PSYCHOLOGY STUDY NOTES SEMESTER 1 2009

What Is Psychology?
The scientific study of behaviour Dimensions of BehaviourOvert motor component- movement A cognitive component- thinking An affective component- feelings, emotions A physiological component, including; - Heart rate - Blood pressure - Hormonal changes - Neural functioning Human behaviour is driven by instincts It is influenced by the interplay between the ID and the SUPEREGO at an unconscious level It is shaped by the consequences in the external environment 1. 2. 3. 4.

Returning to the roots Psychology was dominated by the Behaviourists up to the 50s and 60s Many psychologists were not happy with this view as adequate in the investigation of human behaviour.

The revolt against Behaviourism The Humanists- Rogers and Maslow - Argued the need to consider the self in any study of human behaviour - Argued against many behaviourist and Freudian ideas. The Cognitive Revolution - From the 60s the study of mental processes gained ascendancy.

Carl Rogers: greatest contribution was his theory of counseling or therapy known as clientcentered therapy: The client is in control The client should be an active decision maker Therapist role is facilitator

Abraham Maslow: a motivation theory and hierarchy of needs

A pyramid of needs The more human type needs are at top of pyramid Needs are gratification activate

Cognitive Perspective A number of breakthrough discoveries in the 60s ignited interest in this perspective The cognitive view focuses on how people process, store and retrieve information The metaphor for the cognitive perspectives is that the mind is like a computer

Evolutionary Perpective That human physiology and behaviours evolved because they helped our ancestors survive and reproduce Our night vision is poor so we are better off sleeping/conserving energy when it is dark Some behaviours are biologically determines

The early philosophers Hippocrates: inferred from people with head injuries that the brain was the source of human experience. Aristotle: first related the issue of nature vs. nurture Plato: raised the issue of mind vs. body

More recent Philosophers and Physicians Descartes: promoted the idea that human behaviour was not dominated by outside forces but from within. Joseph Gall: introduced phrenology and suggested that different brain areas were responsible for character and personality traits.

The Birth of Modern Psychology Wilhelm Wundt: formed a movement called structuralism: interested in the structure of the mind and the components of consciousness. William James: formed a movement called functionalism: interested in the function of mental processes and interested in processes of consciousness such as learning and perception Sigmund Freud: founder of the psychodynamic approach: distinguished between the conscious and unconscious mind. Theorised about the mental conflict and impact on behaviour. John Watson: founded the approach known as the behaviorist psychology. Argued that the study of mental process has no place in a scientific approach to human behaviour. Behaviorist psychology dominated thinking in psychology for half a century.

Fundamental concepts of the Psychodynamic Approach Psychodynamic: to do with the dynamic interplay between mental energy and systems Psychic Energy: energy from within the CNS that drives perception, thinking, emotions and motivation Instincts: inborn or natural conditions that impart energy and direction to psychological processes and behaviours.

The Structure of Personality The ID The unconscious component of personality Driven by instinctual energy Impulsive Sometimes referred to as the child component

The EGO Has no energy of its own Responds to ID and Superego demands Sometimes referred to as the adult components

The SUPEREGO Largely unconscious component Attempts to suppress the excesses of the ID Development shaped through rewards and punishments, family and other institutions Sometimes referred to as the policeman component

History of Behaviourist Psychology Ivan Pavlov: discovered how conditioned responses are created, paving the way for behaviourist psychology Edward Thorndike: in 1913 coined the term instrumental conditioning which was the foundation of skinners theory John Watson: examined the way in which fear responses could be conditioned B.F. Skinner: developed the concept of operant conditioning. Principles of Behaviourist Psychology

Environmental events shape human behaviour The notion of internal states and processes is not necessarily to understand how behaviour is learned and maintained. The processes of empiricism are necessary to objectively understand human behaviour Human behaviour can follow laws and therefore be predictable and can be changed.

Biological bases
Neurons: generally have a cell body, dendrites and an axon that carries information to other neurons. When a neuron is at rest it is polarized, with a negative charge inside the cell and a positive charge outside. Graded potentials are the spreading voltage changes that occur as the neuron gets excited by other neurons. An action potential is the firing of neurons, or a nerve impulse. Sensory Neurons carry sensory information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system. Motor Neurons transmit commands from the brain to the glands and muscles of the body. Interneurons connect neurons with one another. The axons of most neurons in the central nervous system are covered with a myelin sheath, a tight coat of cells that is composed primarily of lipids that facilitates transmission of information to other neurons. At the end of an axon are terminal buttons, which send signals from a neuron to adjacent cells. These signals are triggered by electrical impulses. Connections between neurons occur at synapses. Two cells do not actually touch a synapse; rather there is a space between them called the synaptic cleft. Graded Potentials- Two types: depolarizing (excitatory): the cell is more likely to trigger an action potential. hyperpolarizing (inhibitory): the cell is less likely to experience action potential. Action Potentials: in any neuron action potential travels at same speed uniform in size travel in one direction only does not decay or reduce in intensity is the same irrespective on the size of the graded potential it activates

Neurotransmitters: are contained within the sacs of the terminals buttons within a neuron. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit information from one cell to another. Neurotransmitters are inactivated by: Reuptake Inactivation Drifting away

Excitatory Neurotransmitters: Cause excitation at the post-synaptic cell increasing the probability that the post-synaptic cell will produce an action potential. Inhibitory Neurotransmitters: Cause inhibition of the post-synaptic cell reducing the probability that the post-synaptic cell will produce an action potential.

The Nervous System: composed of a vast network of nerve pathways and structures that mediate all aspects of being a human: Motor activity Cognitive activity Sensory and Perceptual Activity Emotional and Behavioural Activity definitely Physiological Activity

Two types of nerve pathways in the nervous system: Afferent nerve pathways: a set of nerve pathways that feed information into the central processer. Efferent nerve pathways: a set of nerve pathways that send information from the brain to the body Structure of the Nervous System Somatic Nervous System: transmits sensory information in the central nervous system and carries out its motor commands. It receives information from the sensory receptors; eyes, ears, tongue, skin, muscles and other parts of the body. Autonomic Nervous System: conveys information to and from internal bodily structures that carry out basic life processes such as digestion and respiration. It consists of two parts. The sympathetic nervous system is typically activated in response to threats. Its role is to respond to threats and get the body ready body ready to fight of flight. It stops digestion and diverts blood to the muscles which may need extra oxygen. It serves as an important adaptation function. It arouses the organism. The parasympathetic nervous system supports more mundane or routine activities that maintain the bodys store of energy such as regulating blood sugar levels, saliva and eliminating wastes. The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system shares a relationship as a balancing act. As when an emergency has passed, the parasympathetic resumes control reversing the responses of the sympathetic nervous system. It is responsible for decreasing the arousal of the individual. The Endocrine System: the autonomic nervous system is linked with another vital network of brain structures and ductless glands known as the endocrine system. It is a system of glands that controls a number of vital functions such as growth, metabolism, cardiovascular function,

