugongs that each Iishing ground
represents ............................................................................................................................................ p. 40
List of appendices
Appendix 1: bycatch questionnaire ........................................................................................................ p. 68
Appendix 2: dugong questionnaire ........................................................................................................ p. 77
Appendix 3: net Iishing ground questionnaire .................................................................................... p. 80
List of abbreviations
AHP: Analytical Hierarchical Process
ANGAP: Association Nationale pour la Gestion des Aires Protges
AMB: Ambalavy
ANT: Antsako
AMP: Ampasindava
BAO: Baoboloka
BP: British Petroleum
C3: Community Centred Conservation
CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species oI Wild Fauna and Flora
CNRO: Centre National de la Recherche Ocanographique
COSAP: Comit d'Orientation et de Soutien a l'Aire Protge
EAME: Eastern AIrican Marine Ecoregion
GIS: Geographic InIormation System
GPS: Global Positioning System
HP: Horsepower
IRO: Irohona
5
IUCN: International Union Ior Conservation oI Nature
LEK: Local Ecological Knowledge
MD: missing data
MER: Marine Environment and Resources
MNP: Madagascar National Parks
NA: not answered
NR: not relevant
ONE: OIIice National de l'Environnement
TEK: Traditional Ecological Knowledge
WWF: World WildliIe Fund
Executive summary
(1) Dugongs (Dugong augon) are endangered marine mammals oI the Indo-PaciIic Region.
DiIIerent threats Ior dugong populations have been recognised worldwide, and include:
accidental drowning in gillnets, habitat degradation, human disturbance, chemical pollution, and
hunting. In Iact, bycatch seems to be the major threat worlwide Ior dugongs.
(2) The Nosy Hara Marine Park, an area oI high biodiversity, is situated on the Northwest Coast oI
Madagascar. It has been shown to provide suitable habitat Ior dugongs, especially due to the
presence oI healthy seagrass beds. The assessment oI dugong populations in this region has
never been carried out and several oI the threats mentionned above are present in the park. This
study was designed to understand the interactions between Iishermen and dugongs in the marine
protected area.
(3) Local knowledge is nowadays more widely used to obtain inIormation on species' status and
resource use, especially in remote areas, such as in this study. The use oI interview-based
surveys have proven especially useIul in obtaining inIormation about endangered species in
locations where artisanal Iisheries dominate. Fishermen interviews were thus carried out in the
Nosy Hara Marine Park to understand the interactions between Iishermen and dugongs.
(4) In addition to the interviews, net Iishing grounds were mapped to evaluate locations where
dugongs were at risk, especially oI bycatch but also human disturbance. More inIormation about
each Iishing zone was obtained by net Iishermen interviews, in order to analyse the relative risk
represented by each Iishing ground.
(5) Interviews conIirmed that the Nosy Hara Marine Park provides suitable habitats Ior dugongs that
are still observed in the park. The number oI dugong observations indicates that the population is
increasing, but this result is probably biased due to the age distribution oI the interviewees.
Places oI dugong observations were emphasized and regarded as hot spots Ior the species.
Although not a lot oI dugong hunters remain in the area, it seems like direct capture still occurs.
(6) There appeared to be overlaps between dugong hot spots and the zones used by net
6
Iishermen, which puts dugongs at risk in some parts oI the park. Awareness-raising needs have
been emphasized as some people have a limited awareness about dugong endangered and
protected status. Moreover, research in the park and on a global scale is needed to have a more
complete understanding oI the processes inIluencing dugong population declines and dugong
status.
Rsum
(1) Les dugongs (Dugong augon) sont des mammiIeres marins en voie de disparition de la rgion
Indo-PaciIique. DiIIerentes menaces pour les dugongs ont t mises en vidence a travers le
monde, telles que: la noyage accidentelle dans les Iilets, la dgradation de l'habitat, les
perturbations anthropogniques, la pollution chimique, et la chasse. En Iait, les prises
accidentelles semblent reprsenter une menace majeure pour les dugongs a travers le monde.
(2) Le Parc Marin de Nosy Hara, zone a biodiversit leve, est situ sur la cte Nord-ouest de
Madagascar. Des habitats de qualit pour les dugongs s'y trouvent, et spcialement des zones
d'herbiers saines. L'tat des populations de dugongs dans la rgion n'a jamais t value et
plusieurs des menaces dja mentionnes y sont prsentes. Cette tude a t conue pour
comprendre les intractions entre les pcheurs et les dugongs dans l'aire marine protge.
(3) Les connaissances des usagers locaux sont a prsent plus largement utilises pour obtenir des
inIormations sur le statut des especes et l'utilisation des ressources, en particulier dans les zones
isoles, comme c'est le cas ici. L'utilisation d'enqutes s'est rvle utile pour obtenir des
inIormations sur les especes menaces dans des endroits ou dominent des pcheries artisanales.
Des enqutes aupres des pcheurs ont t ralises dans le Parc Marin de Nosy Hara pour
comprendre les intractions entre les pcheurs et les dugongs.
(4) En plus de ces enqutes, les zones de pche au Iilet ont t cartographies pour valuer les zones
dans lesquelles les dugongs sont exposs a un risque, surtout de prise accidentelle mais aussi de
perturbations d'origine anthropique. Plus d'inIormations ont t obtenues en enqutant aupres des
pcheurs au Iilet pour analyser le risque relatiI li a chaque zone.
(5) Les enqutes ont conIirm que le Parc Marin de Nosy Hara Iournit des habitats adquats pour les
dugongs, qui sont toujours observs dans le parc. Le nombre d'observations de dugongs parat
tre en augmentation, mais ce rsultat est probablement li a la distribution des catgories d'ge
des inIormateurs. Les endroits ou les dugongs ont t observs ont t mises en valeur en tant
que hot spots pour l'espece. Bien qu'il ne reste plus beaucoup de chasseurs de dugongs, il
semble que des captures intentionnelles ont toujours lieu.
(6) Il y a un chevauchement entre ces hot spots et les zones utilises par les pcheurs au Iilet, ce
qui menace les dugongs dans certaines parties du parc. Un besoin d'ducation du public a t mis
en valeur car certaines personnes possedent une conscience limite du status de protection et des
menaces qui pesent sur les dugongs. Finalement, plus de recherche dans le parc et a une chelle
7
plus globale est ncessaire pour obtenir une comprhension plus large des procds qui
inIluencent le dclin des populations de dugongs et le statut de cet animal.
Acknowledgements
C3 Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands Programme is a collaborative initiative between
Community Centred Conservation (C3), a non-proIit company registered in England no. 5606924 and
local partner organizations. This report is the culmination oI the advice, cooperation, laborious work and
expertise oI many people. In particular, acknowledgments are due to the Iollowing Ior their contributions:
COMMUNITY CENTRED CONSERVATION (C3)
Patricia ZR Davis, Director
Chris Poonian, International Programme Manager
Dr. Catherine SinIield, Research Manager
C3 MADAGASCAR AND INDIAN OCEAN ISLANDS PROGRAMME
Paul Ivory, Programme Coordinator
Maryse Sahondra Parent, Programme OIIicer
Ismael Leandre, Programme Assistant
Sthelastine Rasoanirina, Programme Assistant
UNIVERSITY OF ANTSIRANANA
Dr Riziky Hiviel and Dr Abdel Cader, Faculty oI Science
CENTRE NATIONAL DE LA RECHERCHE OCEANOGRAPHIQUE (CNRO)
Dr JP Toussaint and Gisele Bakary
MADAGASCAR NATIONAL PARKS (MNP)
Dr. Joamanana, Director
MINISTRY FOR FURTHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Dr. Jean Maharavo, Director
SERVICE POUR LA PCHE MARITIME DE LA REGION DE DIANA
Philigence Rajesiarinanana
Michelle Cuzner-Charles (C3 Intern) assisted with GIS.
8
We are also indebted to the communities who so kindly hosted us and allowed permission Ior our team to
stay with them and to conduct this research. This study would not have been possible without the
cooperation and patience oI the Iishermen, in particular key inIormants, who lent their precious time to
answer our questions.
Funding was provided through the British Petroleum (BP) Conservation Leadership Programme.
Special thanks to the Marine Environment and Resources (MER) institution and its coordinators who
were present and contributed their time to help during all the stages oI this masters programme, and
especially during this internship: Ionan Marigomez, Thierrey Correge and Dbora Iglesias-Rodriguez.
The teaching staII oI all three universities provided helpIul advice. Lastly, the assistance with data
collection, report writing, and the review oI this thesis are also much appreciated.
1. INTRODUCTION
Dugongs, Dugong augon (Mller, 1776) belong to the order Sirenia (Husar, 1978). This order
includes Iour species: the West AIrican manatee (Trichechus senegalensis), the West Indian manatee
(Trichechus manatus), the Amazonian manatee (Trichechus inunguis) and the dugong. This latter is now
the only representative oI the Iamily Dugongidiae, hence its high biodiversity value (Preen, 1998; Marsh
et al., 2004). Dugongs and manatees diIIer in structure, geographical distribution and habits (Heinsohn et
al., 1977). The Steller's sea cow, Hyaroaamalis gigas (Zimmermann, 1780), was the dugong's most
closely related species and is now extinct (Heinsohn et al., 1977). Dugongs can grow up to 3-4 meters and
weigh up to 400 kg. They diIIer Irom the manatees by several Ieatures, such as a more streamlined and
barrel-shaped body, a Iluke-shaped tail and a pig-like head (see Iigures 1 and 2). They are grey-brown.
They use their broad Ilat muzzle to uproot seagrasses. Dugongs need to surIace to breathe every Iew
minutes; this Ieature increases their vulnerability to hunting, to nets and to collisions with boats
(Anderson, 1981, Marsh et al., 1999). Most oI the inIormation about dugong liIe history has been
deducted indirectly due to the analysis oI retrieved carcasses (Heinsohn et al., 2004). They have a long
liIespan (about 70 years) and mature late (around 10 year-old) (Marsh et al., 1999). Moreover, they
reproduce only every 2 to 5 years and have long gestation periods (around 14 months) (Marsh et al.,
1999). These characteristics make this species very vulnerable to overexploitation and other
anthropogenic threats (Marsh, 1980; Marsh et al., 1999). The calIs rely on their mother Ior up to 18
months (Anderson, 1981). When they are born, on average they weigh 30 kg and measure around 1.2
meters. Dugongs are usually resident and can travel between seagrass areas (Marsh et al., 2003, 2004;
Kiszka et al., 2004). However, they can undertake seasonal migrations in part oI their range and have also
been shown to be able to move long distances, Ior instance when under stress (Heinsohn et al., 1977;
Anderson, 1981; Marsh et al., 1999; Marsh et al., 2003, 2004; Sheppard et al., 2006). As early as 1977,
Heinsohn et al. emphasized that this behaviour has important consequences Ior conservation.
9
Dugongs have been exploited Ior their oil, bones and meat which contain high quality proteins
(Heinsohn et al., 1977; Anderson and Heinsohn, 1978; Anderson, 1981; Marsh et al. 1995, 1997; Marsh et
al., 1999; Marsh et al., 2004; Zuasola, 2004; Kiszka et al., 2007; Muir and Kiszka, 2007; Grech et al.,
2008a; Ilangakoon et al., 2008; Marsh, 2008). Illegal hunting is now a problem in some areas such as
Australia, Mayotte, the Philippines, India and Sri Lanka (Heinsohn et al., 1977; Marsh et al., 1995, 1997;
Ilangakoon et al., 2008; Pusineri and Quillard, 2008). Lastly, dugong hunting is still a signiIicant
component oI some traditional cultures, such as in the Torres Strait region where an unsustainable Iishery
puts dugongs at risk oI extinction (Marsh et al., 1997, 2004; Heinsohn et al., 2004; McNiven and
BedingIield, 2008).
Figure 1: drawings oI several views oI a dugong and its skeleton (Irom Husar, 1978, aIter Kingdon, 1971)
Figure 2: photographs oI dugongs (photographs Pierre Larue, Irom Mry et al., 2009)
10
The dugong is a marine mammal that lives in tropical and subtropical coastal and island waters.
It Ieeds primarily on shallow seagrass beds (Heinsohn et al., 1977; Marsh et al., 1982). Algae and
invertebrates are sometimes taken as well (Heinsohn et al., 1977; Marsh et al., 1982; Marsh et al., 1999;
Preen, 1995b). The latter have been recovered Irom Iecal samples (Preen, 1995a; Marsh et al., 1999).
Dugongs can inIluence the species composition oI seagrass beds through grazing, as well as the relative
abundance oI seagrasses and the nutritional quality oI plants available (Preen, 1995b; Marsh et al., 1999;
Aragones et al., 2006). A decreased dugong population thus has the potential to lead to the degradation oI
habitat (Aragones et al., 2006). Evidence oI cultivation grazing , the intensive grazing by large herds
oI dugongs in order to keep seagrass meadows in a pioneer stage, has been Iound by Preen (1995b). In
some mono-speciIic seagrass beds, rotational grazing inside grazing swards have been demonstrated (De
Iongh, 2006). Selective Ieeding has been demonstrated Ior dugongs (Anderson and Birtles, 1978;
Heinsohn et al., 1977; Preen, 1995b; Aragones et al., 2006); they usually preIer pioneer species. The
Ieeding activity results in the creation oI Ieeding trails (Heinsohn et al., 1977; Preen, 1995b; Marsh et al.,
2005), which reveal dugong presence, whereas dugong observations are usually rare (C3, 2003; Hines et
al., 2005a). These marine mammals are Iound in the Indo-PaciIic region, Irom eastern AIrica to Vanuatu
(WWF EAME, 2004). The range oI dugongs is extensive and cover 48 countries (see Iigure 3). The East
AIrican Coast/ Western Indian Ocean region represents the western boundary oI dugong's range
worldwide (Kiszka et al., 2007). Dugongs are known to interact with several dolphin species (Indo-
PaciIic bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops aauncus, Indo-PaciIic humpback dolphin, Sousa chinensis, and
spinner dolphin, Stenella longirostris) possibly Ior a predator avoidance reason (Kiszka et al., 2004;
Kiszka, 2007). Because oI their habitat requirements, dugongs thrive in areas where they are likely to
interact with human activities (Anderson, 1981; Preen, 1998, Marsh, 2007).
Figure 3: known distribution oI dugongs (Irom Marsh and LeIebvre, 1994)
11
Studies have shown rapid declines in the population oI dugongs because oI diIIerent
anthropogenic threats in the last century, especially in the coastal zones oI the Indian Ocean Region where
there is increasing pressure Irom large and expanding human populations (Preen, 1998; Marsh et al.,
2005). Both because oI their low reproductive output and their speciIic habitat requirements, dugongs are
particularly vulnerable to human interactions (Marsh et al., 2003). The threats dugongs are exposed to
include habitat loss or degradation, overexploitation, coastal pollution, boat strikes, hunting, and bycatch
(Heinsohn et al., 1977; Anderson, 1981; Preen, 1998; Marsh et al., 2004; Pusineri and Quillard, 2008;
Grech and Marsh, 2008; Grech et al., 2008a). Dugongs are thought to now occur in small populations
throughout most oI their range (Marsh et al., 2007; Grech and Marsh, 2008). However, two large
populations remain in northern Australia (85000 individuals) and in the Arabian GulI (7000) (Preen,
1998; Marsh et al., 1999). The species is listed on Appendix 1 oI the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species oI Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), on the Convention oI Migratory Species oI Wild
Animals, as well as listed as vulnerable on the International Union Ior Conservation oI Nature (IUCN
2010) Red list, but this situation does not represent the species status throughout most oI its range, where
it is critically endangered (Preen, 1998; WWF EAME, 2004). It is thought to be extinct in some areas oI
the Indian Ocean (Marsh et al., 1995; Preen, 1998), where it historically occurred such as in Mauritus and
the Seychelles (Haskins and Davis, 2008). Dugong status is not known in some countries oI its range and
scientiIic data must be available to reverse that tendency (AlIthan and Davis, 2006; De Iongh and
Kiswara, 2007; Kiszka et al., 2007; Muir and Kiszka, 2007; Read, 2008). The main threat Ior dugongs has
been identiIied as accidental drowning in gillnets throughout its range but other threats vary according to
the areas taken into account (Preen, 1998; WWF EAME, 2004; Poonian et al., 2008). For example,
dugong hunting occurs or did occur in some countries including Australia (Heinsohn et al., 1977; Grech
and Marsh, 2008), the Philippines (Anderson, 1981), Papua New Guinea (Preen, 1998), Bahrain, Kenya
(WWF EAME, 2004), Comoros (Davis and Poonian, 2007; Poonian et al., 2008), Madagascar (Petit,
1927; WWF EAME, 2004), whereas it is absent in others. In Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, and
Madagascar commercial trawling represents an important threat Ior dugongs which is not the case in the
Seychelles, the Comoros and in Mayotte (WWF EAME, 2004). In the Seychelles, dugongs occur in
Aldabra lagoon, which is a World Heritage site and is thus Iully protected. Dugongs are thus under no
threat (WWF EAME, 2004), which is the only exception known accross its range. Lastly, dugongs have a
high cultural value in some regions oI the world (e.g. Torres Strait) (Marsh et al., 2003; Grech and Marsh,
2007; Grech and Marsh, 2008; Mry et al., 2009).
Madagascar is the Iourth largest island in the world and is situated in the Indian Ocean. It is
separated Irom Mozambique by the Mozambique Channel. Continental driIt created this island, about two
million years ago. One important characteristic oI Madagascar is its high endemism and biodiversity.
Various highly productive systems occur along its coasts, including coral reeIs, mangroves and seagrass
beds. In Iact, Madagascar has been identiIied as one oI the most important hotspots on earth according to
a study by Myers et al. (2000). Kiszka et al. (2008; 2009) have identiIied three types oI Iisheries in
Madagascar: commercial (~ 50 Horsepower (HP) engines), artisanal ( 50 HP), and traditional (non-
12
motorized vessels). Fady, the traditional belieI system that the local population must adhere to, largely
regulate peoples action in this country (Walker and Roberts, 2005). Madagascar is one oI the poorest
countries in the world. It supports an important and increasing coastal population as well as an increasing
number oI Iishermen (Laroche and Ramananarivo, 1995; Walker and Roberts, 2005). Due to the
increasing human pressure, some species including the dugong, sea turtles, cetaceans and sharks are
threatened. Madagascar has signed several international conventions about endangered species. These
include CITES (ratiIied in 1981), the Washington Convention (WWF EAME, 2004), the Nairobi
Convention Ior the Protection, Management and Development oI the Marine and Coastal Environment oI
the Eastern AIrican Region (signed in 1985), and the Convention on Biological Diversity (ratiIied in
2004) (MetcalI et al., 2007). Due to the lack oI population studies on these species, it is unknown whether
or not these laws and conventions are being respected.
Dugongs were reported in Madagascar along the central, northwestern, and northeastern
coastlines in the 1990s (WWF EAME, 2004). According to CockcroIt (1993), however, sightings are now
rare. DiIIerent Malagasy names are used Ior this mammal in diIIerent areas. On the west coast, this
animal is called Lambwara (large sea-pig) or Lambohara (Blench, 2006), as well as Trozogna. On the east
coast, it is called Lambondriaka (WWF EAME, 2004). In Madagascar, the decline oI dugongs has
occurred in the past 10 to 15 years due to various anthropogenic threats. RaIomanana and Rasolojantovo,
who summarized the inIormation about the status oI the dugong in Madagascar (WWF EAME, 2004)
identiIied diIIerent potentially important areas Ior dugongs, including:
Diego and Sakalava Bays
the bays oI Courrier, Ambararata, Ampokarana, and the islets oI Nosy Hara
the bays oI Bombetoka, Sokoany, and the bay oI Baly
Vohemar area
the bays and barrier reeI systems oI Morombe and Andavadoaka
Sainte Marie island
the bay oI Antongil and the northeast coast
FaraIangana, Mananjary, the reeI area oI Taolagnaro, the bay oI Marombitsy, and between the
bays oI Mozambique and Masoarivo-Antsalova.
Lastly, the southeast region appears to be unsupportive to dugong populations (see also Marsh et al.,
2002). Regular killing oI dugongs occurred until the 1990s in the area oI the Vohemar islets. However,
hunting in this area stopped when they began declining (WWF EAME, 2004). The status oI the dugong is
still unclear in Madagascar as no quantitative surveys have been completed (WWF EAME, 2004, Muir
and Kiszka, 2007). When dugongs are caught in Madagascar, the meat is usually sold (WWF EAME,
2004). There are several myths and belieIs about dugongs in this country. In some areas (e.g. Bombetoka
Bay), the sighting oI the sirenian is interpreted as a good omen Ior Iishing. According to other Iishermen
(e.g. in the Bay oI Baly), it is a bad omen. RaIomanana and Rasolojantovo (WWF EAME, 2004), also
noted that, in the village oI Ampapamena, the consultation oI sorcerers beIore killing this animal was
13
necessary to avoid bad luck. RaIomanana and Rasolojantovo (WWF EAME, 2004) identiIied Iour main
threats Ior dugongs in the island oI Madagascar: over-exploitation oI marine resources and destructive
Iishing practices, limited awareness about dugong status, and habitat destruction Irom cyclones, coastal
development and pollution. In general, seagrass beds are highly vulnerable to a range oI anthropogenic
activities, as well as to extreme weather conditions such as cyclones (Marsh et al., 1999, 2003, 2004).
Coastal exploitation oI marine resources is very high along the western coast oI Madagascar
(RazaIindrakoto et al., 2004). Regarding Iishing practices, gillnets and seine nets, considered unselective
(Kiszka et al., 2008), are the most likely to negatively impact dugongs (WWF EAME, 2004; Muir and
Kiszka, 2007; Read, 2008). According to Read (2008), gillnets are used worldwide. In Madagascar, this is
usually the most commonly used type oI gear (Cinner and Fuentes, 2008; RazaIindrakoto et al., 2008;
Kiszka et al., 2008). They are relatively cheap and easy to deploy Irom small Iishing boats (Read, 2008).
Shark nets are known to impact species such as the Indo-PaciIic humpback dolphins (Sousa chinensis) as
well (RazaIindrakoto et al., 2004). Dugong bycatch events have been reported in gillnets in the Comoros
(Davis and Poonian, 2007; Poonian et al., 2008). In Madagascar, no mitigation measures to reduce
bycatch have been implemented at all, as it is the case in most countries oI the Western Ocean Indian
(Kiszka et al., 2008).
A marine mammal entangled in a net is very likely to be injured or to die (Marsh et al., 2005;
Read, 2008). Bycatch is an increasing problem worldwide but still quantitative data is largely lacking
(Diaz Lopez, 2006; Lewison et al., 2009). The term bycatch is used in a situation when the animal caught
is discarded. When the animal is kept Ior sale or consumption, the term nontarget catch is used (Read,
2008). The word bycatch is used in scientiIic literature Ior both true bycatch and nontarget catch. Soykan
et al. (2008), deIine bycatch as the unintentional capture oI non-target species during Iishing activities
without speciIying the Iate oI the animal. They emphasized that bycatch represents an important issue
worldwide, especially Ior megaIauna (D'Agrosa et al., 2000; Lewison et al., 2004; Pusineri and Quillard,
2008; Soykan et al., 2008). Gillnets represent a major threat Ior many marine mammals (Diaz Lopez,
2006). For example, Iishery related mortality has led the baiji (Lipotes vexillifer), a river dolphin, to
become extinct (Jaramillo-Legoretta et al., 2007). Other species, such as the vaquita (Phocoena sinus),
are becoming critically endangered Ior the same reasons (D'Agrosa et al., 2000; Jaramillo-Legoretta et al.,
2007). Due to their liIe characteristics, species such as dugongs are particularly vulnerable to human-
induced mortality (Marsh et al., 1995; Marsh et al., 1999; Heppell et al., 2000; Lewison et al., 2004;
Pusineri and Quillard, 2008; Read, 2008). Improved adult and juvenile survival is necesary iI we are to
reverse declining trends in dugong populations (Heppell et al., 2000). According to Soykan et al. (2008),
individual Iishermen usually underestimate the impacts oI bycatch because these events can be relatively
rare. However, even the removal oI a Iew individuals can have dramatic eIIects on the populations oI
these animals (Lewison et al., 2004). They usually live in small Iragmented populations accross most oI
their range (Marsh et al., 1995; Marsh et al., 1999; Hines et al., 2005a; Kiszka et al., 2007; Muir and
Kiszka, 2007; Haskins and Davis, 2008; Read, 2008). In Iact, as noted Read (2008), to prevent extinction
oI species such as the dugong, the vaquita and the right whale, bycatches need to be completely
14
eliminated (see also D'Agrosa et al., 2000; Davis and Poonian, 2007; Muir and Kiszka, 2007). In most oI
the dugong range, bycatch is largely unquantiIied (Marsh et al., 1999). For example, in Madagascar, there
is a general lack oI bycatch estimates and conservation status Ior dugongs and various species
(RazaIindrakoto et al., 2004; Kiszka et al., 2008). Another conservation issue Ior the dugong is the Iact
that even though dugongs can undertake large-scale movements in a relatively short period oI time, areas
depleted oI dugongs are unlikely to be quickly recolonized by new individuals (Marsh, 2000). Genetic
studies have shown that dugongs are more likely to breed with dugongs Irom surrounding areas than with
dugongs Irom populations Iarther away, a phenomenon called isolation by distance model (Tikel,
1998).
This study was designed to understand the interactions between Iishermen and dugongs in the
Nosy Hara Marine Park, an area that has been designated as important habitat Ior dugongs. This marine
park is situated in the northwest oI Madagascar and includes a large complex oI coral reeIs, with a very
wide continental shelI (WWF EAME, 2004). Healthy seagrass beds are also present in the reserve.
Incidental catches oI dugongs occurred there in 2000 and 2003 according to WWF EAME (2004) and
C3's previous work in Northern Madagascar. According to MetcalI et al. (2007), this mainly inhabited
area is also oI importance Ior green turtles (Chelonia myaas) and hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys
imbricata). The main source oI livelihood in this area is the exploitation oI marine resources (MetcalI et
al., 2007), as it is the case Ior virtually all coastal communities in Madagascar (Walker and Roberts, 2005;
Kiszka et al., 2008). Due to high unemployment and crop Iailure linked to a lack oI rain, the Iishing
communities are increasing on the coasts oI Madagascar (Walker and Roberts, 2005). Three main threats
were evaluated: bycatch, hunting and human disturbance. Priority areas Ior dugong conservation within
the park were emphasized, as well as overlaps with zones where dugongs are at risk because oI the
aIorementionned parameters.
2. METHODOLOGY
1/ Study site
This study was Iocused on the interactions between dugongs and Iishermen within the Nosy
Hara Marine Park. A meeting with Mister Joamanana, the director oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park,
provided most oI the inIormation collected about the park. Thanks to the important biodiversity Iound in
this zone, it was selected Ior the implementation oI a protected area. Marine habitats are mostly
represented by coral reeIs, mangroves, and seagrass beds, which are relatively healthy. This area also
provides important ecological services, as the Iour main communities within the park heavily rely on
Iishing (Andranovondrona, Mangaoka, AndranoIanjava, and Mahalina). Most oI the protein sources oI
local people are sea products, and Iish. Moreover, the numerous inhabited islets provide the potential Ior
diving and ecotourism activities to be Iurther developed. Another important point to be taken into account
in the creation oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park is local support. The project received the cooperation oI the
15
local communities, which were involved during the entire process. Three steps were Iollowed Ior the
implementation oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park:
preliminary studies where all sites oI ecological importance were investigated between 1995 and
2000 in Madagascar; Nosy Hara was then designated as a priority area Ior biodiversity
conservation. Studies were carried out by the World WildliIe Fund (WWF) and the OIIice
National de l'Environnement (ONE). Additional scientiIic studies were also undertaken in the
region to determine the extent oI marine and terrestrial biodiversity, as well as the biodiversity
Iound in inlets, known to be hotspots Ior many bird species. This led to the creation oI legislation
regarding resource use guidelines and conservation aims Ior the Nosy Hara Marine Park
approved by the government oI Madagascar;
creation in 2005 oI a state program allowing management tasks to be handed to Madagascar
National Parks (MNP), previously called Association Nationale pour la Gestion des Aires
Protges (ANGAP) (Harding and Randriamanantsoa, 2008). The advantages and disadvantages
oI a marine park were explained to the local communities and the potential zonation oI the park
was then evaluated by the ANGAP in collaboration with locals. A technical commission was
implemented at the national, communal and district levels;
sending oI the plans Ior the marine park, aIter approval by the topographic service, to the
ministry Ior approval and Iinaliation oI the resource use regulations and laws in the Nosy Hara
Marine Park. Although the Malagasy goverment was expected to approve these plans by 2009,
the political situation has prevented this Irom happening. Approval may be granted by the end oI
2010.
Funding Ior the Nosy Hara Marine Park has been provided by diIIerent organizations, such as the
WWF, the World Bank and also by the Malagasy government. The park does not generate any income and
is based on community-based management. The community groups include a Comit de Surveillance
(Iishermen association), the Comit d'Orientation et de Soutien a l'Aire Protge (COSAP) comprising
Iunctionaries (local authorities and Iishermen), the Brigades Mixes organizing a meeting with the
Ministere des Eaux et Forts and the police every trimester, MNP employees and a CheI de Secteur in
charge oI raising awareness. The police are the only body in charge oI the enIorcement in the Nosy Hara
Marine Park and have the power to give Iines, conIiscate goods or issue jail time. This is usually not a
very eIIicient system as the police are oIten called and arrive too late. Both local and migrant Iishermen
Iish within the park. Those are Iishermen who do not reside in the park but come to Iish there Ior a
limited period oI time. They usually do so as the Iish stocks in their own region are being depleted or
because oI the sea conditions do not allow them to Iish where they live Ior part oI the year. A map oI the
Nosy Hara and the landing sites visited to carry out Iishermen interviews are represented in Iigures 4 and
5, respectively.
16
2/ Bycatch and dugong questionnaires
Interview teams were made up oI two individuals: a representative Irom C3 Madagascar and a
Malagasy student. Malagasy students had been choosen because they had a background in environmental
science, coastal management or related Iields. They had completed at least an undergraduate degree in
those Iields at the University oI Antsiranana. They also had been selected Ior their good interpersonal
skills, their ability to accurately read and understand maps, their willingness to participate in conservation
projects involving local communities, their Iamiliarity with local culture, and their ability to translate
interviewees' answers Irom Malagasy to French, or to English Ior some oI them. Interview team members
had been intensively trained by C3 staII to be able to carry out interviews in order to optimize collection
oI valid and accurate inIormation Irom respondents. All interviews were conducted in the local dialect oI
Sakalava to ensure comprehensive understanding oI the questions. A C3 representative Iollowed the
interview in English and checked each oI the responses had been answered appropriately by cross-
checking with the interviewer. Contact with local oIIicials was made prior to visiting the study sites in
order to identiIy the best time Ior interviewing. The interview team entered a village and surveyed Ior
available Iishermenmen directly on site. Fishermen were interviewed individually. To begin with, the
interview team introduced themselves and the aims oI the project. ConIidentiality was ensured and the
participant was leIt with the option to give his or her name or not. The voluntary nature oI inIormants'
participation was also emphasized. An identiIication book containing pictures oI the main species oI
interest was used to avoid conIusion (e.g. between local names and scientiIic names) or misidentiIication.
An indication oI size was also given with each picture to help with identiIication. Maps oI the Northern
part oI Madagascar were shown to the participants who were asked to locate the Iishing areas they used
and the bycatch events or sightings they could recall. The goal was to interview at least 10 oI the
Iishermen in each village visited.
BeIore each inteview, the Malagasy student introduced both members oI the interview team to
the participant, and brieIly explained the goal oI the project. For dugong questionnaires, conIirmation oI
correct identiIication was made by providing a selection oI photos Irom which they were requested to
select the dugong. Depending on how much experience interviewees had and how much inIormation
respondents possessed, bycatch interviews lasted on average between halI an hour and an hour. Dugong
interviews usually lasted about IiIteen minutes.
AIter each Iieldtrip, data checking and translation was carried out by a team composed oI one
Malagasy student and one C3 French native speaker. Translation was done Irom Malagasy to French, and
then Irom French to English. Only the English version oI the questionnaires was Iurther used. The data
was compiled in a consistent manner into an Excel spreadsheet, each set oI interviews (bycatch and
dugong questionnaires) was attributed a unique code (i.e. AMP1, Ior the Iirst Iishermen interviewed in
Ampasindava) to Iacilitate analysis. Annexes 1 and 2 are the bycatch and the dugong questionnaires,
respectively (note that questions 80 to 88 were only asked during the 2009 Iieldtrips as it appeared that
Iishermen did not know what coelocanths were).
17
Figure 4 : map oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park and its zonation (courtesy oI Mr Jaomanana)
18
Figure 5: sites visited in the Nosy Hara Marine Park Ior the study oI the interactions between dugongs
and Iishermen in the marine park (source: GoogleEarth)
3/ Fishing ground mapping
a/ Pilot study
A pilot study was conducted on the 2
nd
and the 4
th
oI May 2010 in Ampasin'antenina, on the
Northwestern coast oI Madagascar, to map some local Iishing ground with a Garmin eTrek HC Global
Positioning System (GPS) unit. An accuracy oI 5 to 10 meters was expected. Two boat trips occurred on
these days with a Iisherman oI the village and his partner. I was accompanied by one oI the Malagasy
students Ior translation. This student also made sure he explained the project and the reasons why we
were asking them to show us the Iishing grounds. The same student accompanied me during the two days
19
oI the pilot study to insure consistencies in the explanations given during translation. On the Iirst trip,
Mister Souik and his partner deployed gillnets at two Iishing grounds near Ampasin'antenina. The
localions oI the Iishing grounds were not easy to record or be described by the observer. The Iishermen
use rather imprecise landmarks (e.g. a beach and a mountain) to Iind them; they could not delineate clear
boundaries as expected and the places where they deployed the nets appeared to be at random. There were
no distinctive Ieatures that could help the mapping oI the Iishing grounds, like an island, a sandbar, or a
shipwreck. I thus took GPS points where they deployed the nets: one point at the beginning oI the
deployment and one point at the end. This technique appeared to lead to results that were not
representative oI the whole Iishing ground because oI the low number oI net deployments that had to be
discarded. Thus, areas with distinguishable Ieatures were chosen and areas without them were avoided.
During the second boat trip, we visited only one Iishing ground which was Iarther away. The mapping
was easier there because the Iishing ground was a circle around an island, Nosy Mangiho, where there
was rocky substrate and corals that provided habitat Ior Iishes. This time, Iishermen did not wish to
deploy nets. Instead oI taking GPS points where they set up the gillnets, I thus took a GPS point when the
accompanying Iishermen told me we were Iirst entering the Iishing ground and recorded GPS at regularly
intervals until we reached the island. This Iishing zone was then easy to visualize on a map since we had
obtained the radius oI the circle and the center oI it was the island.
This pilot study conIirmed that obtaining Iishermen guidance was possible as they were willing
to help, in exchange to a small wage. They moreover seemed happy to share their knowledge with us and
be part oI the project. Due to the boat trips oI the pilot study, I realized that areas with no distinguishable
Ieatures had to be avoided and taking GPS coordinates where nets were deployed was not useIul and did
not lead to representative results. Instead, disinctive Ieatures (such as an island in this case) had to be
used. Following underwater markers (e.g. the beginning oI the rocky substrate or coral reeI edge) to know
when to enter a speciIic Iishing ground was reliable given there was enough visibility such as in this pilot
study.
b/ During the Ampasindava Iield trip
Compiling inIormation Irom net Iishermen interviews and Irom inIormal interviews with MNP
employees, Iive diIIerent zones were identiIied where net Iishing took place, namely Ampasindava Bay,
Antalaha, Baobaloka, AndranoIanja (in Iront oI the village oI Vavarano), and Irohona Bay. The mapped
data Irom interviews and conversations helped us emphasizing zones where net Iishing eIIort was the
highest. Ideally, mapping these sites thanks to the help oI the net Iishermen would have been the best
option Ior accurate results, as it was the case in the pilot study. However, because oI the limited number
oI net Iishermen available in Ampasindava during the Iield trip we did there (26
th
May - 1
st
June), and the
size oI their embarkations (usually one-person pirogues), it proved to be unpractical to use such a means
oI mapping the net Iishing grounds. However, the captain oI the boat who transported us to Irohona Ior a
satellite camp oI two days to carry out more Iishermen interviews, agreed to show us the local net Iishing
20
grounds. The Malagasy student in charge oI the translation during the pilot study explained the objectives
oI the project beIore the Iishing ground mapping session, and took care oI the translation on board to
insure consistency in the instructions given to the pilot. Thanks to the 34-year-old boat captain, we were
able to carry out the net Iishing ground mapping on the southern part oI Ampasindava. He had been
working as a captain since 1990 and regularly took Iishermen (mostly divers as the majority oI Iishermen
in Ampasindava were divers) on his boat, the Riha riha de la mer. It is a 7-metre-long vedette, equipped
with a sail and a 15-HP outboard motor. On the 30
th
oI May, the boat ride occurred in the morning, i.e.
between 8.00 and 10.00 am, at low tide. On the 31
th
oI May, Iishing ground mapping was carried out in
the aIternoun, at high tide, i.e. between 3.00 and 5.30 pm.
Because oI the diIIerences between Iishing ground characteristics, slightly diIIerent methods
were used in diIIerent situations. A Ilexible approach to mapping Iishing grounds was required due to the
diIIerence in availability oI Iishermen and types oI embarkations, in Iishermen willingness to cooperate,
and in the amount oI money they asked Ior compensation. In some instances, the method validated during
the pilot study had to be slightly modiIied as Iollows. The Iirst two zones we visited, Antalaha and
Baobaloka, on the 30
th
oI May 2010, were the easiest to map. Those areas were well delineated by coral
reeIs thereIore GPS points were taken at regular intervals (one or two points per minute) when Iollowing
the coral reeI edge, visible Irom the surIace, as the water depth in these zones was quite shallow (e.g. on
average about 10 meters deep) and the water was clear. The third Iishing ground, AndranoIanja, was
mapped with a combination oI underwater markers (i.e. the boundaries oI a seagrass bed, visible Irom the
surIace) and landmarks (i.e. the village oI Vavarano and a rocky spur). Only the outer (oIIshore) boundary
oI this Iishing ground was accessible because oI the tide, so on the 30
th
, only part oI the Iishing ground
was mapped using GPS. On the 31
th
, on the return trip Irom Irohona, the inner (shorewards) boundary oI
this area was mapped using the same markers. GPS points were taken at regular intervals when Iollowing
those markers. The whole bay oI Irohona was used Ior net Iishing and this zone was mapped by Iollowing
the outer boundary oI the bay, delineated by natural markers (rocky spurs). GPS points were taken at
regular intervals along the outer limit oI the bay (one or two points per minute). On the 31
th
oI May,
Ampasindava Bay was mapped using the same method than Ior Irohona Bay, as in this case, too, the
whole bay was used Ior net Iishing. In each case, GPS points were recorded and assigned a code: the Iirst
three leters oI the Iishing ground names (i.e. ANT, BAO, AMB, IRO, AMP respectively) and the number
oI the points, the Iirst point taken being number 1).
c/ During the Vahilava Iield trip
Bycatch interviews carried out on site helped identiIy suitable net Iishermen Ior the net Iishing
ground mapping in this region. Net Iishermen were selected according to their availability, the wage they
asked Ior compensation, and the type oI embarkation they had. We identiIied Iour main zones where net
Iishing was concentrated in the Vahilava region thanks to the bycatch questionnaires: Antsako,
Lalandakana, Vahilava Bay and Nosy Mpagnasigna. Those Iishing grounds were mapped thanks to
21
diIIerent Iishermen who used them regularly. The Malagasy student in charge oI the translation during the
pilot study explained the objectives oI the project to the Iishermen beIore the Iishing ground mapping,
and continued translation on board to insure consistency in the instructions given to the pilot. As those
regions are shallow and the boundaries oI Iishing grounds are well delineated, we mapped their outer
boundaries by Iollowing the edge oI the corresponding habitats, such as coral reeIs, seagrass beds and
mangrove edges. GPS points were taken at regular intervals while navigating around the Iishing grounds
(one or two points per minute depending on how big the Iishing ground to be mapped was).
Mister Daoudou Hely, a 23-year-old net Iishermen accepted to accompany us to map two Iishing
grounds: Vahilava Bay and Nosy Mpagnasigna. This was done on the 29
th
oI June 2010, on-board a 8-
meter, 25-HP vedette. The tide was outgoing. The mapping began around 2.45 pm and 4.15 pm. The
reIerence points were the mouth oI a river and the outer boundary oI a seagrass bed (limit between
seagrass and coral, visible Irom the surIace). Nosy Mpagnasigna is an islet surrounded by shallow coral
reeIs. We thus Iollowed the edges oI this habitat to map the zone by recording one or two points per
minute along the boundary oI the Iishing ground.
In Antsako, two Iishermen, Mily Emilien and Joseph Tabendrou (respectively 18 and 29-year-
old) agreed to allow us on board oI their 3-meter pirogue to map the net Iishing grounds net Iishermen
Irom their village, including themselves, used. Mapping was carried out on the 30
th
oI June 2010, during
the outgoing tide, between 8.00 am and 9.45 am. They used seven sites (Ambatokobera, Ambatomilay, Jia
Fakarampano, Andohanomby, Jia aIarakonko, Ambatosaja, Ankatokobe), which were Iairly small and
corresponded to various habitats (coral reeIs, rocky bottom, seagrass). Most oI them were situated near
the mangrove Iorest edge. These seven sites were counted as one single unit Ior analysis as each time
Iishermen used this zone, they used all seven oI the small Iishing grounds. Moreover, as they travelled
between those zones everyday or so, they were likely to create a disturbance Ior dugongs over the whole
area, i.e. the northern part oI the village oI Antsako. Net Iishermen Irom Antsako also Iished in the
southern part oI the village, an area which size was similar to the Northern part but which could not be
mapped because oI the sea conditions when the Iishing ground mapping was carried out. Both the winds
and the waves were too strong to do so saIely. According to net Iishermen Irom Antsako, they also used to
Iish around Nosy Momo, but this islet could not be reached without a motorized boat that day because oI
wind conditions and no motorized embarkation was available.
Mister Dory, a 32-year-old Iisherman Irom Lalandakana, indicated some Iishing grounds next to
this village. We carried out the net Iishing ground mapping in this region on board his 6-meter, motorized
pirogue (5 HP). This activity was carried out at low tide, between 9.00 am and 11.15 am on the 22
nd
oI
June 2010. Five sites out oI the seven sites this Iisherman used were mapped, the remaining ones being
unaccesible because oI the conditions at sea. We would have gone with him to map the remaining zones
on another day but he was not available when we returned to Lalandakana. Instead, another net
Iisherman, Mister Jao Andr, was selected to escort us on his 4-meter pirogue to these sites on the 2
nd
oI
July, during an in-going tide. Those seven diIIerent sites were counted as one area Ior the same reasons
mentionned above Ior the Iishing grounds oI Antsako.
22