reproduction and general maintenance of the organism. Structures include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas and gonads. The Spinal Cord: sends information from sensory neurons in various parts of the body to the brain and it relays motor commands back to muscles and organs via motor neurons. It is segmented, with each segment controlling a different part of the body. The upper segments control the upper parts of the body and the lower segments control the lower parts of the body The Brain Frontal Lobes: contains primary and secondary motor association zones responsible for programming and execution of all physical movements and behaviours. Involved in a number of functions including movement, attention, planning, social skills, abstract thinking, memory and some aspects of personality. Considered our emotional control centre and home to our personality The front (anterior) portion of the frontal lobe is called the prefrontal cortex and is important for higher cognitive functions and the determination of personality. The back (posterior) portion consists of premotor and motor areas; the motor areas consist of nerve cells that produce movement. The left frontal lobe is involved in controlling language related movement whilst the right plays a role in non-verbal abilities. The frontal lobes are thought to play a role in our spatial orientation, including our bodys orientation in space. Brocas area located in the left frontal lobe is specialized for movements of the mouth and tongue necessary for speech production. Left frontal damage usually manifest pseudodepression; sluggish, lethargic. Right frontal damage as pseudopyschopathic; impulsive, anti-social, laughing inappropriate and inappropriate sexual behaviour. Damage to the frontal lobes is very vulnerable due to the position at front of brain.

Parietal Lobes: contains primary and secondary somatosensory zones as well as tertiary sensory association zones. Parietal lobe functions include processing of somatic sensations and perceptions and integration of sensory input from the somatic, visual and auditory regions of the brain. Damage to the parietal lobes can result in what is called Gerstmanns syndrome. Agraphia (inability to write) Acalculia (inability to perform mathematical problems) Aphasia (disorders of language) Agnosia (inability to perceive objects normally) Left-right confusion

Occipital Lobes: the centre of our visual perception system. The primary role of the occipital lobes is to receive and process visual information direct from the eyes. They are specialized in vision. Not particularly vulnerable to damage because of the location at back of brain however damage to the occipital lobes can result in Visual field defects Disorders in these areas can result in hallucinations and illusions

Temporal Lobes: contains primary and secondary auditory zones as well as tertiary sensory association zones and the limbic cortex. Functions include processing of auditory sensations and auditory and visual perception. Long-term storage of sensory information (memory) and the addition of affective tone to sensory information. Damage to the temporal lobes can result in: Disturbance to auditory sensation Disordered visual perception Impaired ability to organize and categorise information Impaired language comprehension Poor long-term memory Changes in personality Poor memory skills

Limbic Lobe: A network of structures including parts of the thalamus, hippocampus, amygdale and septum. Implicated in memory, motivation, emotional regulation and experience of emotion. Thalamus: functions like a telephone switchboard connecting sensory information to specific processing areas. Hypothalamus: connected to the pituitary gland and involved in complex behaviours. Also helps regulate the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system.

Split-brain Surgery The brain receives split information from the eyes; Left hemisphere receives information from the right visual field Right hemisphere receives visual information from the left visual field

Where the corpus callosum is intact, the left and right visual field images are rejoined at the tertiary association area allowing the brain to the see the whole image. Where the corpus callosum has been severed, the brain is incapable of rejoining the two separate images.

For split-brain patients; Sensory connections and motor control remains the same For seeing, hearing and feeling- the right visual field is in the left hemisphere and viceversa Motor actions by the right side are controlled by the left side of the brain.

Sensation
Sensation: refers to the process by which sense organs gather information about the environment and transmit it to the brain for processing Perception: the process by which the brain selects, organizes and interprets sensations. Three basic principles apply across all senses: There is no one-to-one correspondence between physical and psychological reality Sensation and perception are active, not passive Sensory and perceptual processes reflect the impact of adaptive pressures over the course of evolution. Sensory Receptors: designed to detect physical energy and translate physical stimuli into neural signals. Each sensory system requires a minimum amount of energy to activate the sensory system Sensation involves decision making Sensory systems are sensitive to changes in level of stimulation. Thresholds: Absolute Threshold: the minimum amount of energy required to activate a sensory system. They vary across individuals due to expectations, motivations, stress and fatigue. Examples: The ticking of a watch six meters away One drop of perfume in a large room The flame of a candle 50km away Signal Detection Threshold: sensations occur when the individual judges whether a stimulant is present or not- there is no absolute threshold but a relative threshold. Two distinct processes contribute to signal detection; Initial sensory process- the individuals sensitivity is the stimulus

 Decision Process- the individuals readiness to report detecting a stimulus when uncertain. Difference Threshold: the lowest level of stimulation required to sense that a change in stimulation has occurred. Just Noticeable Difference: the minimum difference in intensity between two stimuli that is sufficient to be detected. Threshold Laws Webers Law: regardless of the magnitude of two stimuli: the second stimulus must differ from the first by a constant proportion for it to be perceived as different. Fechners Law: the magnitude of a stimulus grows logarithmically as the subjective experience of experience grows arithmetically. However, the problem with fechners law is that it did not stay true for all stimuli. Stevens Power Law: subjective intensity of a stimulus increases in a linear function as actual intensity grows exponentially. The rate of increase varies according to stimuli. Sensory Adaptation: is the tendancy of the sensory systems to respond less to stimuli that continue without change. Eye Structure Iris: controls the amount of light entering the eye. Focus: fovea is a focal point; image is focused by 5 elements (cornea, aqueous humour, crystalline lens, cilary muscles, vitreous humour. It is small, 0.6mm diameter and contains only cones. Most sensitive to small detail. Retina: photosensitive part of the eye. Comprised to two types of photoreceptors; Rods: enable vision in low light, monochromatic. Cones: respond under bright light, colour vision. Retinal Cells: transforming light into neural impulses. Acuity: ability to see fine detail. Acuity is poor in low light, improving with increase of light. Colour Blindness: deficit to functioning of a specific type of cone.

Ear Structure Soundwaves strike the eardrum, causing it to vibrate with each wave of sound. The ossicles of the ear (malleus, incus, and stapes) are levers that translate the vibrations of the eardrum into

movements. The stapes connect to the oval window of the cochlear allowing the air vibrations of the eardrum to travel into the fluid filled inner ear. Therefore, soundwaves becomes waves in fluid; nerve fibres inside the cochlear register these fluid waves. They carry the signal as neuronal impulses to the auditory nerve and into the brain.

Neural Pathways- Cochlear to the Brain Soundwaves are processed by the primary auditory zone, in the temporal lobe of both hemispheres. Neural impulses from the cochlear are transferred to medulla oblongata (in the brainstem) where they are redirected to the other side of the brain. Nerve pathways then carry these impulses into the temporal lobe where the brain begins to process information. Skin Senses: specialized nerve endings (receptors) are localized within the skin to detect physical stimuli from the external environment. There are three classes of skin receptors: Pressure: physical contact with objects Temperature: of objects Pain: the destruction of skin tissue Pain: is the source of information that relates to the destruction of tissue Pain is adaptive- it encourages a change in behaviour to reduce pain Pain is influenced by cultural beliefs, emotional states and personality Proprioception Kinesthesia: sense of body motion Kinesthesis: receptors are located in the joints, muscles and tendons, providing feedback to the brain. Vestibular control: balance. Vestibular channels of the cochlear- the vestibule (two membrane sacs containing hair cells and calcium carbonate deposits) floats in the vestibular channels. Movements of the vestibule are registered by the brain.

Perception

Perception: refers to our awareness of objects and events in the world rather than to mere sensory attributes and qualities. Involves the organization of a continuous array of sensations into meaningful units that can be interpreted for meaning by the brain. Processes of perception: Form perception Figure-Ground- distinguishing between foreground from background. Simplicity- tendency to perceive the simplest pattern possible. Proximity- the brain tends to group together objects that are close to one another. Good Continuation- the brain organizes stimuli into continuous lines or patterns rather than discontinuous elements. Similarity- the brain tends to group together similar elements. Closure- people tend to perceive incomplete figures as complete.

Depth perception- Primary Distance Cues (binocular) Accommodation- changes in lens shape are detected. Works best for <1m distances. Convergence- eyes converge at <10m distances. Retinal Disparity- degree of overlap of image between the retinas in each eye.

Depth Perception- Secondary Distance Cues (monocular) Linear Perspective- parallel lines converge as they become more distant. Elevation relative to horizon- objects near horizon are more distant. Relative size of retinal image- if 2 objects have different retinal image size, largest is judged as being closer. Interposition- an object that partially obstructs view of another is judged to be closer. Texture Gradient- textured surfaces appear coarser when close and finer when distant. Shading- 3D objects are assumed to cast a shadow. Aerial Perspective- distant objects appear fuzzy due to atmospheric distortion. Familiar Size- familiar objects that appear small are assumed to be distant.

Motion perception Motion Parallax- objects in distance appear to move with us, those close move rapidly in opposite direction to that we are travelling. Motion Perspective- objects expand in our visual field at a rate that is same as our speed of approaching the object.

Perceptual constancy

Perceptual constancy- tendency to perceive objects as perceptually stable despite variation in the stimulation of sensory receptors. Colour- tendency to perceive objects colour as stable even under conditions of changing illumination. Shape- recognize that objects as having the same shape even when viewed at different angle or distance. Size- objects do not differ in size when viewed from different distances.

Perceptual illusions- the brains effort to organize sensations into coherent and accurate percepts fail. The Influence of Experience The theory of direct perception suggests that the meaning of adaptive significance of a percept if often obvious, immediate and innate. However, research has demonstrated that the innate potentials of the nervous system may require environmental input to develop.

Top-Down Processing Uses prior knowledge and experience to organize and interpret sensations Selects specific features that meet expectations about stimulus Form perception

Bottom-Down Processing Detects features of sensory data Analyse specific features and combine component parts into more complex form Form perception

Expectations and Motivations Expectations about perception are influence through - Context - Schemas: enduring knowledge structures Motives can influence perception (eg. Motive to avoid perceiving stimuli with unpleasant context.

Consciousness
Subjective awareness of mental events William James (1890) viewed it as a constantly moving stream of thoughts, feelings and emotions Functions of consciousness: - Monitors mental events - Regulates thought and behaviour May have evolved to direct or control behaviour in adaptive ways.

Consciousness awareness is limited in capacity and we are aware of only a small amount of the stimuli around us at one time. Attention refers to the process by which we focus our conscious awareness. Attention has been likened to a filter through which only important information passes. Components of Attention- Attention fulfills at least three functions; - Orienting to sensory stimuli - Controlling behaviour and the contents of consciousness - Maintaining alertness Divided Attention- refers to the capacity to follow two things at one time, such as two conversations Selective Attention- refers to diverting attention to one particular thing and only concentrating on that. Broadbents Filter Model (1958) based on the idea that information processing is restricted by channel capacity. Psychodynamic Unconscious Freud argued for three mental systems within consciousness: Conscious: Mental events that you are aware of Preconscious: Mental events that can be brought into awareness Unconscious: Mental events that are inaccessible to awareness; are actively kept out of awareness.

Later differentiated between repressed unconscious and descriptively unconscious. Unconscious Motivation Psychodynamic means that there is an ongoing struggle between different parts of the psyche over which behaviours will be performed.

ID, an entirely unconscious part of the Psyche, concerned only immediate satisfaction of basic desires. Superego: straddles the conscious and unconscious, is the learned set of rules about right and wrong. Ego: is entirely conscious, has to negotiate a reasonable course of action that compromises between the demands of the Id and Superego. The ID is the motivating power source for behaviour and we are not directly aware of its processes or demands.

Cognitive Unconscious In the cognitive paradigm what Freud called unconscious is called implicit or automatic processing Automatic processes no longer require us to concentrate on them: o Frees up our mind to work on other tasks o But means that we actually have difficulty changing the way we do automatic tasks.

Cognitive Conscious Controlled or explicit processes Requires mental resource so we have trouble doing more than one at a time Are flexible; can change/learn new processes or alter existing ones.

Biological Consciousness Consciousness is distributed throughout the brain Hindbrain and midbrain are important for arousal and for sleep Damage to the reticular formation can lead to coma Prefrontal cortex is key for conscious control of information processing

Neuropsychological Consciousness Blindsight- patients with lesion in primary visual cortex report being blind and do not see objects held in front of them. When asked to guess the position and shape of objects they are correct at greater than chance. Biological Consciousness Answering in biological terms where consciousness resides requires first an agreed definition of consciousness Is it just the opposite of being unaware or is it the state of self awareness or reflective thought. Either way, consciousness is the result of a complex interaction between multiple parts of the brain

Circadian Rhythms A cyclical biological process that evolved around the daily cycle of light and dark Foetuses begin to show rhythms of sleep and activity by six months gestational age Circadian rhythms accounts for difficulties people experience when crossing time zones or working night shifts. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) - Symptoms include depressed mood, lethargy - Linked predominantly to winter-onset - Theorised to be due to light-related disruption to circadian rhythms - Common treatments include light therapy to reset circadian rhythms.