4/ Net Iishing ground questionnaires
Once the Iishing grounds had been mapped, we aimed at getting more inIormation about each
zone in order to do a risk analysis Ior dugongs. We thus interviewed as many net Iishermen as we could in
each village where Iishing grounds were mapped. Net Iishing ground questionnaires aimed at obtaining
precision about boat, Iishing trip and Iishing technique characteristics, about the characteristics oI each
zone, about the Irequency oI use, and about the spatio-temporal variation oI use Ior each Iishing ground.
Either maps oI the Iishing grounds (creating with AcrGIS) were shown to interviewees (in the
Ampasindava region as maps had been printed out in between the Iield trips) or regular maps used Ior the
bycatch and dugong questionnaires indicating the names oI the Iishing grounds at the appropriate
locations were used to make sure inIormants knew where the Iishing grounds we were obtaining
inIormation about were. For the Vahilava region, the maps created with ArcGis could not be used as
printing in the Iield was unpractical. As electricity was unreliable, we could not show them these maps on
a screen. Protocols Ior interviews Iollowed the rules mentionned above in the dugong and bycatch
questionnaire sections. The net Iishing ground questionnaire used in the Nosy Hara Marine Park is on
annex 3.
With the inIormation collected Irom the net Iishing ground questionnaires, a ranking oI each net
Iishing ground was carried out taking into account several parameters. The number oI net Iishermen, the
number oI days each area was used, the average number oI years oI use, the mean net soaking time, the
mean number oI nets used per Iisherman, the mean number oI net deployments per Iisherman, the average
length oI nets, and the total number oI boats were calculated using the answers inIormants provided Ior
each Iishing ground. The total area covered by each Iishing zone was calculated in ArcGis 9.2 using the
Spatial Statistics Tools. Each one oI these parameters were taken into account to attribute a score to each
Iishing ground, assuming all oI them were equally important in determining how risky the area oI interest
was Ior dugongs. For each criteria, a score Irom 1 to 6 was assigned (1 having the least risky and 6 having
the most risk), as we were able to obtain inIormation about six oI the mapped Iishing grounds. For some
parameters, values obtained Ior each Iishing ground were similar and the same score was thus assigned to
them. The scores obtained Ior each parameter were summed to obtain a general score per Iishing ground,
taking into account all parameters. Using those values, the Iirst quartile and third quartile were calculated.
Every Iishing ground which score Iell below the Iirst quartile was considered to represent a relatively low
risk Ior dugongs. Each zone Ior which the score was higher than the third quartile was thought to
represent a relatively high risk. The remaining zones obtained a status oI relatively moderate risk.
5/ Data analysis
Statistical analysis oI the dugong, bycatch and net Iishing ground questionnaires was done using
Excel 2007 and SPSS 15.0. The data Irom Ampasindava collected in July 2009 and the data collected
23
there this year were combined, as they were Irom the same landing site. Minimum, maximum, mean and
standard deviation were calculated with numerical values. The percentage oI inIormants were calculated
Ior categorical answers. Whenever more than one answer given was possible, we calculated Irequencies
oI response. Some inIormants were not taken into account as their answers seemed unreliable and were
removed Irom the analysis oI some questions. Answers such as not relevant (NR), missing data (MD),
and in some cases not answered (NA) were generally discarded Ior analysis. In brieI, most oI the time,
only the inIormants who provided a clear and relevant answer to the question oI interest were taken into
account Ior analysis. Graphical representation oI the data was completed using MicrosoIt Excel 2007.
Chi-square tests Ior cases when categorical vaiables were considered were carried out in SPSS 15.00 to
determine the presence oI any statistically signiIicant trends. Statistical signiIicance was set with a
threshold oI 0,05. For these analyses, landing sites were pooled to get a number oI inIormants high
enough Ior analysis (i.e. in order to get expected Irequencies greater than 5 to obtain accurate
probabilities when running chi-square tests). Two main regions were emphasized: the Ampasindava
region which comprised Ampasindava and Irohona, and the Vahilava region, which included the
Iollowing landing sites: Vahilava, Antsako, Lalandakana, and Ambalavy. These landing sites were
grouped together principally according to their geographic proximity, but also because Iishing patterns in
the villages grouped were similar. Moreover, this grouping was practical as Iishermen Irom the Vahilava
region never Iish in the Ampasindava region and no Iishermen Irom Ampasindava or Irohona go Iishing
near Vahilava, Antsako, Lalandakana or Ambalavy. Distances between those two entities were too large
and such travels would be too costly to Iishermen.
Dugong observations and captures were classiIied in three categories: never , inIrequent
when observations occurred less than once a year, and Irequent when inIormants observed dugongs
more than once a year. Some answers (e.g. dates and ages) were analyzed by grouping them per decades
(e.g. ages oI Iishermen and dates oI dugong observations). The spelling oI the sites oI dugong
observations, which sometimes diIIered Ior the same site was checked and one spelling was Iurther used
Ior analysis. Moreover, only sites within the Nosy Hara Marine Park were taken into account. Answers
given when the inIormants were asked the reasons explaining changes in some parameters were grouped
into categories, as it was the case Ior the causes oI dugong deaths. Lastly, let us note that in each
questionnaire, some questions had to be discarded Ior analysis because the answers seemed unreliable as
mentionned beIore, knowing Ior instance the biology and ecology oI the dugong.
The GPS coordinates obtained during the net Iishing ground mapping as described above were
uploaded into the Garmin soItware MapSource. The corresponding MicrosoIt Excel Iile containing the
GPS coordinates was exported into ArcGIS 9.2. A satellite image oI Madagascar (Landsat 7 Ialse color
grey-scaled) was used to have the outline oI the places studied. Points were then converted into polygons
using ArcGIS in order to create a map representing the net Iishing grounds used by Iishermen Irom the
Nosy Hara Marine Park. For the Antsako Iishing ground, the seven original sites were pooled into a
polygon including them all. The same thing was done Ior the Iishing grounds oI Lalandakana.
The analysis oI relative risk Ior dugongs was then incorporated into GIS. Each risk category
24
(low, moderate, high), was attributed a colour and each Iishing ground was represented with the
corresponding colour. This map was then combined with a map oI dugong sightings (both alone
individuals and cow/calI pairs) within the Nosy Hara Marine Park. InIormation about dugong sightings
was collected thanks to the dugong questionnaires. 131 dugong questionnaires had been carried out,
including Iishermen Ior the whole park and not only Iishermen Irom the locations visited Ior the net
Iishing ground mapping. All decades were considered together, Irom 1970s to 2009 as the oldest net
Iishermen we interviewed had been Iishing Ior 40 years at most. Observations oI only live dugongs were
analyzed. This allowed us to visualize any overlap between net Iishing grounds and dugong sightings.
3. RESULTS
1/ Bycatch questionnaires
A total oI 128 inIormants were interviewed using the bycatch questionnaire, between the 26
th
and the 29
th
oI July 2009, and between the 28
th
oI May and the 30
th
oI June 2010, distributed as Iollows:
10 inIormants in Irohona, 64 in Ampasindava (16 in 2009 and 48 in 2010), 28 in Vahilava, 7 in
Lalandakana, 15 in Antsako, and 4 in Ambalavy. The average age oI inIormants was 34,4 + 13,8 years,
with a minimum age oI 15 and a maximum age oI 78. As Iigure 6 shows, the inIormants interviewed were
mostly divers (Irequency oI response: 0,84) and Iishermen (0,63), Iollowed by Madagascar National Park
employees (0,02), others (one inIormant sold rice and one sold coal; 0,02), and a boat captain (0,01).
Figure 6: occupation oI the Iishermen interviewed in the Nosy Hara Marine Park
25
D
i
v
e
r
F
i
s
h
e
r