Sleep
Functions of sleep Memory consolidation Energy conservation Restoring bodily function

Sleep deprivation can alter immune function and lead to early death. It can also lead to hallucinations and perceptual disorders. Stages of sleep Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep involves darting eye movements - EEG takes on an active pattern resembling waking consciousness Stages 1-4 are collectively called non-REM sleep

Stage 1: sleep is brief and marked by appearance of slower theta waves Stage 2: sleep is marked by an EEG pattern of slightly larger waves interrupted by bursts of lowamplitude activity and slow, high amplitude waves called K complexes. Stage 3: sleep is marked by large, slow, rhythmic delta waves. When delta waves comprise more than 50% or recorded brain activity, the person has entered Stage 4 sleep. Together stage 3 and 4 constitute what is called delta sleep , a deep sleep characterized by relaxed muscles, decreased rate of respiration and slightly lower body temperature. Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep Presence of rapid eye movements Presence of dreaming Increased autonomic nervous system activity

EEG resembles that of awake state- beta wave Motor paralysis- except for diaphragm

Rem is associated with Memory Consolidation of learnt information

Rem deprivation Similar impact to total sleep deprivation

Dreaming- Psychodynamic view Freud Dreams represent a window into the unconscious Latent content (meaning) can be inferred from manifest content (the actual dream) Interpretation of dream content to infer deeper meaning.

Cognitive View Dreams are constructed from the daily issues of the dreamer Dreams are representative of fact rather than inference of deeper meaning- worried about work

Biological View Dreams represent the attempt of the cortex to interpret the random neural firing of the brain during sleep Dreams represent visually what the brain may be perceiving during sleeps

Sleep Disorders Insomnia refers to the inability to achieve or maintain sleep Can relate to various stages of sleep - Onset - Maintenance - Early awakening Many causes of insomnia - Stress - Depression - Sleeping pills

Normal Sleep Difficulties People may have difficulty falling asleep due to a number of reasons Some people worry too much about not being able to fall asleep and this can contribute to a vicious cycle the more they focus on trying to fall asleep, the more the mind races the more they stay awake Counting Sheep will not always help people fall asleep Doing mental arithmetic in bed at night can stimulate the mind which may increase the time length of time it takes to fall asleep.

Other sleep disorders Nightmares: vivid fear-evoking dreams- occur during REM sleep. Night terrors: episodes of intense panic which occur during delta sleep Narcolepsy: sudden episodes of falling asleep during the day which can often be dangerous Sleep Apnea: awakening brought on by cessation of breathing during sleep.

Sleep Apnoea and REM Episodes during sleep when breathing stops Gasps for breath bring sleeper out of REM

Altered States of Consciousness Are states in which the usual conscious ways of perceiving, thinking and feeling are modified or disrupted - Sleep - Meditation - Hypnosis - Drug ingestion

Hypnosis Hypnosis is a state of consciousness characterized by deep relaxation and suggestibility Effects observed during hypnotic states - Age regression - Change in pain perception - Ability to bring forgotten memories into consciousness

Clinical Hypnosis Used in the treatment of various conditions - Smoking - Weight loss - Nail biting

Meditation : an individual develops a deep state of tranquility by altering the normal flow of conscious thoughts Relaxation: similar effects to meditation however not focused cognitively. The goal is to reduce cognitive and physiological arousal.

Drug Induced Consciousness Drug effects on consciousness depend on the biological actions of the drug and expectations of drug effects. Drug Classes - Depressants - Stimulants - Hallucinogens - Marijuana

Alcohol One of the most socially accepted drugs in Western Culture Consumed in moderate doses - Sense of relaxation, reduced inhibitions - Sense of enhanced well being - Reported positive health consequences When consumed in excessive amounts - Serious health consequences- karsakoffs syndrome - Linked to many violent crimes

Learning
Learning: a relatively permanent change in behaviour which occurs as a result of experience. Any enduring change in the way an organism responds to the environment based on experience. What isnt learning? Reflexes Changes due to drugs

Conditioning: the process of shaping behaviour by manipulating the presentation of stimuli and the application of outcomes that are conditional on certain behaviours. This may be by accident rather than design. Classical Conditioning: a process by which neutral stimulus elicits a response after being paired with a stimulus that automatically elicits a response; Elicits: produces, predicts Neutral stimulus: things in environment we do not react to Paired: two things together Response: change in target audience as a result of stimuli

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Unconditioned Response (UCR) Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Pavlov noted that there are certain stimuli in our environment that we respond to in certain ways. UCS produces an unconditioned response

Terminology UCR- unconditioned response A response which is a reflex or involuntary response to a known stimulus UCS- unconditioned stimulus This is a stimulus known to elicit a particular response CS- Conditioned stimulus This is a neutral or unrelated stimulus which can, after pairing with USC, elicit response. CR- conditioned response The term given to the response which becomes learned. The classical conditioning model. Before conditioning
Prior to conditioning the neutral stimulus has no association with a particular response. The UCS however, automatically elicits a known response. During conditioning, the neutral stimulus is paired with the UCS. The UCS, by definition elicits the UCR, but

Neutral Stimulus no response UCS UCR During conditioning NS UCS UCR After conditioning CS CR

Variable Affecting Classical Conditioning The time interval between the onset of the CS and the onset of the UCS The temporal arrangement of the CS and the UCS that is the various arrangements of the onset and the offset of the UCS and CS The type of response being conditioned: Muscular skeletal response Physiological response Fear response

Little Albert Experiment Watson & Rayner wanted to condition humans to certain fears. They conditioned a little boy named Albert to produce a startle response with a presentation of a loud noise. Albert learned to be fearful of similar objects (Stimulus generalization). Phenomena related to classical conditioning Stimulus discrimination: the organism responds differently to differences in stimuli Extinction: The CR drops away in the absence of the UCS Spontaneous Recovery: After extinction appears to have occurred the CR returns Higher Order Conditioning: The CS is able to be paired with another neutral stimuli to produce a second order CS.

Aversion Therapy Classical conditioning can be used to deliberately change behaviour. Taste Aversion and Specific Stimulus Aversion are used as the main aversion therapies. Limitations of Classical Conditioning

For a start classical conditioning only applies to responses that are automatic, reflexive type responses: Physiological responses such as salivation Fear and anxiety type responses Immune type responses

The UCSs are also therefore restricted to those stimuli that are known to elicit such response. In the case of fear responses, these vary but commonly are: Loud sudden noises Threatening type stimuli such as growling dogs, spiders.