M
a
r
i
n
e

P
a
r
k

e
m
p
l
o
y
e
e
O
t
h
e
r

B
o
a
t

c
a
p
t
a
i
n
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
Occupation of the informants
interviewed in the Nosy Hara Marine Park
Occupation
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

o
f

r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e

There was not a big diIIerence in the embarkations used by Iishermen as the Irequencies oI
response were respectively 0,6 and 0,53 Ior pirogues (minimum length: 2 m; maximum: 8 m; mean: 4 m;
standard deviation: 1,4 m) and vedettes (minimum length: 5 m; maximum: 13m; mean: 7,7 m; standard
deviation: 1,3m). In the Nosy Hara Marine park, Iishermen used more motorized boats (on average 21 + 6
HP) than non-motorized embarkations, respectively 57 and 43 ; however, this diIIerence was not
statistically signiIicant (2 (1) 2,000; p 0,157). Furthermore, there was no stastically signiIicant
diIIerence between sites in the repartition oI motorized and non-motorized boats (2 (1) 3,125; p
0,077). 99 oI the motorized embarkations had outboard motors, whereas 1 had inboard ones. Lastly,
86 oI motorized embarkations were also equiped with a sail.
Figure 7 illustrates the repartition oI the diIIerent kinds oI Iishing gear used in the Nosy Hara
Marine Park; they were: longlines (Irequency oI response: 0,56), nets (0,48), snorkel gear (0,3), harpoon
(0,1), jariIa (0,08), hands (0,05), palangre (0,04), as well as hooks and lines (0,02). The percentage oI
Iishermen using nets and the percentage oI Iishermen not using them was not signiIicantly diIIerent (2
(1) 0,441; p 0,506) and did not vary between sites (2 (1) 0,225; p 0,635). Nets used by the
Iishermen interviewed were on average 337 + 207 meters in length, with a minimum oI 30 meters and a
maximum oI 1000 meters. The mean depth oI the nets was 1,6 + 1,3 meters, with a minimum depth oI 0,5
meter and a maximum depth oI 8 meters. Lastly, 97 oI the nets used by the inIormants were anchored
and the remaining nets were Iloating. The jariIas used by the inIormants had a minimum length oI 100
and a maximum lenght oI 1000 meters, with a mean oI 520 + 355 meters. Their depths ranged Irom 2 to
8, with an average oI 5 + 2 meters. All oI the jariIas used were anchored. Most Iishermen went Iishing
everyday (55 ) or 2 to 4 times a week (33 ). Some went 5 to 6 times per week (4 ), once per week (6
) or a Iew times per month (2 ) (see Iigure 8). Moreover, the majority oI Iishermen thought that there
had been an increase in the number oI boats and Iishermen (70 ), whereas 26 said their number had
remained the same and 4 indicated that they had decreased.
Figure 7: repartition oI the types oI gear used by Iishermen in the Nosy Hara Marine Park
26
Figure 8: Irequency oI Iishing trips given by the interviewees oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park
2/ Dugong questionnaires
Six landing sites within the Nosy Hara Marine Park were visited (see Iigure 5). A total oI 131
inIormants were interviewed, distributed as Iollows: 66 in Ampasindava (data Irom 2009 and 2010
combined), 10 in Irohona, 28 in Vahilava, 7 in Lalandakana, 4 in Ambalavy, 16 in Antsako. The age oI
the inIormants ranged Irom 15 to 78, with an average oI 35 + 14 years. The repartition oI the age
categories oI the inIormants interviewed is shown in Iigure 9. 7 oI inIormants were between 10 and 19
oI age, 39 between 20 and 29, 25 between 30 and 39, 11 between 40 and 49, 13 between 50
and 59, 3 between 60 and 69, and 2 between 70 and 79. 73 oI interviewees were Iishermen, 24
oI them were divers, 1 oI them was a boat captain, and 1 was a coal seller. The occupation oI the
remaining 2 oI the interviewees remained unknown.
The Irequency oI past and present dugong observations by the inIormants oI the Nosy Hara
Marine Park is represented in Iigure 10. 48 oI interviewees claimed to have observed dugongs
inIrequently (less than once a year), whereas 13 saw them Irequently (more than once a year). 39 oI
inIormants declared that they had never seen dugongs. 69 oI dugongs observed were alive, whereas 31
were dead. There was no signiIicant diIIerence in dead or alive observations between sites (2 (1)
0,352; p 0,553); however, the diIIerence in the percentage oI inIormants who saw live dugongs and the
percentage oI inIormants who observed dead ones was signiIicantly diIIerent (2 (1) 10,268; p 0,001).
In total, 62 inIormants (47 oI all inIormants) claimed they had seen at least one live dugongs in their
liIetime.
27
e
v
e
r
y
d
a
y
2
-
4

t
i
m
e
s

p
e
r

w
e
e
k
a

f
e
w

t
i
m
e
s

a

m
o
n
t
h

0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
Frequency of fishing trips
in the Nosy Hara Marine Park
Frequency of fishing trips
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f

i
n
f
o
r
m
a
n
t
s
Figure 9: percentage oI inIormants interviewed in the Nosy Hara Marine Park Ior each age category
Figure 10: past and present dugong observations by the inIormants oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park
Sites oI dugong observations between 1970 and 2009 are represented on Iigure 24 and
summarized in table 1. Habitats where live dugongs were observed included seagrass (71 ), open sea
(21 ), muddy areas (5 ) and coral reeIs (3 ) (see Iigure 11). 92 oI observations occurred during
daytime and the remaining observations were made at night. From 1970 to 2009, there was an increase in
28
the number oI live and dead dugong observations Irom 6 to 44 , as Iigure 12 shows.
Sites where live dugongs where observed Number oI observations
Nosy Hara 10
Ampasindava 3
Vahilava 3
Ambavarano 3
Nosy Mbamao 3
Nosy Hao 2
Ambalavy 1
Agnahibe 1
Lakatandio 1
Table 1: sites where live dugongs were observed within the Nosy Hara Marine Park between 1970 and
2009 and number oI observations per site
Figure 11: types oI habitats where live dugongs were observed within the Nosy Hara Marine Park
29
Figure 12: temporal variation in live and dead dugong observations within the Nosy Hara Marine Park
Irom 1970 to 2009
The causes oI death given by the respondents who had observed dead animals, Irom the most important to
the least important, were: jariIa nets (51 ), other kinds oI nets (38 ), stranding (5 ), accidental
capture in Iish enclosure (3 ) or with longlines (3), as illustrated in Iigure 13. 90 oI captures were
claimed to be accidental whereas 10 oI them were said to be direct. The diIIerence in the number oI
accidental and direct captures was statistically signiIicant (2 (1) 0,833; p 0,004); however, there was
no diIIerence between sites (2 (1) 1,333; p 0,248). Most dugong observations (0.59) were made
while Iishing, Iollowed by diving (0.2), walking on the shore (0.16) and boating (0.06) (see Iigure 14).
Figure 13: causes oI death when dead dugong observations took place within the Nosy Hara Marine Park
30
Figure 14: activity oI the respondents at time oI dugong observations in the Nosy Hara Marine Park
17 oI interviewees (22 Iishermen) claimed that they had observed a Iemale/calI pair in the Nosy Hara
Marine Park. The number oI inIormants who sighted Iemale/calI pairs was signiIicantly diIIerent Irom the
number oI Iishermen who did not (2 (1) 7,667; p 0,006). Once again, there was no statistically
signiIicant diIIerence between sites (2 (1) 0,014; p 0,904). Only observations between 1970 and
2009 are reported here, as this is the period oI interest Ior this study. Three inIormants could not speciIy a
date Ior this kind oI observation; however, according to the other inIormants, observations oI Iemale/calI
pairs increased over time and stayed similar in the last two decades, resembling the increase oI total
dugong observations (see Iigure 15). Places where dugong Iemale/calI pairs were observed are
represented on Iigures 16 and 24. Lastly, inIormants observed dugongs mostly alone (Irequency oI
response: 0,43), in pairs (0,29) or groups (0,29).
Figure 15: decades where Iemale/calI pairs where observed in the Nosy Hara Marine Park
31
Figure 16: locations where Iemale dugongs have been observed with their calI within the Nosy Hara
Marine Park
Eight inIormants (6 oI all inIormants) captured dugongs at least once in their liIe: 3 in
Ampasindava, 2 in Vahilava and Antsako, 1 in Ambalavy and none in Irohona. Figure 17 shows this
repartition. 43 oI the inIormants did not wish to answer that question. Dugong captures did not occur
Irequently (more than once a year) according to the interviewees; they happened inIrequently (less than
once a year: once to a Iew time in their liIe, except Ior one inIormant who had caught dugongs 20 times in
his liIe) in 14 oI cases. 86 oI inIormants who answered that question claimed that they had never
caught any dugongs (see Iigure 18). Two respondents inIormed us that they had stopped catching dugongs
in 1995 and 1999. Only three inIormants revealed the sites oI captures in the Nosy Hara Marine Park: 2
Iishermen caught dugongs in Vahilava and 1 in Agnahibe. Most inIormants said they would eat a dugong
iI they happened to catch one (0,78); some oI them would release it alive (0,35). Moreover, only very Iew
oI them would sell it (0,02), as Iigure 19 shows. As a rule oI thumb, there was not a lot oI dugong hunters
leIt in the sites visited. Most people stated they were none in their village (77 in Ampasindava, 86 in
Vahilava, 50 in Ambalavy, 67 in Irohona, 100 in Lalandakana, 60 in Antsako). When Iishermen
answered there were some dugong hunters, it was generally less than 2. Only 2 inIormants out oI 45 gave
much higher values as they said they were 8 dugong hunters (Ambalavy) and 40 dugong hunters
(Antsako). These Iigures are summarized in table 2.
32
Figure 17: number oI inIormants who have captured dugongs in each village visited in the Nosy Hara
Marine Park
Figure 18: Irequency oI dugong captures in the Nosy Hara Marine Park
33
Figure 19: Iate oI dugongs captured by the inIormants oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park
Number oI
dugong
hunters in
the village
Percentage oI
inIormants in
Ampasindava
Percentage
oI
inIormants
in
Vahilava
Percentage oI
inIormants in
Ambalavy
Percentage
oI
inIormants
in Irohona
Percentage oI
inIormants in
Lalandakana
Percentage oI
inIormants in
Antsako
0 0,77 0,86 0,5 0,67 1 0,6
1 0,12 0,14 0 0,33 0 0,2
2 0,12 0 0 0 0 0
More than
2
0 0 0,5 0 0 0,2
Table 2: number oI dugong hunters in each village oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park according to the
Iishermen oI each location
Only 47 oI inIormants had an opinion on whether or not there had been a change in the
number oI dugongs since they started Iishing. Most oI them perceived a change in their number. Only 4
oI the inIormants (2 interviewees) who answered that question said their number has remained the same;
the remaining Iishermen thought they had declined (82 ) or they had increased (14 ). These trends can
be seen on Iigure 20. Most inIormants thought the decrease in the number oI dugongs occurred in the last
decade (58 ). This decrease was thought to have happened between 1990 and 1999 Ior 31 oI the
Iishermen who answered that question, between 1980 and 1989 Ior 17 oI them, and between 1970 and
1979 Ior the 6 remaining. Moreover, 75 oI the interviewees who claimed there had been an increase
in the number oI these mammals thought it had occurred in the last decade, whereas the remaining 25
identiIied the decrease between 1980 and 1989. These trends are illustrated in Iigure 21. The reasons
evoked to explain the increase or decrease in the number oI dugongs are summarized in Iigure 22. The
34
reasons given Ior their increase are the Iollowing: dugongs are protected by law (20 ), they have
migrated to the area (20 ), and the number oI sightings and/or the group sizes have increased (60 ).
InIormants who thought there had been a decrease in the number oI reasons gave the Iollowing
explanations: the number oI sightings and/or the group sizes have decreased (35 ), dugongs have
migrated away (21 ), too many captures occurred (18 ), dugongs have a low reproduction rate (15 ),
and human disturbance caused their decline (12 ). Most inIormants, when asked what parts oI dugongs
were eaten or sold, indicated the meat. Some precised that some parts were not eaten (such as the genitals
and the intestines). Eight inIormants (6 oI all interviewees) also answered that the meat was eaten but
not sold. Usually the meat was sold per kg or packet. Prices per kilo oI dugong meat varied according to
inIormants; they ranged Irom 1000 to 20000 FMG/kg. The average price was about 6306 + 4329 FMG/kg
(1000 FMG/kg - 0,1 euro). Moreover, 52 oI inIormants (n122) said that they had not eaten dugong
meat in their liIetime whereas the remaining interviewees had. This diIIerence was not statistically
signiIicant (2 (1) 0,295; p 0,587) and there was no diIIerence between sites (2 (1) 2,098; p
0,147). Most inIormants consumed dugong meat between 1990 and 1999 (Irequency oI response: 0,5),
Iollowed by the periods 1980-1989 (0,26), 2000-2009 (0,17), and 1970-1979 (0,1), as we can see in Iigure
23.
Figure 20: perceived changes in the number oI dugongs in the Nosy Hara Marine Park
35
Figure 21: decade oI perceived changes in the number oI dugongs in the Nosy Hara Marine Park
Laslty, most inIormants were aware oI the Iact that dugongs were endangered (61 ), whereas
the remaining 39 were not. This diIIerence was statistically signiIicant (2 (1) 4,745; p 0,029),
whereas no diIIerence between sites was Iound (2 (1) 0,157; p 0,692). Moreover, 85 oI the
interviewees knew dugongs were protected by law and the rest oI the Iishermen was not aware oI that
status. As Ior the endangered status oI the dugong, this diIIerence was statistically signiIicant (2 (1)
(50,824; p 0,000), whereas no diIIerence between sites was Iound (2 (1) 0,353; p 0,552). 73
inIormants (56 ) answered that there were Iady about dugongs, which shows their cultural signiIicance
in the Nosy Hara Marine Park. 65 inIormants (about 50 oI all Iishermen) identiIied at least one Iady
about dugongs, whereas eight other inIormants (about 6 ) said they knew there were Iady but they did
not know what they were. Fady are listed thereaIter Irom the most cited to the least cited with the
Irequency oI response given by respondents. First oI all, the person who has caught the dugong must
swear he did not have sex with the animal, or there must be two persons when the dugong is caught to
make sure oI that; otherwise one cannot eat it (Irequency oI response: 0,28). Some people cannot watch
dugongs when they are on the beach or being killed, especially women and children as they look like
humans. For that reason, dugongs cannot be killed in public, and not a lot oI people should be present
during this process (0,25). One cannot respond with nonsense when seeing, catching, killing or preparing
dugongs; some people say one need to remain silent during the killing to avoid that (0,23). The
slaughtering oI the dugong must respect some conditions, including: removing a hands width
circumIerence around the genitals and breast, the kniIe cannot touch some parts oI the animal, the dugong
has to be killed and quartered in a secluded place, not in public, and the presence oI a dugong specialist to
kill and quarter the dugong is necessary according to some inIormants (0,20). The head oI the dugong has
to be covered with a veil; sometimes inIormants said the sex and even the entire body Ior some oI them
need to be covered as well (0,09). Some inIormants said that one cannot eat dugongs (0,05). Others have
36
stated that one cannot kill, hunt or capture dugongs (0,03). One cannot have sex with dugongs (0,02); the
bones cannot be scattered everywhere (0,02). Finally, one inIormant said that the dugong must be killed
slowly (0,02).
Figure 22: reasons explaining the increase or decrease in the number oI dugongs according to the
inIormants oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park
Figure 23: decade in which interviewees oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park have consumed dugong meat
37
3/ Net Iishing ground questionnaires
A total oI 15 net Iishermen were interviewed in the Nosy Hara Marine Park: 5 in Antsako, 3 in
Lalandakana, 4 in Vahilava, and 3 in Ampasindava. This represented 100 oI all net Iishermen available
in the locations visited. Let us remember that by net Iishermen I mean Iishermen Ior whom net Iishing is
the main or only activity. This does not include Iishermen who use nets inIrequently. In Antsako, all
inIormants said there were 5 pairs oI net Iishermen. In Lalandakana, all net Iishermen said there were
three oI them. One interviewee in Vahilava said there were 4 teams oI net Iishermen, whereas the
remaining three inIormants stated that they were 6 teams. Lastly, in Ampasindava, two Iishermen
answered that there were Iour net Iishermen in their village, and one said there were 10 (however, this
inIormant could not give us the names oI all 10 net Iishermen or indicate where they lived, whether the
other inIormants could name them all, which might mean they are more reliable).
Fishermen interviewed were on average 38 + 12 years-old, with a minimum age oI 18 and a
maximum age oI 65. Fourteen Iishermen (93 oI all inIormants) Iished with a pirogue (mean length: 3,7
+ 1,2 meters, minimum length: 2,5 meters; max length: 5,5 meters), whereas the remaining Iisherman had
a vedette (8-meter long). Two inIormants (13 ) had a motorized embarkation. They had outboard motors
oI respectively 5 and 25 HP. Fishing trips lasted either 0 to 10 hours (93 oI inIormants) or 10 to 24
hours (7 ). Mesh size oI the Iishermen nets was Iairly homogenous as they only used a mesh size oI 3
Iingers (Irequency oI response: 0,67) or 4 Iingers (0,47). The length oI the nets they used ranged Irom 100
meters to 1000 m, with a mean oI 330 meters and a standard deviation oI 280 meters. The depth oI the
nets was comprised between 1 and 2 meters, and was on average 1,4 + 0,8 meters. Two third oI the
inIormants did not use any other Iishing technique, whereas one third did. All oI them said they also
sometimes used longlines, and one inIormant was also a diver. The inIormants deployed their nets one to
Iour times per Iishing trip, with an average oI 2 + 1,4 deployments. The net soaking time varied a lot
among the interviewees. Indeed, it ranged Irom 0,09 to 12 hours, with an average oI 2,5 + 2,9 hours. 87
oI the Iishermen interviewed used more than one net at a time, Irom two to ten. The mean number oI nets
used at once was 4,7 + 2,3 nets.
Nine Iishing locations were cited by the net Iishermen: Ampasindava, Antalaha, Lalandakana,
Nosy Momo, North oI Antsako, South oI Antsako, Vahilava, Nosy Hao, and Nosy Mpagnasigna. 80 oI
the interviewees claimed to have a constant Iishing eIIort, whereas this Iactor varied Ior the remaining
inIormants. The number oI net Iishermen in each inIormant's village was thought to have remained the
same since the inIormants started Iishing by most inIormants (83 oI them). However, 17 thought
there had been an increase in their number in the last decade, more speciIically between 2000 and 2006
according to the inIormants who had perceived this increase. The reasons given to explain this were that
marine products are more and more valued, and also the Iact that there were no other jobs available in the
area.
Some oI the criteria evoked beIore were used to estimate the relative risk Ior dugongs every
Iishing ground represented. They included: the number oI Iishermen per Iishing ground, the number oI
38
days oI use per year, the number oI years oI use per Iishing ground, the net soaking time, the number oI
nets used at once per Iisherman, the number oI net deployments per Iisherman, the length oI nets, the total
number oI boats per Iishing ground, and the total area covered by each Iishing ground. Six zones were
thus evaluated: Antsako, Vahilava, Nosy Mpagnasigna, Ampasindava, Lalandakana, and Antalaha. Table
3 shows how a ranking was attributed Ior each Iactor, which added up to a Iinal score Ior each Iishing
ground. This inIormation was used to determine the relative risk Ior dugongs. The Iirst and the third
quartiles were used to break down the series oI score into three parts. The values strictly below the Iirst
quartile were Ior Iishing ground representing a relatively low risk Ior these animals and the values strictly
above the third quartile Ior zones representing a high risk Ior dugongs. The risk Ior the remaining zones
was classiIied as moderate.
4/ GIS analysis
A map oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park, including the live dugong sightings (both individuals and
cow/calI pairs) Irom 1970 to 1999, the diIIerent Iishing grounds and the risks Ior dugong associated with
them, is represented on Iigure 24. For three oI the Iishing grounds mapped, namely Irohona Bay,
AndranoIanja, and Baobaloka, no inIormation could be obtained in order to assess the risk Ior dugongs.
Moreover, as Nosy Momo, the South oI Antsako, and Nosy Hao could not be accessed because oI the sea
conditions, they are not indicated on this map.
39
Table 3: Iactors taken into account Ior the analysis oI relative risk Ior dugongs that each Iishing ground
represented
40
Figure 24: map oI the net Iishing grounds oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park and their relative risk Ior
dugong, in relation to live dugong sightings Irom 1970 to 2009
41
4. DISCUSSION
The number oI Iishermen interviewed corresponds to at least 10 , but usually more and up to
100 Ior the net Iishing ground questionnaires, oI the Iishing community in each village oI the marine
park. Thus, we are Iairly certain that the results obtained about the interactions between Iishermen and
dugongs are representative. Moreover, the landing sites visited represented most sites where any kind oI
Iishing occurred within the Nosy Hara Marine Park. Lastly, trends in the interactions between Iishermen
and dugongs were analyzed Ior the period Irom 1970 to 2009, as the oldest net Iishermen interviewed
have started to Iish around 1970, and thus the oldest inIormation obtained on the Iishing grounds mapped
reIerred to this period. Fishermen Irom the Ampasindava region only Iished in Ampasindava and the
southern part oI the marine park, whereas Iishermen Irom the Vahilava region only go Iishing near
Vahilava. The sample obtained in this study was gender biased, as only males are traditionally engaged in
Iishing activities (Aragones et al., 1997; Ilangakoon et al., 2008). Only one woman participated in the
bycatch and dugong surveys and no Iemale was interviewed as part oI the Iishing ground survey.
Most Iishermen Iish one to Iour times a week and they are thus likely to scare dugongs away in
the Iishing grounds they use. As the number oI Iishermen has increased in the last decade and seems to
still be increasing, the likelihood oI disturbance Ior dugongs in the Nosy Hara Marine Park is accentuated.
An increase in the boat traIic Ior instance enhances the likelihood oI vessel strikes and noise disturbance
(Anderson, 1981; Marsh, 2000). Nets, longlines and snorkel gear are the most Irequently used Iishing
gear in this area. As Iar as bycatch is concerned, only nets are likely to have an impact on dugongs
(Kiszka et al., 2008; Pusineri and Quillard, 2008). Although some Iishermen said that dugongs were
bycaught with longlines, this seems rather unlikely as it has not been reported in the literature. Moreover,
there were other inconsistencies in the answers those Iishermen gave to other questions, which led me to
discard some oI these answers Ior analysis. Only net Iishing has been considered in this study as a likely
source oI bycatch Ior dugongs. However, the other Iishermen are likely to have an impact on dugong
populations as they create disturbance Ior these marine mammals (e.g. noise disturbance linked with the
use oI motorized boats). The third likely source oI threat identiIied was direct hunting, which was
evaluated. I will discuss this point later in this section. Habitat degradation, diseases, chemical pollution,
and potentially ecotourism are also possible sources oI stress Ior dugongs, which might lead to their
decline (Heinsohn et al., 1977; Marsh et al., 2002, 2003, 2004; Grech and Marsh, 2008; Grech et al.,
2008a). No ecotourism programmes have been developed in the Nosy Hara Marine Park so Iar (MNP
employees, personnal communication). The other parameters could not be evaluated in this work. The
health and composition oI seagrass beds can be evaluated thanks to linear transects according to Beudard
and Ciccione (2008). Although seagrass mapping have been carried out by C3 in the Nosy Hara Marine
Park, it does not include all locations where interviews have been done and/or locations oI dugong
captures and sightings. For this reason, I decided not to use results Irom seagrass mapping to evaluate the
quality oI the habitats available Ior dugongs in the Nosy Hara Marine Park, and especially in the Iishing
42
grounds mapped. According to Harding and Randriamanantsoa (2008), the main large scale disturbance
events in Northern Madagascar are severe tropical storms, which occur mainly between December and
April. This natural degradation process oI the habitat can potentially aIIect dugongs too. This would need
to be quantiIied in the park as well. The importance oI seagrass mapping in parallel to dugong surveys has
been emphasized by several authors, as this helps identiIy suitable areas Ior dugongs (C3, 2003; Hines et
al., 2008; Ilangakoon et al., 2008). CockroIt (1995) reported the incidental or deliberate netting oI
dugongs in Madagascar. RazaIindrakoto et al. (2008) also pointed out that bycatch represents a signiIicant
threat Ior sirenians in this country. According to Preen (1998), accidental netting seems to now be a more
serious threat than hunting in most areas where dugongs are Iound.
About the same number oI Iishermen used motorized and non-motorized embarkations.
However, net Iishermen in particular used non-motorized pirogues mostly, which reduces the distance
they can cover and the acoustic pollution, and then the risk Ior dugongs. It also reduces the risk oI boat
strikes with these animals. Dugongs, unlike manatees, might not be able to react to an approaching boat
as quickly (Marsh et al., 2003). However, let us note that although dugongs are thought to cease using
some areas with high boat traIIic, it has not been shown experimentally that dugongs are displaced Irom
areas with repeated boat passes (Marsh et al., 2003). The number oI net Iishermen is relatively low
compared to other types oI Iishermen (especially longliners and divers) and have homogenous Iishing
patterns. Only Iishermen whose principal activity was netting were interviewed Ior the net Iishing ground
questionnaires. Although some other Iishermen sometimes use nets (including jariIas), it is much less
regularly and their Iishing patterns are very heterogenous. Most oI them appear to Iish outside the Iishing
grounds mapped during this study and the deployment oI their engines is more random. Achieving a
representative sample oI those persons would also have required more time in the Iield, given the relative
unavailability oI some Iishermen. For those reasons, they were not included in this study. They are
however likely to have an impact on dugong populations, although less important and constant than the
net Iishermen interviewed. It would be interesting to study this eIIect by spending more time in the Iield
to have a more complete understanding oI the dynamics that are occurring. Migrant Iishermen should also
be taken into account, as some oI them Iish with nets.
UnIortunately, inIormation on all the zones mapped in the Iield could not be obtained. What is
going on in terms oI net Iishing patterns, and spatio-temporal variation oI use in Baobaloka, AndranoIanja
and Irohona Bay remains unknown. This is due to the Iact that I could not go back to Irohona to interview
net Iishermen, as it was too costly and not practical logistically. I surmised the three zones cited are thus
only used by the net Iishermen in Irohona due to their geographic proximity. In the Iuture, collecting data
about these three zones might help in obtaining a more complete picture oI the net Iishing in the Nosy
Hara Marine Park in order to understand risks Ior dugongs.
About 61 oI inIormants have seen dugongs at least once in their liIe in the Nosy Hara Marine
Park. Most observations, however, occurred inIrequently (less than once a year). About 70 oI dugongs
were observed alive. Those individuals were observed in Nosy Hara, Ampasindava, Vahilava,
Ambavarano, Nosy Mbamao, Nosy Hao, Ambalavy, Agnahibe, and Lakatandio. This conIirms that the
43
Nosy Hara Marine Park provides suitable habitat Ior dugongs, especially seagrass beds where more than
70 oI live dugongs have been observed. This agrees with RaIomanana and Rasolojantovo identiIying
the Nosy Hara Region as an important zone Ior dugong conservation in Madagascar (WWF EAME,
2004). When dugongs were observed dead, the cause oI death was generally capture in nets (jariIa and
other types oI nets), most oI them seeming to be accidental. However, about 10 oI captures are thought
to be direct, which means there are still persons willing to catch dugongs in the Nosy Hara Marine Park,
despite the Iact that dugongs are protected by law. Surprisingly, inIormants have reported a gradual
increase in the number oI observations oI live and dead dugongs in the Nosy Hara Marine Park Irom 1970
onwards. 6 oI the observations occurred between 1970 and 1979 whereas 44 oI observations were
reported in the last decade. Moreover, this trend is similar to the one regarding Iemale/calI observations.
This kind oI observation indicates that calving still takes place in the area (Kiszka et al., 2007). According
to the inIormants, those observations have increased Irom 1970 to 1999 and then remained similar
between 2000 and 2009. Those results are intriguing because they seem to reveal an increase in the
number oI dugongs, more especially as the number oI mother/calI pairs are reported to be increasing,
whereas literature denounces declines in dugong population, especially in the Indian Ocean Region
(Heinsohn et al., 1977; Anderson and Heinsohn, 1978; Preen, 1998; Anderson, 1981; Marsh et al. 1995,
1997,1999, 2002, 2004; WWF EAME, 2004; Zuasola, 2004; Kiszka et al., 2007; Muir and Kiszka, 2007;
Grech and Marsh, 2008; Grech et al., 2008a; Ilangakoon et al., 2008). In Iact, CockroIt (1995) suggested
that dugongs are probably the most endangered marine mammal, iI not one the most endangered large
mammals, in the Western Indian Ocean Region . Moreover, according to CockcroIt (1993), sightings are
now rare in Madagascar. A more probable explanation Ior the trend observed here regarding the increase
oI dugong observations through time is that it reIlects the age distribution oI the interviewees, as younger
inIormants are more numerous. However, iI there was an actual increase, this could be linked to the gain
oI a protected status Ior the dugong. The ANGAP (Association Nationale de Gestion des Aires Protges:
national association Ior the management oI protected areas) has been enIorcing laws to protect all marine
mammals, including dugongs, since 2005. As 85 oI the Iishermen interviewed were aware oI the Iact
that dugongs are protected by law, it might also reIlect the Iact that some inIormants think that iI dugongs
are protected, they are necesarily increasing, and they might then think that they are seeing more oI them.
Moreover, when the species was Iirst protected, the communication regarding this event might have led
more people to know about this animal, through pictures especially, which means they might have paid
more attention to dugongs, and thus observed them more oIten. Although a misidentiIication oI the
species oI interest has been thought to induce non representative results in some studies (Moore et al.,
2010), this is unlikely in this study. MisidentiIication oI dugongs is not probable, as inIormants were
asked to identiIy dugongs among a series oI pictures oI marine mammals and only those who could
recognise the animal were taken into account. As Moore et al. (2010) pointed out, the use oI photo or