Some UCSs have a very limited range of neutral stimuli they can be associated with to produce a conditioned response (CR). Perhaps only biological mechanisms can limit the extent of conditioning. Operant Conditioning An operant behaviour is one that operates on the environment in some way and is instrumental in achieving some outcome. Skinner & Thorndike Law of Effect: stated that if the response was reinforced in the presence of particular stimulus, then the reinforcer would strengthen the bond between the stimulus and the response. Key concepts in Operant Conditioning Reinforcement: Any event that occurs after the behaviour which increases the likelihood of that behaviour occurring again. In most cases the delivery of some pleasant consequence. However, reinforcement can actually be the removal of unpleasant state of affairs when a desired behaviour occurs. Because it will increase the likelihood of the desired behaviour occurring again. Punishment: Any consequence of a behaviour that reduces the likelihood that the behaviour will occur again. Extinction: The removal of the reinforcements which should lead to a decline and ultimate elimination of the behaviour.

Schedules of reinforcement: This refers to the different patterns of the delivery of reinforcements when behaviour occurs; Continuous versus Partial (or intermittent) This refers to the difference between delivering a reinforcement every time a behaviour occurs, versus delivering it according to some pattern but not every time behaviour occurs.

Partial Reinforcement: two types Ratio schedules versus interval schedules Fixed schedules versus random schedules

Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-Ratio: Reinforcer given after a set number of non-reinforced responses. Faster learning that variable but quicker extinction. Variable Ratio: Reinforcer given after a variable number of non-reinforced responses. Slower learning that fixed ratio but slower rate of extinction. Fixed-Interval: Reinforcer given for first response after a fixed time interval. Faster learning than variable but quicker extinction. Variable-Interval: Reinforcer given for first response after a variable time interval. Slower learning than variable interval but slower extinction. Shaping Behaviour Skinner discovered that by careful design of schedules of reinforcement, he could shape the behaviour of laboratory animals very well and make the behaviours resistant to extinction. Rewarding Successive Approximations is a concept he demonstrated was quite easily achieved if you know what to reinforce at what stage in the shaping or conditioning process. Skinner also showed that by thoroughly understanding the principles of how reinforcement and punishment work it is possible to more precisely shape behaviour and indeed change behaviour. Applications of Operant Conditioning Behavioural Therapy Reducing thumb sucking Reducing tantrums Quit smoking

Behavioural Modification Token economies Remedial education Therapy for autism

COGNITIVE SOCIAL THEORY

Insight Learning: Wolfgang Kohler showed a chimp could solve a problem by progressively developing a behavioural sequence without reinforcement- insight learning. Latent Learning: Tolman conducted an experiment to show that even animals could learn without reinforcements. Social Learning Albert Bandura proposed that a lot of human learning actually takes place as a result of observing others and then reproducing the behaviours. This was called modeling. The status and attractiveness of the model and outcome of model behaviour influences learned behaviours.

Bandura suggested a person (observer) can not only be reinforced directly for modeling behaviour but can also be reinforced vicariously. Therefore, seeing another being rewarded is a form of reinforcement in the operant conditioning framework. Cognitive Social Theory Argues that we form expectancies about the consequences of our behaviours, we can predict the outcomes. Locus of Control: The expectancy as to whether or not fate determines outcomes in life. - Internal Locus: Believe that their actions determine their fate - External Locus: Believe that their lives are governed by forces outside their control

Learned Helplessness Martin Seligman discovered that by exposing animals to inescapable aversive situations eventually the animals would not attempt to escape from the situation even when it is possible.

Memory & Cognition

Memory: a process of storing and retrieving previously presented information. Information Processing Memory has been likened to a computer - Information is entered (encoded) - Information is retained (stored) - Information is retrieved But this is a little simplistic

Information processing model explains that information is not necessarily received and stored in a simple linear process.

Sensory Memory Retains information about a perceived stimulus for a fraction of a second after stimulus disappears One sensory register for each sensory system - Iconic memory: momentary storage of visual information (0.5- 2.0 secs) - Echoic memory: momentary storage of auditory information (1-2 secs) Unlimited capacity, very brief duration Allows us to scan the entire sensory input at any instant

Short-term memory Information from the sensory registers moves into short-term memory (stm) it is attended to. STM holds a small amount of information for a short period of time - Limited capacity: approximately 7 items (+- 2) - Limited duration: approximately 20-30 seconds If material is rehearsed then it can be maintained in STM for a longer period - Repeating a phone number

Long-term memory The representation of facts/concepts, sensory images, actions and skills that may persist over a lifetime LTM is theoretically limitless in capacity and potentially limitless duration

STM and LTM Research demonstrating the Serial Position Curve supports the existence of STM versus LTM - Primacy effect reflects LTM - Recency effect reflects STM

Working Memory The concept of working memory was coined in 1974 It suggested that STM wasnt the only place we held information, but the place we held information, but the place we actually manipulated information to some end Temporary storage and processing of information in order to: - Solve problems - Respond to environmental demands - Achieve goals Baddeley suggests that working memory is comprised of three memory systems:

Central executive Visual memory store Verbal memory store

Working Memory and Central Executive This central executive is somewhat akin to the voice inside involved in the organization and manipulation of information It is the decision maker in terms of what you will do with information, in what order and to what end.

Working Memory Visual memory store (visuospatial sketchpad) - Temporary visual image (20-30 seconds) - Stores information about the location and nature of objects Verbal memory store (phonological loop) - Rehearsal of verbal information - Involves storage of verbal items - Limited capacity Working memory relates most closely to the rehearsal process above, but information can be manipulated This is the stage of memory that holds information temporarily in STM Information is then lost or transferred to LTM

Working Memory & Long Term Memory Working Memory is a conscious workspace for accomplishing goals - Not just a gateway to storage in the LTM Information from LTM is often accessed prior to representation in working memory - Information may be retrieved from LTM then manipulated in WM.

LONG-TERM MEMORY Over a considerable period of time cognitive theorists have pieced together a model of the structure of different types of stored memories and showed that they are different in many ways most likely stored in different places in the brain and are accessed in different ways. Theorists have divided LTM into two higher order categories 1. The type of information stored 2. How that information is expressed when retrieved

Structure of Memory Semantic memory: essentially what described as general knowledge- the contents of what we know and understand about the world Episodic memory: memory for events and personal situations- not necessarily attached to any aspect of meaning or general knowledge.Tulving made the distinction between memory for meanings versus memory for episodes or experience. Procedural memory: is a memory of how to do things. Procedural memory clearly has semantic components, but is more associated with a set of motor behaviours integrated with the knowledge components. In complex skills there is a highly substantial cognitive component that must be integrated into the whole procedural memory.

Long-Term Memory Declarative memory also aids our learning of the steps involved in a skill that later transfers to procedural memory Once the skill is achieved it becomes more automatic ie. Procedural memory

Implicit Memory: memory that is expressed in behaviour and therefore is linked with procedural memory. Explicit Memory: conscious recollection of known information; - Recognition: has current stimulus been previously encountered - Recall: spontaneous retrieval Multiple choice exams rely on the primary memory function of recognition Short answer tests require reliance on recall in a more pure form for performance

Recall & Recognition Recall can be primed - Implicit information related to the memory may activate the explicit recall of the relevant memory

Levels of Processing Another very significant theoretical position relating to the way in which information is processed by Craik & Lockhart. They found that by manipulating the level of processing the participants were able to engage the material by, they could show differences in the participants recall of that material. They identified shallow, intermediate and deep levels of processing of verbal material and in experiments manipulated the level of processing.

Encoding in Long Term Memory Shallow processing: bare minimum of details in memory, structural/physical properties of a stimulus. Deeper Processing: phonemic properties. Simple characteristics of language used to describe the stimulus Deepest Processing: semantic processing. Focusing on the meaning of the stimulus. Depth of processing at encoding influences later retrieval of information Encoding specificity and later memory.

Context and Retrieval Encoding specificity principle - Context in which people encode and retrieve information - Retrieval more successful if retrieval context matches encoding context State-dependent Memory - Congruence of mood at time of encoding and time of retrieval enhances retrieval. - As long as mood is not so powerful to disrupt memory processe

Aids to Remembering Mnemonic devices - Systematic strategies for remembering information - External Aids- note taking - Internal Aids- rehearsal Method Of Loci - Information can be remembered by fitting it into an orderly arrangement of locations (for example, bedroom). Peg Word technique- one is a bun, two is a shoe Acronyms- good for rote learning but not for comprehension

Language
Primary mode of communication among humans System of symbols, sounds, meanings, and the rules for combining them Virtually impossible to think without words

Whorfian Hypothesis Whorfs (1956) Linguistic relativity Our thoughts and perceptions are limited by the words/structures our language has. Evidence not convincing for strongest form of hypothesis, but language might still subtly influence our ways of seeing the world.

The nature of language

The symbols of language are arbitrary\ Language can be broken down into a hierarchy of symbols The smallest units are meaningless on their own, but when combined together, produce larger groups which convey meaning to the listener.

Elements of language Phoneme- smallest unit of sounds Morpheme- smallest unit of meaning Phrase- group of words that act as a meaningful unit Sentence- organized word sequence conveying thought/intention Syntax: grammar and word order Syntax gives us the rules for ordering words and phrases in our language Knowledge of syntax allows us to alter surface structure but maintain deep structure.

Semantics: Meaning Semantics refer to the meaning of morphemes, words, phrases and sentences Meaning is very specific- there are few true synonyms in English English does not have many homonyms, but semantic context helps us to disambiguate meaning

Pragmatics: Language in use Pragmatics refer to the way language is used and understood in everyday life We know that the literal/semantic meaning is not always the intended one\ There is cognitive work in coming to a shared understanding, and yet most of us do not find this difficult

Nonverbal communication Nonverbal communication can speak louder than actual words Importance of knowing how to use these gestures, physical distance, facial expressions and cues appropriately in the relevant society.

Language Development Humans seem to have an innate predisposition to acquire and use language From birth, human infants prefer speech to other sounds Within a few short years, they can speak their native language virtually fluently Hot debate: are they components of language pre-wired or are they learned

The Cases For Nurture

B.F. Skinner (1957): language, like anything else, learned through operant conditioning Parents model words and phrases: shape and reinforce childrens labeling or requesting objects Children reduce errors through imitation. Generalization and discrimination Imitation and reinforcement are important for early language-learning, btu cannot account for many aspects of language learning

The Case for Nature Noam Chomsky (1959, 1986), given the poverty of the stimulus speech input alone cannot account for childrens rapid language acquisition. Humans are born with a language acquisition device (LAD) which is an innate set of neural structures for acquiring language More recently , simplistic LAD superseded by Principles and Parameters Theory (PPT) Some principles of language are universal, others involve parametric variation Children match the language they hear with the structures they already possess- start using correct grammatical rule. This theory can explain rapidity of early language acquisition Similar development across children/lang Brain areas specialized for language However, innate disposition does not actually explain how language acquisition occurs

Connectionist Approaches Humans are born with sensitivity to certain properties of speech But connectionist principles used to explain other aspects of cognition can also account for language acquisition Connectionist computer models tend to learn in a similar way to children, even make over-generalisation errors (e.g. Goed , hitted) Computers arent pre-wired to learn language

Social Interactionist Approaches Agree that language has structure and follows rules But also emphasizes the importance of the environment and the social functions of language: - Infant directed speech/mothers - Grammatical feedback - Joint attention - Social interaction

Early Comprehension 2 days- infant can discriminate a and ee 3 days- infant prefers mothers voice

2-3 months: infant can discriminate between pa and ba Before 6 months, infants sensitive to cross-language distinctions that adults are not

Testing Early Discrimination Ingenious ways of testing early auditory abilities Dummy wired to computer, baseline sucking rate Sound played when infant sucks Sucking gradually declines Increased sucking= discrimination

Early Production It takes much longer to produce sounds reliably; linked with muscle development Infants start off with different cries 3-5 weeks start cooing 3-4 months: babbling cons and vowels 8 months: babbling reflects surrounding language 12-18 months: one word at a time, laden with meaning

Later production 18-20 months: vocabulary spurt Beginning of 2 word phrases Start off with telegraphic speech: small function words omitted By age 4: sentences fully grammatical

Habituation Humans prefer to attend to something novel than something familiar/boring In this word-object association study, infant sits on parents lap in quiet dark room Infant is habituated to two novel word-object combinations: spoken novel words is played over speakers, while associated novel object is shown moving across screen

Thought
An extension of perception and memory We form mental representations We recall representations using memory We mentally manipulate the representations to achieve some purpose Thinking is manipulating mental representations (images or words) for a purpose

Mental image An internally generated picture of an object Used to store information about that object

So do we inspect the internal picture in order to answer questions about an object Mental Rotation Study: participants are shown a stimulus that is rotated between 0 and 360, each must decide whether the letter is normal or a mirror image

Mental models Involve a representation that describes, explains or predicts how things work Objects are classified on the basis of their properties - Categories: groupings based on common properties - Concept: a mental representation of a category

Processes of Categorisation Categorisation involves recognizing an object as a member of a category We categorise objects by - Comparison with defining features - Similarity/dissimilarity to prototypes. Prototypes is the ideal example of a category (the birdiest bird) - It is not any real bird but the ideal based on your experience - Most categories are defined in more than one way - They contain rules about what the object can do, defining features, a prototype, exemplers

Thinking Having the ability to categorise objects is useful Being able to plan what we will do with the object or how to get an object we dont have yet, or how to avoid an object makes humans different from other animals.