pictures Ior accurate identiIication oI the species oI interest is important because the associated names
will diIIer among respondents or locations. The identiIication books provided were pre-tested Ior their
useIulness and comprehensiveness by C3 in the Iield during previous interview sessions in Northern
44
Madagascar, as Moore et al. (2010) adviced. InIormants might be willing to report more observations than
actually happen to impress researchers (Moore et al., 2010), and reinIorce the interest they have on the
Nosy Hara Marine Park as it could increase the amount oI money invested to study the area, or more
likely to avoid having to deal with stricter regulations iI severe declines were to be observed in dugong
populations (Silver and Campbell, 2005; Anadon et al., 2009). They might also do so to comply with
perceived interviewers attitudes (Bernard et al., 1984; Campbell, 2005; Moore et al., 2010). Lastly, the
trend observed might be the result oI losses oI memories Ior events that happened a long time ago.
InIormants are more likely to accurately report events that happened recently than events that occurred a
long time ago. According to Bradburn et al. (1987), common sources oI errors which have to be taken
into account when dealing with interview-based protocols are omission (due to Iorgotten events) and
commission (mostly due to reporting events that actually occurred outside the reIerence period speciIied
in the question) (see also Bernard et al., 1984). Those Iactors have to be taken into consideration when
designing questionnaires, which was done Ior this study to avoid concerns about data accuracy (Bernard
et al., 1984; Bradburn et al., 1987; Close and Hall, 2006; Moore et al., 2010). A combination oI some oI
these explanations might also explain the reported increase in the number oI observations and especially
Iemale/calI observations. However, these trends are not in agreement with the answers obtained when the
inIormants were asked whether they thought that dugong numbers were increasing, decreasing, or
remaining stable. 82 oI the interviewees who answered that question noted a decline in dugong
numbers. However, a Iairly important percentage oI inIormants did not wish to answer that question.
Lastly, it is important to remember that this study does not allow us to estimate the size oI the population.
There are however most likely very Iew individuals leIt in the Nosy Hara Marine Park, as in other
regions oI the Indian Ocean (e.g. in the Comoros, Davis and Poonian, 2007).
In general, an overestimation oI dugong observations and an underestimation oI dugong captures
are possible. Although Iishermen seemed to be willing to answer our questions honestly, the Iear oI being
punished Ior capturing an illegal species might prevent them Irom reporting their captures (Close and
Hall, 2006; Hall and Close, 2007; Pusineri and Quillard, 2008; Kiszka et al., 2008). RazaIindrakoto et al.
(2008) pointed out that interviewing Iishermen probably results in an underestimation oI the true extent oI
bycatch, probably because answers may not be suIIiciently accurate or speciIic. Other reasons explaining
a possible bias in the answers given include limitations oI the recollection oI the Iishermen (Bernard et
al., 1984; RazaIindrakoto et al., 2008), the Iear oI reprimand, or the unwillingness to be truthIul with their
responses (RazaIindrakoto et al., 2008). The Iishing eIIort reported might also be higher than the actual
one, as this result was Iound in other studies on small-scale Iisheries, such as in Lunn and Dearden's work
(2006).
InIormants principally answered that dugongs were declining because the number oI
observations and/or the size oI the groups observed were decreasing. Other inIormants thought they had
migrated away Irom the park. Some Iishermen also linked this decline with the incidence oI too many
captures, with a low reproduction rate and lastly with human disturbance. The inIormants who thought
dugongs had increased in numbers provided the Iollowing reasons in order oI importance: the number oI
45
observations and/or the size oI the groups observed had increased, they are protected by law, and the
migration away Irom the park. The change in the number oI dugongs reported by the inIormants
interviewed (whether positive or negative) seems to have happened recently, especially in the last decade.
This coincides with RaIomanana and Rasolojantovo's reports oI dugong declines in Madagascar in the
last 10 to 15 years due to anthropogenic threats (WWF EAME, 2004). 75 oI inIormants who said there
had been an increase in the number oI dugongs said it happened between 2000 and 2009, and 58 oI
interviewees who noticed a decrease in their number thought it had occurred during the same time period.
Although, as we have seen, the number oI reported Iemale/calI observations seems to have increased
Irom 1970 to 2009, only less than 20 oI inIormants have actually made that kind oI observation.
Female/calI pairs have been spotted in 14 diIIerent locations within the Nosy Hara Marine Park. The
dugongs observed were mostly individuals; the number oI observation oI pairs and groups oI dugongs
was similar. The question about the size oI the groups was not analysed as the answers we obtained
seemed highly improbable in some cases (some inIormants reported seeing groups oI 100 dugongs), and
there were oIten inconsistencies between the answer to that question and the number they had given in the
table summarizing the inIormation about their dugong observations. Moreover, other questions were not
taken into account as the answers seemed unreliable. This is the case oI the size oI individuals observed
(some inIormants have reported 5 to 12-meter dugongs). Thus, we cannot estimate iI individuals sighted
were calIs or adults.
Only 6 oI all inIormants have captured dugongs at least once in their liIe. According to Petit
(1927), dugong hunting has been a traditional activity in Madagascar, especially on the West Coast (e.g.
Nosy Faly, Nosy Be) Ior quite a long time. Moreover, captures occurred inIrequently (less than once a
year). Two inIormants inIormed us that they stopped catching dugongs in 1995 and 1999. These results do
not necesarily reIlect the non-willingness to catch them, but instead the Iact that there are such low
numbers oI dugongs that capture does not occur very oIten. Two sites oI captures were revealed by three
inIormants only (out oI the eight who claimed that they had caught dugongs): Vahilava and Agnahibe.
Illegal hunting represents a problem Ior dugongs in other parts oI the world such as Australia, Mayotte,
the Philippines, India and Sri Lanka (Heinsohn et al., 1977; Marsh et al., 1995; Marsh et al., 1997; Preen,
1998; Nursey-Bray, 2003; Ilangakoon et al., 2008; Pusineri and Quillard, 2008). Despite the Iact that
dugongs are protected by law Irom direct slaughter in most countries oI their range, a lack oI enIorcement
leads to a limited ability to protect dugongs (Preen, 1998; Marsh et al., 2003).
Most Iishermen said they would eat a dugong iI they happened to catch one. Some other
inIormants would release it alive. Only a Iew inIormants answered that they would sell it, which probably
reIlects the Iact that since catching dugongs is Iorbidden by law, selling your catch might lead to a report
to the local authorities and a Iine. For this reason, there might not be a market Ior dugong meat anymore.
The number oI dugong hunters seems to be very low in the villages visited. Although answers varied
according to the inIormants interviewed, most oI them said there were none in their village. Because oI
the Iact that answers varied a lot, including quite high numbers, which did not seem reliable, the mean
number oI dugong hunters per village was not calculated; instead, the percentage oI inIormants who gave
46
an answer Ior each category was calculated (no dugong hunter in the village, one, two or more than two).
One inIormant was excluded Irom the analysis because he reported a number oI 40 dugong hunters,
which is highly unlikely because the number oI total Iishermen might not even reach 40.
All the meat can be eaten or sold in dugongs according to the inIormants. Some oI them however
claimed that the meat is not sold anymore. The meat is very appreciated, and a lot oI inIormants said it
tastes delicious, which might be the reason why most inIormants said they would eat it iI they
accidentally caught one instead oI releasing it. Dugong meat is considered a delicacy in other regions oI
the world and is oIten consumed Ior special occasions (e.g. in Palau: Marsh et al., 1995 ; in
Australia/Papua New Guinea: Marsh et al., 1997, 2004; in India and Sri Lanka, Ilangakoon et al., 2008).
Dugong meat currently Ietches a price oI about 6300 FMG/kg and thereIore enhances a Iisherman's
income as Iish is usually sold around 5000 FMG/kg. Demand Ior dugong meat and increasing rarity
probably help in creating a higher market value, which adds impetus to illegal hunting, while enIorcement
oI laws protecting dugongs might be very ineIIective (Ilangakoon et al., 2008). About the same number oI
Iishermen have and have not eaten dugong meat in their liIetime. The percentage oI inIormants who had
eaten dugong meat increased gradually Irom 1970 to 1999, and then this percentage decreased. This
decrease might be due to the Iact that more people are now more aware oI the Iact that dugongs are
protected due to awareness raising campaigns and the presence oI MNP employees. Interesingly, although
most inIormants noticed a decline in dugong populations, still almost 40 oI interviewees claimed that
dugongs were not endangered. This might reIlect the Iact that individual Iishermen tend to underestimate
the impacts oI bycatch because these events can be relatively rare (Soykan et al., 2008). Moreover, 15
oI interviewees did not know that it was illegal to capture and kill dugongs.
As in other parts oI the world, dugongs seem to have a high cultural value Ior the inhabitants oI
the Nosy Hara Marine Park, like in the Torres Strait and in Arabia Ior instance (Grech and Marsh, 2007;
Grech and Marsh, 2008; Grech et al., 2008a; Mry et al., 2009). Evidence oI ancient dugong hunting has
been Iound in some areas due to archealogical excavations (McNiven and BedingIield, 2008; Mry et al.,
2009). The Ilesh, hide, oil and tusks have been exploited Ior Iood and medicinal purposes in various
regions (Marsh et al., 1999; Hines et al., 2005b; Marsh et al., 2005; Hines et al., 2008; Pusineri and
Quillard, 2008; Mry et al., 2009). In Madagascar and other regions oI the world, dugongs were and are
the subject oI proprietary rites concerning their capture, the transport oI their remains on land, and their
consumption (Petit, 1927; Mry et al., 2009). Fady are traditional belieIs the local population must adhere
to (Walker and Roberts, 2005). It can also de deIined as a taboo that constrains a particular activity in a
speciIic location (Langley, 2006). There are diIIerent Iadys regarding dugong capture and killing, which
shows the current and long-term inclusion oI this animal in local culture (Hines et al., 2005b). Some
Iishermen said that dugong specialists must be present to quarter the animal. According to RaIomanana
and Rasolojantovo (WWF EAME, 2004) the consultation oI sorcerers beIore killing the animal in some
villages oI Madagascar was necessary to avoid bad luck. Some people think it is Iady to eat dugongs (also
sometimes it is not Iady Ior everybody but only Ior some ethnicities), as in other parts oI Madagascar
(Cinner, 2007). Other interviewees inIormed us that hunting, capturing or killing dugongs is Iady. Those
47
Iady and the way dugongs have to be handled show a respect Ior the animal, probably because most
people see resemblances between humans and dugongs. Pusineri and Quillard (2008) Iound that some
Iishermen in Mayotte thought protecting dugongs was important as they are human-like. Lilette (2006)
has also emphasized strong ties between humans and dugongs in Madagascar. The origin oI the myth oI
the mermaid could be the result oI legends about a Iisherman who engaged in an incestuous liaison with a
Iemale dugong and the concept oI anthropomorphism (Lilette, 2006). This author suggested out that it is
possible to associate taboos, unwritten social rules that regulate human behavior (Colding and Folke,
1997), with a sort oI environmental regard on the part oI the Iishermen. Moreover, dugongs are
considered as ancestors in some regions (Petit, 1927). According to Colding and Folke (1997), Aswani
(1998), Berkes et al. (2000), Colding and Folke (2001), and Lingard et al. (2003), taboos represent critical
social mechanisms Ior resource conservation. As Lingard et al. (2003) and Cinner (2007) pointed out,
taboos are very important in controlling Malagasy peoples action. A study oI the radiated tortoise in the
South oI Madagascar by Lingard et al. (2003) has shown that even a small increase in the number oI
villagers not respecting the Iady about this species will result in the species decline. Fady sometimes reIer
to marine resource exploitation (Colding and Folke, 1997, 2001). Some sacred areas in Madagascar
prohibit Iishing Ior example (Cinner, 2007). It can also be taboo to consume certain species (such as
guitarIish and sea turtles) (Cinner, 2007). Lingard et al. (2003), and Cinner (2007) emphasized the Iact
that local taboos and customs should be included into contemporary conservation measures and that they
are important to understand in this regard. According to Cinner (2007), several marine reserves in
Madagascar are currently trying to develop regulations reIlecting and complementing local Iady. Lilette
(2006) also emphasized the Iact that some taboos can ensure protection Ior some species in Madagascar.
Moreover, according to Lingard et al. (2003), there is a better chance that environmental regulations
based on traditional customs and sanctioned by local institutions are respected more compared with the
regulations imposed by external agencies. Taboos may, moreover, provide low monitoring, enIorcement
and sanctioning costs, which is particularly interesting in developing countries (Colding and Folke, 2001).
Indeed, according to these authors, they are selI-enIorced and linked to belieIs oI automatic sanctions .
Cinner (2007) also emphasized the belieI that not respecting taboos leads to supernatural sanctions. Using
taboos as a conservation tool also reinIorces the link between indigenous peoples and researchers
(Colding and Folke, 2001). Lastly, although there is hope that taboos can serve conservation purposes, let
us note that the displacement and urbanisation oI rural human populations has led to an increasing loss oI
traditional values and taboos to resource exploitation, which could hinder their eIIiciency Ior conservation
purposes (Marsh et al., 2003; Cinner, 2007). Laslty, let us note that altough the level oI compliance with
taboos can be very high, it varies greatly among the diIIerent regions oI Madagascar (Cinner, 2007).
Other authors (Rakotoson and Tanner, 2006) argued that regulating marine resource use would work
better iI dinas were taken into account. Dinas are social codes, or community conventions. They are
mostly known through oral tradition and are usually more respected that the Malagasy penal code
(Rakotoson and Tanner, 2006). The non-respect oI dinas leads to sanctions. Village elders or chieIs are
responsible Ior making sure dinas are respected. According to Rakotoson and Tanner (2006), dinas can
48
Iunction as a vehicle Ior communicating national law , as it is the case in Nosy Ve, where dinas state that
hunting sea turtles during their period oI reproduction is Iorbidden (see also Harding and
Randriamanantsoa, 2008). Altough dinas could be play a role in conservation, the biggest limitation to the
use oI dinas Ior managing coastal resource is the lack oI contentment that sometimes arises when
Iishermen do not Ieel justly compensated (Rakotoson and Tanner, 2006).
Most Iishermen in the villages visited were interviewed (all oI the net Iishermen in Lalandakana
and one member oI each net Iishing team in Antsako were interviewed). The remaining Iishermen were
not available during the Iield trip and thus could not be interviewed (two Iishermen in Vahilava and one
Iisherman in Ampasindava). However, according to the other net Iishermen, who knew each other well as
the population oI Iishermen is Iairly small, claimed that they have very similar Iishing patterns. As
mentionned previously, I chose to interview only Iishermen whose principal activity was net Iishing. For
most oI them, this is actually their only activity. Those persons are likely to have a signiIicant and
constant impact on dugong populations. The net Iishermen interviewed had homogenous Iishing patterns
in terms oI Irequency oI Iishing, Iishing grounds used, Iishing techniques, and types oI boats. In Antsako,
there are 5 teams oI 2 Iishermen who practice net Iishing. One member per team was interviewed to make
sure observations were independent as Moore et al. (2010) adviced; as both members oI the team always
Iished together, it was unecessary to interview both oI them. Three Iishermen used nets in Lalandakana, 6
in Vahilava and 4 in Ampasindava. Those numbers are relatively low compared to the number oI total
Iishermen, most oI them using longlines or being divers who pick up sea cucumbers using snorkel gear.
However, let us emphasize that dugong numbers are likely to be so low that the removal oI only a Iew
individuals caused by those net Iishermen through bycatch probably has important negative consequences
at the population level (Preen, 1998; Lewison et al., 2004; Kiszka et al., 2007; Pusineri and Quillard,
2008). Those inIormants mostly used non-motorized embarkations, which reduces the risk oI noise
disturbance Ior these marine mammals, as well as the risk oI boat strikes. Most oI their Iishing trips lasted
Irom 0 to 10 hours. The net soaking time was the most heterogenous Iactor oI all the Iactors examined. It
was on average oI 2,5 + 2,9 hours. Most net Iishermen used more than one net at a time, the average
number oI nets being 4,7 + 2,3. Moreover, they deploy their nets on average 2 + 1,4 times per Iishing trip.
These Iactors are likely to inIluence the risk oI bycatch Ior dugongs as they dictate how many nets and Ior
how long they are in the water. Nine Iishing locations were emphasized throughout the interviews:
Ampasindava, Antalaha, Lalandakana, Nosy Momo, North oI Antsako, South oI Antsako, Vahilava, Nosy
Hao, and Nosy Mpagnasigna. Out oI these Iishing grounds, only 6 have been mapped: North oI Antsako,
Ampasindava, Antalaha, Lalandakana, Vahilava, and Nosy Mpagnasigna. Moore et al. (2010) proposed
visiting Iishing grounds with GPS units to record locations, as a means to get more accurate data than by
using interviews alone. The remaining zones were not accessible given the sea conditions encountered
during the Iield trip. In a Iuture study, it might be interesting to map those sites to add them to the analysis
oI risk the net Iishing grounds oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park represent Ior dugongs. Contrarily to the total
number oI Iishermen, the number oI net Iishermen in the Nosy Hara Marine Park does not seem to be
increasing, which means that the pressure exerted by net Iishermen on dugong populations is not likely to
49
increase in the near Iuture.
The Iollowing parameters were taken into account to estimate the relative risk each Iishing
ground represents Ior dugongs: the number oI Iishermen per Iishing ground, the number oI days oI use
per year, the number oI years oI use per Iishing ground, the net soaking time, the number oI nets used at
once per Iisherman, the number oI net deployments per Iisherman, the length oI nets, the total number oI
boats per Iishing ground, and the total area covered by each Iishing ground. Some other parameters were
meant to be taken into account in this analysis (such as the types oI habitat present in each Iishing ground
and the mean depth), but the answers given by respondents diIIerred greatly and could not be analysed.
The number oI boats was used as a Iishing eIIort metric as in other studies, as it is a simple and cheap
way to eIIiciently estimate the Iishing eIIort and it Iacilitates comparison with other studies (Moore et al.,
2010). In this analysis, all Iactors are considered as having a similar impact (i.e. representing the same
risk) Ior dugongs. Having an idea oI the importance oI each parameter might lead to a more
representative analysis oI risks. However, as this has not been evaluated in the scientiIic literature, it
requires Iurther investigation. It would be useIul Ior instance to know iI the net soaking time is a more
important Iactor than the number oI Iishermen per Iishing ground in determining risks Ior dugongs and so
on Ior the other Iactors. This would lead to a better ranking oI each zone and might potentially change the
outcome. The scores obtained Ior each Iishing ground were divided in three (strictly below the Iirst
quartile, between the Iirst and the third quartile, and stricly above the third quartile) and the
corresponding three risk categories (respectively low, moderate, and high) were attributed to each area. As
such, Vahilava and Nosy Mpagnasigna represent a relatively high risk oI disturbance Ior dugongs,
Antsako and Ampasindava are classiIed as having a moderate risk, whereas Antalaha and Lalandakana
are zones with a relatively low risk. Five Iishing grounds, namely Vahilava, Nosy Mpagnasigna, Antsako,
Ampasindava, and Lalandakana overlap with individual dugong and cow/calI pair sightings. This
indicates that there is a risk oI conIlict between net Iishermen and dugongs in those zones in particular,
especially as bycatch is concerned. Accidental drowning oI dugongs in nets is thought to be the main
threat Ior dugongs worldwide (WWF EAME, 2004; Poonian et al., 2008), as seems to be the case in the
Nosy Hara Marine Park. The areas covered by those Iishing grounds might seem relatively small
compared with the total area oI the marine park. However, as emphasized beIore, only the removal oI a
Iew individuals might signiIicantly aIIect the local populations oI dugongs (Kiszka et al., 2007; Pusineri
and Quillard, 2008). Ranking diIIerent Iactors representing risks Ior dugongs has been done by Grech and
Marsh (2008). Those authors used knowledge gathered during a meeting oI experts where they weighted
the relative risk to dugongs and their habitats Irom each oI the Iive human Iactors studied and then
weighted the relative importance oI the components oI each Iactor. Expert knowledge gathering in order
to weigh diIIerent parameters (i.e. to determine the relative importance oI each criterion in relation to
each other). The same tool could be used to Iind out the relative importance oI each criteria evaluated in
this Iield study and assess the relative risk each Iishing zone oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park represents Ior
dugongs. However, this implies the possibility oI organizing meetings oI experts. Grech and Marsh
(2008) have also used GIS soItwares to Iorm a composite coverage oI hazards by intersecting GIS layers
50
oI the spatial risk Ior each oI the Iactors they considered. The ratings oI those Iactors were then imported
to the composite coverage. A sensitivity analysis oI the diIIerent levels oI their composite coverage oI
impacts helped the researchers deIine a cutoII score at which the combined inIluence oI the Iactors oI
interest could be considered to be oI low risk Ior dugongs. Dugong management units had a high risk
Irom anthropogenic activities when 2 or more hazards were present and a low risk when 1 or no activity
was present. Hazards were weighted on their relative impact on dugongs. Such analysis, more complete
than the one carried out Ior this study, might increase the level oI conIidence in the results obtained, but
still requires organizing meetings with scientiIic experts.
The results oI this study indicate that dugongs are exposed to human disturbance probably in the
most part oI the marine park because oI Iishermen in the Nosy Hara Marine Park, especially those using
motorized embarkations and potentially destructive Iishing techniques (although this parameter was not
been investigated in this study). The human disturbance created by Iishermen seems to be constant in
space but increasing in time. The risk oI direct hunting appears relatively limited as not many dugong
hunters are leIt in the villages visited. Moreover, the Iact that dugongs are protected by law seem to
prevent dugongs Irom being hunted in high numbers. According to Marsh et al. (2003) and Kiszka et al.
(2007), dugong consumptive use Ior Iood and oil was a major threat in the past. Both accidental and
deliberate netting oI dugongs have been reported in Madagascar (CockroIt, 1995), but accidental capture
seems to now be the major pressure Ior dugong populations oI the Nosy Hara Marine Park, as it is the
case worldwide (Preen, 1998; Davis and Poonian, 2007). The number oI bycatch events was relatively
low and occurred principally in nets. This result is comparable with those oI other studies (e.g. Pusineri
and Quillard, 2008; Moore et al., 2010). As dugong populations are small, dramatic declines can be
induced by the removal oI only a Iew individuals (Preen, 1998). Five oI the six Iishing grounds mapped
and studied overlap with places where dugongs, and most especially Iemale/calI pairs have been sighted.
Management solutions to reduce risks Ior dugongs must be investigated, taking into account socio-
economic Iactors. As Doukakis et al. (2007) emphasized, it is important to study the socio-economic
impacts oI Iisheries restrictions beIore management action is in place. In order Ior the dugong populations
to recover, the threat oI incidental capture in nets has to be totally eliminated (Marsh et al., 2003; WWF
EAME, 2004; Davis and Poonian, 2007). Ideally, the Iishing community needs to be consulted to address
these issues (Silver and Campbell, 2005). Marsh et al. (1997), Nursey-Bray (2003) and Grech et al.
(2008a and b) emphasized the importance oI involving local communities in dugong conservation Ior the
success oI any management action regarding this species. Marine Iisheries are not well-managed in
Madagascar, which makes it diIIicult to enIorce new restrictions (Doukakis et al., 2007). Moreover, as in
other parts oI Madagascar (e.g. the southwestern region, RazaIindrakoto et al., 2008), marine resources
are the principal source oI income oI the local communities and subsistence coastal Iisheries are
predominant (Walker and Roberts, 2005). According to Marsh (2000), Read (2008), and Soykan et al.
(2008), there is a need to develop eIIicient measures and the consequences oI implementing such
measures needs to be studied. Marsh (2000) has documented Iishing restrictions such as temporal or
spatial closures to commercial gill and mesh netting in Australia. Management solutions could include,
51
Ior instance, area closures, as has been done in Australia to reduce incidental dugong mortality in nets
(Grech et al., 2008b). Other mitigations include net attendance requirements in order to recover entangled
dugongs beIore they drown, and changes to the speciIications oI set and driIt nets, while developing
alternative livelihoods (Marsh, 2000; Pusineri and Quillard, 2008; RazaIindrakoto et al., 2008). Marsh
(2000) emphasized that proper enIorcement must be guaranteed Ior the success oI the implementation oI