3 Types of Thinking Reasoning: The process by which people use the evidence they have to generate and evaluate arguments and beliefs. There are three types or reasoning: Inductive: reasoning from specific observations to general propositions. Relies heavily on probabilities. Deductive: drawing a conclusion from a set of assumptions or premises Analogy: people understand a novel situation in terms of a familiar one. The novel and familiar situations must each contain a number of elements that can be mapped onto each other

Problem Solving: refers to the process by which we transform one situation into another to meet a goal. Problem solving strategies; Algorithms: systematic procedures that will produce a solution to a problem Mental Stimulation: the mental rehearsal of the steps needed to solve a problem

Hypothesis testing: making an educated guess about a problem and then testing it.

Barriers to problem-solving; Functional fixedness: tendency to fix on a function for an object and to ignore other possible uses Mental set: tendency to keep using the same problem solving techniques that have been successful in the past. Confirmation bias: we seek to confirm what we already believe

Decision Making: the process by which an individual weighs the pros and cons of different alternatives in order to make a choice. Weighted Utility Value: a combined judgement of the importance of an attribute and the extent to which a given object satisfies it Expected Utility: a combined judgement of the weighted utility and the expected probability of obtaining an outcome.

Implicit or Effortless Thinking Explicit Cognition involves conscious manipulation of mental representations Implicit Cognition involves the unconscious: - Behaviorists suggest that can people learn, generalize and discriminate stimuli without conscious thought - Psychodynamic Theory suggests that unconscious motives and emotions impact on problem solving and decision making

Heuristics Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts for selecting among alternatives without carefully considering each one - Representative Heuristic: we match an object to its category, but do not process how likely the match is - Availability Heuristic: we decide that the events that we can easily recall are common and typical

Intelligence
Intelligence is multi-faceted: It can be expressed in many domains and one can be intelligent in one domain and not another. Intelligence is functional: the capacity for goal directed behaviour Evolutionary perspective: probems are solved to adapt hence survival and reproduction Cognitive perspective: applying cognitive skills to obtain desired outcomes.

Cultural Applicability If intelligence helps people adapt and manage tasks, it is likely to be cross-culturally applicable. Intelligence can be defined as the application of cognitive skills and knowledge to learn, solve problems and obtain ends that are valued by an individual of culture.

Early Tests of Intelligence Francis Galton: said intelligence is inherited and argued for a program of eugenics. Intelligent people have better physiological systems and can be identified by speed, strength and perceptual ability. He was wrong. Alfred Binet: hired by French govt to devise a test to identify children with special education needs. He tested reasoning and logic and the test has reasonable predictive validity and spread through Europe and the US. Intelligence Testing Binet and simon devised a test to measure intellectual development in children. Devised a mental age concept: MA= average age at which children achieve an actual score An intellectually disabled child would not be able to answer question typical for ther chronological age

Modern Test of Intelligence Louis Terman in 1916 revised Binet and called it Stanford-Binet Revised items that did not perform as expected and added adult items Introduced use of intelligence quotient

Intelligence Quotient: to allow for comparison among persons; IQ= (MA/CA) x 100MA= mental age, CA= chronological age Group tests Became very popular especially in the military Binet had devised tests that had to be administered one-on-one, whereas these tests to be administered with large groups of people by using pencil to paper

David Wechsler Developed in 1939 a test specifically for adults Devised the deviation IQ

Developed tests for children based on the WAIS called the WISC.

Wechsler Intelligence Scales Attempted to remove the biases associated with earlier intelligence tests IQ is measured on a number of subtests which distinguish between; - Verbal intelligence - Non-verbal intelligence Wechsler scales allow psychologists to identify areas of strength and weakness within individuals.

Intellectual Disability Significantly below average general intellectual functioning IQ less than 70 Deficits appear in more than one domain May be genetic in origin: down syndrome May be biological in origin: Phenylketonuria May be environmental in origin: exposure to teratogens.

Adaptive Skills Self-care Community use Communication Home living Social interaction Health/safety

Validity of IQ tests- reflects a tests ability to assess the construct it was designed to measure. IQ test scores predict ability to succeed in school. Reliability of IQ tests- reflects a tests ability to produce consistent results. Tests of intelligence have high reliability. Criticisms of IQ tests- Lack of a theoretical basis and focus on cognitive domains while ignoring creativity and working memory. Culturally bias as scores depend on language and cultural experience. Biased towards white western middle-class education system. Group difference in IQ- Indigenous Australians score lower on IQ tests than White Australians. Could this be due to poverty, test taking attitudes or their culture, custom and lifestyle differences.

Stereotype Vulnerability Mainstream cultures negatively stereotype minority groups Stereotypes and negative expectations and self-defeating attitudes in ethnic minorities Effects outcome of education and intelligence testing.

Approaches in Intelligence Psychometric approach: tries to identify groups of items in a test that correlate highly with each other in order to discover underlying skills or abilities. Information-processing approach: examine the mental processes that underlie intelligent behaviour Contemporary Approaches: argue that intelligence is a function of multiple systems

The Psychometric Approach Statistical approach in which test items are examined using factor analysis; - Looks for items that correlate with each other How many factors? - Spearman proposed two factors; - G for general intelligence - S for specific intelligence Cattell (1965) and Horn (1985) and others argued for a quite different structure in intelligence The Gf-Gc theory is a hierarchical model with specific factors embedded in more general factors - Fluid Intelligence: refers to mental processes rather than specific information so quite independent from schooling (declines with age) - Crystalissed Intelligence: refers to a persons knowledge base so heavily depends on schooling and experience (increases with age)

The Information-Processing Approach Examine the processes that underlie intelligent behaviour - Speed of Processing: how rapidly a person can perform a mental task - Knowledge Base: information stores in long-term memory - Ability to acquire and apply mental processes: can a person acquire and use new mental strategies?

Contemporary Approaches Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (steinberg) - Experiential Intelligence: coping with novel situations and learning new responses - Contextual Intelligence: judging the most effective approach in the given context

Componential Intelligence: ability to put together the mental processing components needed when problem solving. Compontential Subtheory- Metacomponents: control, monitor and evaluate cognitive processes - Performance components: execute strategies assembled by metacomponents. - Knowledge acquisition components: encode, combine and compare information

Gardners 8 Intelligence: Mathematical/logical Linguistic/verbal Musical Spatial Bodily/kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist

Individual Differences in IQ Asks whether genetic variation can explain variation in IQ scores - Twin studies compare IQ scores in MZ and DZ twins - Adoption studies compare similarity of IQ scores of adopted children with adopted family and with biological family Nature and nurture interact in complex ways and both play a role in individual differences in IQ.

Abuse of Intelligence Tests Appear straight forward, easily administered and interepreted but limitations and assumption must be understood if tests are to be appropriately used. Worst abuses by eugenic movements who suggest mental defectives isolated Profession has strict guidelines for access and use of tests.