any mitigation measure. Another important point is that, in order to be eIIicient, conservation measures
have to be agreed on a regional basis because oI the diIIiculty to identiIy dugong stock boundaries and
because oI dugong ability to move across jurisdictional boundaries (Heinsohn et al., 1977; Marsh et al.,
2002, 2003; Sheppard et al., 2006; Kiszka et al., 2007; Pusineri and Quillard, 2008). Thus, dugong
population assessment at a local scale is probably as important as regional co-operation. II spatial closures
are enIorced, Marsh (2000) pointed out the importance oI ensuring that eIIort is not displaced to other
areas, which could have even more detrimental eIIects on dugongs (Marsh, 2000). Lastly, acoustic alarms
(pingers) used to reduce bycatch-associated mortality in cetaceans are not likely to be eIIective Ior
dugongs as no behavioural responses to acoustic alarms have been observed to date (Marsh et al., 2003).
Recovery oI dugong populations is likely to be slow and diIIicult to investigate (Marsh, 2000). Changes
in the rate oI bycatch will also be diIIicult to detect as Iishermen are unlikely to provide accurate records
(Marsh, 2000).
Lewison et al. (2004), Marsh (2007) and Soykan et al. (2008) noted that on a global scale,
population-level consequences oI bycatch are not well known. This is in part due to the diIIiculty oI
estimating demographic parameters Ior marine megaIauna, as well as to the migratory character oI some
species. This aspect surely requires more attention Ior species like dugongs and studies on a larger scale
should be undertaken. Small-scale Iisheries have oIten been understudied, as the bycatch issue was
previously addressed by studying industrial Iisheries (Lewison et al., 2004; Soykan et al., 2008; Poonian
et al., 2008). However, the impacts oI traditional Iisheries might be greater in some areas, such as in our
study area.
According to De Freitas and Tagliani (2009), all available sources oI inIormation, and
particularly local knowldege oI the resource users, have to be taken into account Ior the success oI the
development and implementation oI coastal management policies. Scholz et al. (2004) have deIined local
ecological knowledge (LEK) as the body oI knowledge held by a speciIic group oI people about their
local ecosystems . Other authors mention the utility oI the use oI traditional ecological knowledge
(TEK), a cumulative body oI knowledge, practice and belieI evolving by adaptive processes and handed
down through generations by cultural transmission, about the relationship oI living beings (including
humans) with one another and with their environment (Calamia, 1999; Berkes et al., 2000). LEK and
TEK have received growing attention over the past decades and are increasingly used in conservation and
wildliIe management (Berkes et al., 2000; Huntington, 2000; Nursey-Bray, 2003; Balram et al., 2004;
Drew, 2005; Close and Hall, 2006; Fox et al., 2006; ShackeroII and Campbell, 2007; Anadon et al.,
2009). Berkes et al. (2000) emphasized the Iact that many indigenous people abide by some kind oI
conservation practices, and these must be taken into account. In remote places that have not been studied
52
scientiIically, as it is the case in the Nosy Hara Marine Park, local people are oIten the only source oI
local biological inIormation (Drew, 2005; Gilchrist et al., 2005). Moreover, inIormation gathered Irom
local communities have allowed scientists to acknowledge population declines that would have otherwise
remained unnoticed (Gilchrist et al., 2005). Encouraging local user participation also encourages Ieelings
oI ownership to the particular research project which enhances the success oI research and conservation
actions (Mackinson and Nottestad, 1998; Balram et al., 2004; Drew, 2005), as we trust have occurred in
this project. Several authors advice the use oI GIS as a cost-eIIective method to employ LEK and TEK, in
particular by combining inIormation Irom diIIerent sources (Aswani, 1998; Calamia, 1999; Balram et al.,
2004; St. Martin, 2004; Aswani and Lauer, 2006; Hall and Close, 2007; Grech et al., 2008a; De Freitas
and Tagliani, 2009). Consulting local Iishermen to understand their behaviour, their spatial use oI
resources and/or to map Iishing grounds has been the Iocus oI this and several other studies (Aswani,
1998; Mackinson and Nottestad, 1998; St. Martin, 2004; Silver and Campbell, 2005; Abernethy et al,
2007; Daw, 2008). According to Mackinson and Nottestad (1998), and Johannes et al. (2000), Iailure in
integrating Iishermen knowledge can result in an ineIIicient management oI artisanal Iisheries. The latter
authors pointed out that taking local resource user knowledge into account is oI particular importance,
especially in the case oI hard-to-observe animals as crude quantitative assessments made by biologists
can be highly misleading. Mackinson and Nottestad (1998), Calamia (1999), Berkes et al. (2000), Moller
et al. (2004), Hall and Close (2007), and Anadon et al. (2009) also pointed out the complementarity
between TEK and scientiIic ecology. For example, one oI the advantages oI collecting TEK is that
researchers are less likely to miss occasional extreme events. ScientiIic studies might miss such events
because oI their short duration (Moller et al., 2004). Moreover, the use oI LEK can yield reliable
inIormation about the presence and relative abundance oI animals over a much wider range than standard
Iield-sampling protocols, expecially Ior populations with very low density (Anadon et al., 2009).
Aragones et al. (1997), and Anadon et al. (2009) also noted that researchers can acquire trends on
presence and abundance oI the animals studied over lengthy periods oI times. Moreover, according to
these authors, two Ieatures are likely to determine reliability relative to the taxa studied: the taxa should
be easily recognizable without any particular skill, and a group oI local experts must be available,
which was the case in this work. Obtaining inIormation about local user knowledge is oIten done by
realizing interviews oI the relevant stakeholders (Hauzer et al., 2008). Several authors adviced the use oI
a questionnaire-based protocol to estimate bycatches and Iishing eIIort (Anderson and Heinsohn, 1978;
Marsh et al., 1995; Aragones et al., 1997; D'Agrosa et al., 2000; Huntington, 2000; Kiszka et al., 2004;
Gilchrist et al., 2005; AlIthan and Davis, 2006; De Iongh et al., 2006; Kiszka et al., 2007; Beudard and
Ciccione, 2008; Ilangakoon et al., 2008; Pusineri and Quillard, 2008; Read, 2008), to characterize
Iisheries (Neis et al., 1999; McVean et al., 2006) or harvest wild resources (Jones et al., 2008), and Ior the
general collection oI local knowledge (Calamia, 1999). Selecting key inIormants is also crucial to obtain
accurate data, rather than selecting a random sample Irom the community studied (Aragones et al., 1997;
Huntington, 2000; Moore et al., 2010). Chain reIerrals can be used; in this method, each participant
suggests knowledgeable local people. In this study, reIerrals allowed us to identiIy suitable and available
53
Iishermen to interview. Using the kind oI questionnaires designed Ior this study is useIul when the
researcher already knows what inIormation must be sought to obtain quantitative inIormation
(Huntington, 2000). According to Jones et al. (2008), the accuracy oI data collected by interviewing local
users is generally improved by conducting the interviews independently, which we did. Every attempt
was made so that the researchers appear neutral, as it encourages people to answer questions honestly
(Jones et al., 2008). IdentiIying spatial and temporal trends in bycatch events is critical to develop more
eIIicient conservation strategies (Lewison et al., 2009). In any case, mutuallistically respectIul
relationships between the investigators and local communities have to be implemented Iirst (Huntington,
2000; Nursey-Bray, 2003; Drew, 2005; ShackeroII and Campbell, 2007; Jones et al., 2008; Marsh, 2008).
The main downside oI interview-based surveys is the response bias that could arise Irom the
unwillingness oI Iishermen to provide answers that could result in negative management actions (Baird
and Gorgone, 2005). RazaIindrakoto et al. (2008) adviced the use oI interview-based surveys to estimate
bycatch rates oI diIIerent species in Madagascar. Community interviews have already been carried out to
obtain inIormation about traditional Iisheries in Madagascar, as well as about dugong bycatch, hunting
and sightings in Madagascar and other countries (e.g. Marsh and LeIebvre, 1994; in the Republic oI
Palau: Marsh et al., 1995; C3, 2003; in Thailand: Hines et al., 2005b; in the Southwest oI Madagascar:
Walker and Roberts, 2005; Silver and Campbell, 2005; in the Antongil Bay on the east coast oI
Madagascar: Doukakis et al., 2007; in the Comoros: Davis and Poonian, 2007; in Vietnam and Cambodia:
Hines et al., 2008; in India and Sri Lanka: Ilangakoon et al., 2008; in Mayotte: Pusineri and Quillard,
2008; Moore et al., 2010). Hudson (1981) also adviced interviewing knowledgeable coastal people to
obtain inIormation on the distribution and abundance oI dugongs in developing countries with limited
Iinancial resources.
According to Begossi (2001), the mapping oI Iishing grounds or spots need to be a basis Ior
conservation measures and Iishery management strategies. Posada et al. (1996) and Begossi (2001) have
advised the use oI the GPS technology as a means to rapidly map Iishing grounds and identiIy patterns in
Iishing activities. In Iact, according to Posada et al. (1996), it should be used as a complement to other
Iisheries data gathering. The use oI GIS can also contribute to better understanding parameters such as
Iishermen movements, spatial variation oI Iishing eIIort, and resource distribution (Aswani and Lauer,
2006; Close and Hall, 2006; De Freitas and Tagliani, 2009). GIS can also be used to establish
conservation priorities (Balram et al., 2004). GIS is useIul to link, relate, and analyse spatial and attribute
data in general (Calamia, 1999), as well as to evaluate the risk to marine mega-Iauna Irom bycatch in a
uncertain environment (Grech et al., 2008b). GIS technology should be seen as an important tool in the
development oI managements scenarios (Calamia, 1999; Close and Hall, 2006; Grech and Marsh, 2008;
Grech et al., 2008a), especially Ior marine Iisheries (St. Martin, 2004). The use oI participatory mapping
has been proposed by Daw (2008) to understand Iishermen spatial behaviour, as well as the use oI
interviews to obtain inIormation about Iishing grounds characteristics and use.
One must be aware oI the limitations oI the use oI traditional/local ecological knowledge; they
include: the need Ior trust Irom local populations, which can take a long time to acquire, the Iact that the
54
identiIication oI the person in possession oI the required knowledge might be diIIicult, the unavailability
oI desired people, the Iact that proIound cultural diIIerences can hamper the transIer oI knowledge,
problems linked with politicization oI TEK, problems oI data ownership and oI the Iate oI the data
(Bernard et al., 1984; Calamia, 1999; Moller et al., 2004; Drew, 2005; Silver and Campbell, 2005;
ShackeroII and Campbell, 2007). For this study, community support was obtained beIore carrying out
interviews to try to minimize some oI the potential problems. Using map-based interviews have been
shown to be useIul in describing Iishermen behaviour by Hall and Close, 2007. However, the inability oI
some Iishermen to interpret maps or speciIy Iishing locations, or distances Irom shore where they Iished
was emphasized by Moore et al. (2010). There might be biases in our answers corresponding to Iishermen
actually designating Iishing grounds or dugong sightings, when they actually could not read the maps
correctly. However, these biases are hard to estimate. Moreover, Iishermen might not be willing to report
bycatch events resulting in injury or death oI marine mammals (Diaz Lopez, 2006). Such limitations have
been taken into account when designing the surveys, writing the questionnaires, and selecting key
inIormants. As Johannes et al. (2000) and Huntington (2000) pointed out, interviewing randomly selected
Iishermen can lead to misconceptions about a species status. Instead, researchers should seek out and
interview old Iishermen Ior instance and especially those with local reputations as experts (Balram et al.,
2004). Although we tried to do so, the unavailabilty oI some Iishermen prevented us Irom always being
able to select the desired inIormants. Johannes et al. (2000) also warned scientists about the use oI
questionnaires as they are designed to obtain inIormation on important subjects. However, such
methodology is judged inappropriate in uncovering inIormation on importans topics about which the
researcher is not aware (Johannes et al., 2000). According to Johannes et al. (2000), such topics arise
oIten in poorly documented, small-scale artisanal Iisheries. RazaIindrakoto et al. (2008) and Moore et al.
(2010) have however used diIIerent criteria to assess the reliability oI the answers given by the
interviewees. They include the behaviour oI the Iishermen when answering the questions (e.g. the level oI
interest and cooperation oI the respondents), researcher own knowledge oI the species biology, and the
suitability oI the answers. These points have been evaluated in this work and led to the removal oI some
answers Irom some analysis. We tried to increase data accuracy by insuring the respondent conIidentiality
and using at least one native interviewer in the team, as it is thought to lead to better results in interview-
based surveys (Silver and Campbell, 2005; Close and Hall, 2006; Moore et al., 2010). We reduced the
non-response rates by designing interviews so that they were relatively short and made sure we sollicited
Iishermen when they were more available to answer our questions, as Iishermen are generally time-
limited (Moore et al., 2010).
Other methods are available to study Iishermen behaviour; they include the analysis oI users
logbooks and analysis oI Iishermen' own GPS (Eales and Wilen, 1986; Wilen et al., 2002; Walters, 2003;
St. Martin, 2004; Hall and Close, 2007; Daw, 2008; Soykan et al., 2008; Moore et al., 2010). This kind oI
study leads to more accurate results, but was unIortunately not possible in this case. As Moore et al.
(2010) noted, logbooks are usually not kept in Iisheries with little or no management oI the numerous
Iishing boats, as was the case in the Nosy Hara Marine Park. According to Kiszka et al. (2008), methods
55
Ior studying interactions between marine mammals and Iisheries are numerous and include: observers on
Iishing boats, examination oI wounds, scars or entangled gear on beach-cast animals, observation oI
animals in the wild with entangled Iishing gear, interviewing Iishermen, and the examination oI the rates
and patterns oI the rates and patterns oI entanglement-related scarring visible in photographs oI animals
in the wild (see also Baird and Gorgone, 2005; Diaz Lopez, 2006). Scars in marine mammals can result,
among others, Irom boat strikes and Iishing gear entanglement (Baird and Gorgone, 2005; Kiszka et al.,
2009). Some authors recommended the implementation oI on-board observer programs to obtain bycatch
and Iishing eIIort inIormation (D'Agrosa et al., 2000; Starr and Langley, 2000; Read, 2008; Grech et al.,
2008b; Soykan et al., 2008; Lewison et al., 2009; Moore et al., 2010). However, such programs are
diIIicult to implement in artisanal Iisheries mainly because oI the small size oI the Iishing vessels, the Iact
that they are dynamic and Ilexible and usually operate all year-round (Grech et al., 2008b; Kiszka et al.,
2008; Moore et al., 2010). Moreover, it could not be Ieasible because oI the inIrequent bycatches made by
a large number oI embarkations (Jaramillo-Legoretta et al., 2007). Methods Ior catching dugongs have
been developed in order to implement tagging procedures (Lanyon et al., 2006; Sheppard et al., 2006).
This allowed more inIormation on dugongs' demographics and liIe history characteristics to be obtained
(Lanyon et al., 2006). However, this method was not possible in the case oI this study because oI the
elusive nature oI, and reduced number oI interactions with, dugongs. As WWF EAME (2004)
emphasized, the implementation oI more expensive surveys are needed to obtain inIormation about the
number and distribution oI dugongs, as well as about their movements in most countries where they
thrive. Ideally, aircraIt-based surveys and/or satellite tagging programmes should be implemented iI
Iunding becomes available. Aerial surveys are useIul to study marine mammal populations and have been
used in several countries to obtain more inIormation on dugong populations and status (Anderson and
Heinsohn, 1978; Marsh and LeIebvre, 1994; De Iongh et al., 1995; Marsh et al., 1995; Preen, 1995b;
Aragones et al., 1997; Marsh et al., 1997; Marsh et al., 1999; Marsh, 2000; Marsh et al., 2005; C3, 2003;
Dutton, 2004; Heinsohn et al., 2004; Kiszka et al., 2004; Marsh et al., 2004; Hines et al., 2005a; Hines et
al., 2005b; De Iongh, 2006; De Iongh et al., 2006; Grech and Marsh, 2007; Grech and Marsh, 2008;
Grech et al., 2008a; Beudard and Ciccione, 2008; Hines et al., 2008). Thus aerial counts oI dugongs
should be carried out to get more inIormation about population sizes and the status oI dugongs in
Madagascar, as this remains unknown (C3, 2003; WWF EAME, 2004; Grech and Marsh, 2007; Muir and
Kiszka, 2007; Grech et al., 2008a; Haskins and Davis, 2008). Data Irom this type oI survey, used in
conjunction with geostatistical techniques (e.g. universal kriging) have allowed researchers to prioritize
areas Ior dugong conservation (Grech and Marsh, 2007; Grech et al., 2008a), whereas in this work hot
spots Ior dugongs were identiIied due to dugong sightings in the Nosy Hara Marine Park since the
1970s. Tagging activities have helped researchers gain insight into many aspects oI dugong biology and
ecology (e.g. movements, size oI herds, mother-calI interactions) (De Iongh et al., 1995; Marsh, 2000;
Sheppard et al., 2006). Due to Iinancial constraints on this study, such surveys were not able to be
completed. A tagging programme was not attempted due to an expectation that encounters with dugongs
were extremely rare or inexistant. Also, the lack oI training oI C3 staII members would have made a
56
tagging programme even more diIIicult. Lastly, Iollow-up interviews are advisable (Pusineri and Quillard,
2008). Ideally, they should be carried out by a interdisciplinary team (Mackinson and Nottestad, 1998;
Huntington, 2000; Johannes et al., 2000; Campbell, 2005, Aswani and Lauer, 2006; Fox et al., 2006; Hall
and Close, 2007; Moore et al., 2010). Indeed, as emphasized by several researchers, bridging the gaps
between natural and social scientists is necesary and will beneIit species conservation (Campbell, 2005;
Fox et al., 2006; ShackeroII and Campbell, 2007). This, however, implies many challenges (Huntington,
2000; Campbell, 2005; Fox et al., 2006; ShackeroII and Campbell, 2007). Several authors mentionned the
useIulness oI long-term collaboration and the Irequent acquisition oI local knowledge and data to detect
any change in trends (Drew, 2005; Jones et al., 2008; Pusineri and Quillard, 2008). In Iact, Jones et al.
(2008) emphasized the useIulness oI paired analysis, that is, returning to the same inIormant in
subsequent years. Power is thus increased because individuals diIIer in their preIerred activities or
harvesting skills (Jones et al., 2008). InIormation about marine mammals can be obtained by asking local
populations to record sightings (Aragones et al., 1997). Indeed, another solution to continue the collection
oI data about dugong sightings over time is to train Iishermen to record their sightings, as it has been done
in the Comoros by distributing dugong sighting cards (AlIthan and Davis, 2006; Davis and Poonian,
2007). Gilchrist et al. (2005) have encouraged the local communities to voluntary report their
observations oI some species by distributing posters. InIormation about dugong sightings have been
gathered through incidental sighting reports, which mostly originated Irom dive tour operators,
government conservation oIIicers, and marine research Iacilities (C3, 2003; Kiszka et al., 2007); this kind
oI study was not attempted because oI the lack oI appropriate participants in the Nosy Hara Marine Park.
Moreover, other kinds oI inIormation were available due to necropsies (Aragones et al., 1997; C3, 2003),
which were not possible in this study. In brieI, there is a wide array oI studies that can be carried out to
obtain inIormation about dugong populations in general. Some oI them, however, could not be
implemented in this study due to the characteristics oI the Iishery, and a lack oI training oI staII members,
oI budget and oI time.
A relatively high percentage oI inIormants thought that dugongs were not endangered. Moreover,
most said they would eat a dugong instead oI releasing it alive iI they happened to catch one. Lastly, 15
oI the inIormants were not aware oI the Iact that dugongs are protected by law. These three points
emphasized the Iact that although some awareness campaigns have been carried out in the park (mostly
towards children), they need to cover a larger geographic area and involve more Iishermen. The need oI
awareness raising Ior the protection oI other species in Madagascar, and in other countries where dugongs
are known to occur, has been emphasized by several authors (C3, 2003; Dutton, 2004; AlIthan and Davis,
2006; Muir and Kiszka, 2007; Pusineri and Quillard, 2008). Poonian et al. (2008) emphasized the Iact that
an awareness-raising campaign may have helped in reducing sea turtles bycatch in the Comoros. MetcalI
et al. (2007) noted that most Iishermen were skeptical about the threatened status about green turtles
(Chelonia myaas) and hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata), a phenomenon that is likely to occur in
some countries where dugongs are present. Massive inIormation campaigns have shown useIul in the
Philippines, where it led to a stop oI killing and slaughtering dugongs (Zuasola, 2004). Cinner and
57
Fuentes (2008) have emphasized the Iact that results oI previous studies need to be shared with the local
populations. Regulations have to include the participation and approval oI traditional authorities and local
people (Aswani, 1998). Lastly, awareness-raising activities might be particularly helpIul when observer
programmes to obtain quantitative bycatch rates are logistically and Iinancially compromised, as in this
case and others (e.g. in the Comoros: Poonian et al., 2008). Dugons can be considered as a Ilagship
species Ior coastal conservation eIIorts (Marsh and LeIebvre, 1994; C3, 2003; Marsh et al., 2003; Grech
and Marsh, 2008; Hines et al., 2008), including environmental education and raising awareness (de Iongh
and Kiswara, 2007). Because dugongs need large areas, protecting them will bring many species under
protection as well; dugongs are also called umbrella species (Marsh et al., 1999).
5. CONCLUSIONS
The Nosy Hara Marine Park clearly provides suitable habitats Ior dugongs, which are still
observed within the protected area. Although the number oI observations reported seemed to have
increased over the years, that may reIlect the age distribution oI inIormants. Most oI inIormants thought
dugongs were declining, or even disappearing. Three types oI threats Ior dugongs in the Nosy Hara
Marine Park were investigated: human disturbance, bycatch, and direct hunting. Captures, mostly
accidental but also direct, seemed to be the biggest threat to dugongs in the marine protected area,
according to the inIormants interviewed. As anticipated, the number oI bycatch events Ior dugongs was
low and these occurred principally in gillnets. There was an overlap between net Iishing grounds and
places where dugongs, in particular, Iemale/calI pairs were observed. Not a lot oI dugong hunters seemed
to remain in each village, which probably conIirms the Iact that the hunting pressure was lower than in
the past and at least less important than the bycatch issue. This study also helped identiIy a lack oI
awareness concerning the protected and endangered status oI dugongs in the Nosy Hara Marine Park.
This increased the need Ior awareness-raising acitvities in the park in order to protect dugongs.
Six net Iishing grounds were mapped and studied during the Iield trips. Out oI these, Vahilava
and Nosy Mpagnasigna seem to represent the highest risk Ior dugongs, especially when bycatch
probability is concerned. Ampasindava and Antsako represent a moderate risk. Finally, a low risk has
been attributed to Antalaha and Lalandakana. Female/calI pairs have been observed in most oI these
zones, which is likely to reinIorce the consequences net Iishermen have on dugong populations.
Further studies should Iocus on evaluating other Iactors that might cause dugong decline such as
habitat degradation, including the quality oI seagrass beds available in the diIIerent parts oI the marine
protected area, and the potential sources oI chemical contamination. Ideally, with more time available in
the Iield, taking into account Iishermen whose main activity is not net Iishing but who still use nets
inIrequently would increase our understanding oI the risks represented by net Iishing grounds in the Nosy
Hara Marine Park. It may also be necessary to account Ior migrant Iishermen in order to obtain
representative data. Even though it seems like not many migrant Iishermen use nets, this observation is
based on a relatively small sample size Irom a parallel study conducted simultaneously in the Iield by one
58
member oI C3. A study involving a more signiIicant number oI these Iishermen should help in conIirming
this observation. Having access to a motorized embarkation and/or being in the Iield when sea conditions
are better that they were in June-July 2010 will be necesary to map the remaining three zones that have
been identiIied by net Iishermen as net Iishing grounds (Nosy Hao, South oI Antsako, and Nosy Momo).
Moreover, an analysis oI the paramaters considered needs to be carried out in order to determine the
relative risks Ior dugongs in each Iishing zone. This can help determine which Iactors are most important
and weigh them in order to calculate a more representative score Ior each Iishing ground. Follow-up
interviews should be carried out in the villages visited to detect any changes in the trends emphasized in
this work. On a larger scale, it is also important to clariIy dugong status in Madagascar, through more
accurate methods such as aerial counts. This seems to be a necessary step in order to design appropriate
conservation measures Ior this species. Aerial counts have not been completed to date as the procedure is
costly. Some authors have also emphasized the need Ior a regional assessment oI dugong populations to
obtain inIormation about absolute abundance, distribution and movements oI this species.
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Iisherman behavior into management models. Bulletin of Marine Science 70: 553-575.
WWF (World WildliIe Fund) Eastern AIrican Marine Ecoregion (EAME). 2004. Towards a Western
Indian Ocean dugong conservation strategy: the status oI dugongs in the Western Indian Ocean Region
and priority conservation actions. Dar es Salam, Tanzania, WWF, 68 pp.
Zuasola, F.O. 2004. Newspaper story helps stop slaughter oI dugongs. Sirenews 41: 14-15.
67
Appendix 1: bycatch questionnaire
BYCATCH QUESTIONNAIRE




Hello, we are students Irom the University oI Antsiranana and we would like to learn more about the dugong, which
you may have heard oI, and the capture oI certain species such as the sharks, turtles, whales and dolphins in
Madagascar. Since Iishermen know the sea better than anyone else, we would like to consult you about those
subjects. The study shouldn`t be too long. Would you be interested in helping us by sharing your valuable
knowledge?
BYCATCH QUESTIONS
Date Landing Site Interviewer
Age Occupation Name (Optional)
Boat and Fishing effort
1. Type: pirogue pirogue with outrigger boat
plastic boat (12 people) other (specify)
Length: Name oI boat:
2. Motorized? (Select more than one answer if requirea)
none (oars/sails) inboard motors outboard motors N/A
HP oI motor:
II motorized, does it also have a sail? YES NO
3. # Iishers per boat:
4. Do you always land at this port? (If yes go to question = 5)
YES NO OTHER (specify)
a) Where do you land most oIten?
b) Which other ports do you visit?
5. Gear Characteristics (Recora units in m or cm or mm): For hooks, refer to hook ID template ana recora hook
si:es from template.
Net
Mesh size:
Total net length:
Net width/depth:
Floating or anchored:
Basket Trap
# Baskets
Basket size
Length
Basket width & depth
Trap depth
Palangre
Hook size:
Total line length:
Total # hooks:
Depth oI hooks:
Longlines
Hook size:
Number oI hooks per line:
Line length:
Floating or sinking lines:
Harpoon Other
68
6. When you go Iishing what do you go out to catch?