Emotion
An evaluative response that usually includes 1. Physiological arousal 2. Subjective experience 3. Behavioural/emotional expression Affect= behaviour that express emotion Mood= more general emotional state

Physiological theories of emotion

1. James-Lange theory: PNS responses -> CNS interpretations -> emotions 2. Cannon-Bard theory: stimulus simultaneously elicits emotional and bodily responses Subjective Experience of Emotion Individuals vary widely in the intensity of their emotions Emotional disclosure: talking or writing about stressful events can improve health Feeling happy: happiness similar in men/women, old/young, but differs across cultures.

Emotional Expression Overt signs of emotion Link between emotion and facial expression is very similar across cultures Facial expression indicates emotional state, but can also influence it- actually feel emotions displayed.

Culture & Emotional Display Rules Basic facial expressions are recognized universally; surprise, fear, disgust, anger, happiness, sadness. But cultures have different rules about appropriateness of emotional display Cultures further from the equator tend to be less emotionally expressive that closer to the equator

Gender and Emotional Expression Compared to men, women seem to ; - Experience and express emotions more intensely - Read others emotions better Why? - Adaption to social roles - Learning from parents - Evolutionary reasons: nurturing for children requires attention to feelings.

Taxonomy of Emotions Basic emotions: common to all humans Some disagreements but main list; - Anger - Fear - Happiness - Sadness - Disgust

Positive and Negative Affect

Factor Analysis: pleasant and negative emotions cluster together. - Positive affect drives pleasure-seeking, approach-oriented behaviour (left-frontal lobe) - Negative affect leaf to avoidance (right frontal lobe) People may differ in their reactions to different neurotransmitters -> different emotions. ANGER doesnt fit in neatly, but =approach.

Neuropsychology of Emotion Hypothalamus: central link in neural circuit that converts emotional signals from higher brain levels into autonomic and endocrine responses. Limbic System: human behaviour mostly controlled by learning, guided by emotional responses.

Processing Emotions Two systems for processing emotions: Quick response: circuit running from thalamus to amygdale Slower response: thalamus-cortex-amygdale; more through cognitive appraisal

Emotion Regulation Efforts to control emotional states - reframe the meaning of an event before it occurs, to avoid upset. - Suppress our emotion after the event People handle negative emotions differently Difference between sexes, - Men more likely to inhibit fear and sadness - Women more likely to inhibit anger

Psychodynamic perspective People can be unconscious of their own emotional experience. But this experience can influence thought, behaviour and health Those who insist they are happy and healthy despite disturbing childhoods often seem to have suppressed anxiety/distress.

Cognitive Perspectives Schacter-Singer Theory (1962): a cognitive judgment of the situation is crucial to the experience of emotion Some criticism of theory, but it does that some degree of interpretation is involved in interpreting emotional states.

Evolutionary Perspectives

Darwin: emotions serve an adaptive purpose. - Signal readiness to attack, run, or need for attention from carers -> increased survival Emotion= an internal motivator Jealously should differ in males vs. females - Men focus on partners sexual exclusivity - Women focus on partners emotional commitment.

Motivation
The driving force behind behaviour Leads us to pursue some goals and avoid situations Motives can be biological (food and warmth) or psychosocial (dominance, intimacy) However, few motives are solely one or the other All motives have two components, direction and intensity.

Psychodynamic Perspective Emphasizes biological basis of motivation Freud: Humans are motivated by drives: internal tension built up until satisfied - Sex - Aggression Contemporary perspective: wishes and fears - Relatedness to others - Self-esteem Distinguished conscious/unconscious motives

Behaviourist Perspective Humans, like other animals, are motivated to; - Produce behaviours rewarded by environment - Avoid behaviours punished by environment Drive reduction: motivation stems from combined drive and reinforcement Deprivation of need -> tension -> behaviour If behaviour reduces tension, it will be assisted with drive reduction and reinforced Does not explain behaviour in the absence of immediate external consequence.

Cognitive Perspective Expectancy-value theories: we are motivated to perform a behaviour if we value the potential outcome and believe we can attain it Goal-setting theory: much of our action is regulated by conscious goals Self-determination theory: we have innate needs for competence, autonomy, relatedness, and we feel good when these needs are fulfilled

Humanistic Perspective

Maslow (1962) : human behaviour is influenced by dignity, choice, self-worth We overcome obstacles to reach personal fulfillments Hierarchy of need: lower needs must be fulfilled before higher ones Highest are self-actualisation needs: represent need for growth rather than to fill a lack of something.

Evolutionary Perspective Evolution selects animals that maximize their own reproductive success and that of their relatives This entails a range of motives: selecting/competing for mates, caring for offspring, forming alliances, taking care of own survival. Cross-culturally important motives; -power -love

Cultural Influences of Motivation Many motivations are shared across cultures, but culture shapes others differently. - Many western societies see the accumulation of wealth as praiseworthy - Kapauka Papuans punished individuals wealth Fromm (1965): cultures socioeconomic system must shape motivation so people want to act in a way that supports the system. Culture can motivate how children learn motivation - Western cultures foster autonomy Difference even obvious is student styles: - Western students self-directed and independent - Asia-Pacific students more passive, dependent

Homeostasis Process by which body maintains a relatively constant state Regulates biological functions such as eating, drinking, sleeping Requires mechanisms for: - Determining set point - Detecting state of system - Correcting system to restore desired state Eating: energy reserves are depleted, we feel hungry, we eat. Attachment: we try to maintain closeness to those we are attached to Emotion regulation: two months of unemployment -> we look harder or turn to alcohol Lag between mechanisms and their effects: need for satiety mechanism.

Sexual Motivation Sex: a universal, biologically-based drive.

Its expression varies widely between cultures, and widely between people Kinseys research (1948, 1953) made sex an area of scientific research.

Biology & Sexual Motivation Hormones control many aspects of human sexual behaviour, and have two main effects; 1. Organisational Effects: foetus develops into a female unless a combination of hormones turns off F development and turns on M development 2. Activational Effects: hormones activate brain circuits that produce psychobiological changes

Psychosocial motives: relatedness Psychosocial needs: influenced by biologically based, evolved tendencies Need for relatedness including; - Attachment: need for closeness to another; seen from birth onwards - Intimacy: disclosure, warmth, caring - Affiliation: interaction with friends/acquaintances Social relationships important for both physical and mental health.

Psychosocial Motives: Agency From about 12 months of age, humans want to be competent, even when unrewarded Innate need for knowledge makes sense from an evolutionary perspective Achievement especially important; those with high need for achievement work more persistently than others and often achieve more goals.

Components of Achievement People dont wish to achieve in every domain Achievement goals reflect at least three motives; 1. Performance approach goals 2. Performance avoidance goals 3. Mastery goals Differences in outcome depending on type of goals set: best to strive for mastery.