7. II you catch more than one species which species do you catch most?


8. During the Iishing season how oIten do you go Iishing?
everyday 5-6 times per week 2-4 times per week
1 per week other (speciIy) N/A
9. Duration oI trips:
0-10 hours 10-24 hours 1-2 days 3-5 days ~5 days N/A
10. Where do you Iish most oIten? (Take village names if possible, assign coae 10A, 10 B, 10 C, - & mark on map
with coae, specify whether village, beach, bay, etc.)



11. Are there any types oI Iishing gear that are not allowed?
YES NO N/A
a) Which gear types are not allowed?
b) Why?

12. Are there areas where Iishing is not allowed ? (Draw locations on map)


13. What Months do you Iish?
II you do not Iish every month, why?

14. In what months/season do you have the most Iishing eIIort? (Specify names of months)


15. Are there any times oI year where Iishing is not permitted due to law, local custom or Iady?
YES NO N/A
Why?
16. How long have you been Iishing?
17. a) Since (Insert response to Question 16), has there been a change in Iishing grounds? (If NO or N/A, go to b)
YES NO N/A
II yes: (Take village names if possible, assign coae 17A, 17 B, 17 C, - & mark on map with coae)




Why?

When did this change?
b) Since you started Iishing, has there been a change in the number oI Iishers and boats? (If SAME or N/A, go to c)
MORE LESS SAME N/A
69
Why?

When did this change?
c) Since you started Iishing, has there been a change in the Iishing gear you use? (If NO or N/A, go to a)
YES NO N/A
What did you use previously?
Why did this change?
When did this change?
d) Since you started Iishing, has there been a change in the kind oI species you catch? (If NO or N/A, go to e)
YES NO N/A
What species were caught then?
Why did this change?
When did this change?
e) Since you started Iishing, has there been a change in the size oI the Iish you catch? (If 'same` or N/A, go to f)
decreased increased same N/A
Why?
When did this change?

I) Since you started Iishing, has there been a change in the overall weight oI your total catch? (If 'same` or N/A, go
to 18)
decreased increased same N/A
Why?
When did this change?
18. Are there any Iadys about Iishing? YES NO N/A
What are they?



TURTLE BYCATCH QUESTIONS
19. Do you catch sea turtles in the water BY ACCIDENT/ON PURPOSE/BOTH? (If 'Never`, go to question = 31)
by accident on purpose both never N/A
20. Which species (write aown names ana letter from photos)?


21. How oIten do you catch turtles, by accident or on purpose (Indicate with a` Ior accidental, b` Ior on purpose)?
Never Less than once a year Once a year
A Iew times a year Once a month Once a week
A Iew times a week Every day N/A
22. How many in the last year (Recora separate answers for each species)?
Est. #
23. In what months or seasons do you catch sea turtles by accident or on purpose (Indicate with a` Ior accidental, b`
Ior on purpose)?
24. In what months do you most commonly catch them by accident or on purpose (Indicate with a` Ior accidental, b`
Ior on purpose)?
25. In what general location do you catch them, by accident or on purpose (Indicate with a` Ior accidental, b` Ior on
purpose)? (Draw on a map ana take village name with coae)


70
26. Was this in:
open sea over seagrass coral reeI N/A
27. What kind oI Iishing gear do you most Irequently catch turtles with, accidentally or on purpose? Please speciIy
(Indicate with a` Ior accidental, b` Ior on purpose.):
Net
Mesh size:
Total net length:
Net width/depth:
Floating or anchored:
Basket Trap
# Baskets
Basket size
Length
Basket width & depth
Trap depth
Palangre
Hook size:
Total line length:
Total # hooks:
Depth oI hooks:
Longlines
Hook size:
Number oI hooks per line:
Line length:
Floating or sinking lines:
Harpoon Other
28. II you catch one accidentally, what do you do with it? (More than one answer possible)
release it (alive) discard it (dead) kill it and discard it eat it
sell it other N/A
Why?
29. Do you think that you catch (accidentally or on purpose) MORE / LESS / SAME number oI turtles as you did
when you started Iishing? (II SAME or N/A, go to 30)
MORE LESS SAME N/A
Why?

When did this change?
30. Do you have any Ieelings about accidentally catching sea turtles?
happy neutral Irustrated (damage to gear, loss oI time)
sad shame other (specify) N/A
Explain

31. Do you know oI any Iadys/local stories/myths to do with turtles/consuming turtle meat or eggs?
YES NO N/A
What are they?


32. Where do sea turtles nest? (Draw on a map ana take village name with coae, specify for which species; If N/A, go
to question = 35) N/A


33. What time oI year do they nest? (specify for which species) N/A


34. Do you think there are MORE / LESS / SAME number oI turtles nesting than 20 years ago?
MORE LESS SAME N/A
Why?
35. Do you catch nesting turtles iI yes how oIten? (If answer is 'Never`, go to question = 37)
Never Only a Iew times in my liIe A Iew times a year
71
Once a month Once a week A Iew times a week
Every day N/A
36. How many nesting turtles did you catch in the last year? (Recora separate answers for each species)
Est. #
37. Do you collect turtle eggs iI yes how oIten? (If answer is 'Never`, go to question = 39)
Never Only a Iew times in my liIe A Iew times a year
Once a month Once a week A Iew times a week
Every day N/A
38. a. How many turtle nests did you visit in the last year?
b. What are the names oI the nesting sites?

39. Market values (if relevant): What parts and species oI sea turtles are eaten / sold?

What species are Iavored Ior sale and consumption?
What is the price Ior sea turtle (specify quantity ana price in Ar or FMG)?
Meat Eggs Shell
40. Do you think sea turtles are threatened by extinction?
YES NO N/A
41. What do you think are the main threats to sea turtles?

42. Is it prohibited to kill a sea turtle or collect their eggs? YES NO N/A
CETACEAN BYCATCH QUESTIONS
43. Do you catch cetaceans BY ACCIDENT/ON PURPOSE/BOTH? (If the answer is 'Never` or 'N/A`, go to
question = 55)
by accident on purpose both never N/A
44. Which species? (Write aown names ana letter from photo)
45. How oIten do you catch cetaceans, by accident or on purpose (Indicate with a` Ior accidental, b` Ior on
purpose)?
Never Less than once a year A Iew times a year
Once a month Once a week A Iew times a week
Every day N/A
46. How many in the last year? (Recora separate answers for each species).
Est. #
47. In what months or seasons do you catch cetaceans, by accident or on purpose (Indicate with a` Ior accidental, b`
Ior on purpose)?
48. In what months do you most commonly catch them, by accident or on purpose (Indicate with a` Ior accidental,
b` Ior on purpose)?
49. In what general location do you catch them, by accident or on purpose (Inaicate with a for acciaental, b for on
purpose)? (Draw on a map ana take village name with coae)


72
50. What kind oI Iishing gear do you most Irequently catch cetaceans with, accidentally or on purpose?
Please speciIy (Indicate with a` Ior accidental, b` Ior on purpose):
Net
Mesh size:
Total net length:
Net width/depth:
Floating or anchored:
Basket Trap
# Baskets
Basket size
Length
Basket width & depth
Trap depth
Palangre
Hook size:
Total line length:
Total # hooks:
Depth oI hooks:
Longlines
Hook size:
Number oI hooks per line:
Line length:
Floating or sinking lines:
Harpoon Other
51. II you catch one accidentally, what do you do with it?
release it (alive) discard it (dead) kill it and discard it eat it
sell it other N/A
Why?

52. Do you think that you catch, accidentally or on purpose, MORE / LESS / SAME number oI cetaceans as you did
when you started Iishing? (Indicate with a` Ior accidental, b` Ior on purpose; II Same or N/A, go to 53)
MORE LESS SAME N/A
Why?
When did this change?

53. Do you catch diIIerent kinds oI cetaceans than you did when you started Iishing (Indicate with a` Ior accidental,
b` Ior on purpose)? YES NO N/A
II yes, what species did you catch when you started Iishing?

54. Do you have any Ieelings about accidentally catching cetaceans?
happy neutral Irustrated (damage to gear, loss oI time)
sad shame other (specify) N/A
Explain

55. Are there any Iadys about whales and dolphins? YES NO N/A
What are they?


56. Do whales or dolphins ever damage your gear by entanglement and escape?
YES NO N/A
Location Species Size Month/Year Fishing gear used?
57. Do you know oI any stranded whales and dolphins?
YES NO N/A
Location Species Size Month/ Year Fishing gear marks? Cause
58. Market values (if relevant): What parts and species oI cetaceans are eaten/sold?
73


What species are Iavored Ior sale and consumption?

What is the price Ior cetacean meat? (specify in Ar or FMG)
SHARK BYCATCH QUESTIONS
59. Do you catch sharks BY ACCIDENT/ON PURPOSE/BOTH? (If answer is 'Never` or 'N/A`, go to question 72)
by accident on Purpose both Never N/A
60. Which species? (write aown the names ana the letters from the photos)


61. How oIten do you catch sharks (Indicate with a` Ior accidental, b` Ior on purpose)?
Never Less than once a year A Iew times a year
Once a month Once a week 2 or 3 times a week
Every day N/A
62. How many in the last year? (Recora separate answers for each species).
Est. #
63. In what months or seasons do you catch sharks (Indicate with a` Ior accidental, b` Ior on purpose)?


64. In what months do you most commonly catch them (Indicate with a` Ior accidental, b` Ior on purpose)?

65. In what general location do you catch them? (Indicate with a` Ior accidental, b` Ior on purpose, Draw on a map
ana take village name with coae)



66. Was this in: (more than one choice possible)
open sea over seagrass coral reeI N/A
67. What kind oI Iishing gear do you most Irequently catch sharks with, accidentally or on purpose?
Please speciIy (Indicate with a` Ior accidental, b` Ior on purpose):
Net
Mesh size:
Total net length:
Net width/depth:
Floating or anchored:
Basket Trap
# Baskets
Basket size
Length
Basket width & depth
Trap depth
Palangre
Hook size:
Total line length:
Total # hooks:
Depth oI hooks:
Longlines
Hook size:
Number oI hooks per line:
Line length:
Floating or sinking lines:
Harpoon Other
68. II you catch a shark by accident, what do you usually do with it (More than one answer possible)?
release it (alive) discard it (dead) kill it and discard it eat it
sell it other N/A
Why?

69. Do you think that you catch MORE / LESS / SAME number oI sharks as you did when you started Iishing? (II
Same or N/A, go to 70)
MORE LESS SAME N/A
74
Why do you think this has changed?


When did this change?

70. Have the species oI shark you catch changed since you started Iishing? (II NO or N/A, go to 71)
YES NO N/A
Please speciIy which species:

When did this change?

71. Do you have any Ieelings about accidentally catching sharks? (More than one answer possible)
happy neutral Irustrated (damage to gear, loss oI time)
sad shame other (specify) N/A
Explain:


72. How does your community Ieel about sharks? (Perceptions, emotions, values, etc.)?

73. Are there any Iadys or cultural or historical stories about sharks?
YES NO N/A
What are they?



Market Values
74. What parts oI the shark are eaten? (muscle, internal organs, fins, etc.- *take note if one part is highly valuea)



75. What parts oI the sharks are sold? (Which parts are highly valuea?)


76. Who buys the most sharks? Meat: Fins: N/A
Which species is the most preIerred? Meat: Fins: N/A
77. Which species is not eaten? N/A
78. a) Is shark meat MORE / LESS / SAME price as Iish? (specify in Ar or FMG)
MORE LESS SAME N/A
Price: per N/A
b) What is the price Ior shark Iins (remember unit)? N/A
Size: Price: per
Size: Price: per
Size: Price: per
Size: Price: per
79. Do people like to eat shark MORE / LESS / SAME as other Iish species?
MORE LESS SAME N/A
Other Comments: (Fisher or Interviewer)
75
Coelocanths
80. Do you know what a coelacanth is? (I.D in species hanabook)
YES NO N/A
What are they?


81. Do Have you ever caught a coelacanth?
YES NO N/A
82. Did you keep it or discard it?
KEEP DISCARD N/A
b. Why?

83. What size was it? (use arm length / reel as a guiae)?


84. What type oI gear was used?


85. What type oI bait was used?


86. At what depth was it caught?


87. Do you know oI any local names Ior coelocanths?
YES NO N/A
What are they?


88 . Do you know oI any Iadys/local stories/myths to do with coelocanths?
YES NO N/A
What are they?


76
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7
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o
t
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8
0
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e
t

w
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d
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h
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l
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6
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a
.

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.

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7
.

H
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8
.

H
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w
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9
.

a
.

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b
.

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F
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1
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1
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1
1
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1
2
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1
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.

a
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1
4
.

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n

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d
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g
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?
8
1
F
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h
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g
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A


(

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1
5
.

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(
i
f

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=
1
7
)

Y
E
S

N
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1
6
.

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(






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8
2
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8
4

TlE PRE3ENT RE3EARCl w0RK lA3 8EEN (PREPARE0 T0 8E) Pu8Ll3lE0 lN:
.................. (FULL REREFEN6E 0F ThE ART|6LE|60HHUN6AT|0N| TE6hN|6AL REP0RT}
...........................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................................
.