Chapter 3. Environmental issues 3.

1 Introduction Introduction to Ecology and Ecosystem Ecology Oikos: home or surrounding, logos: study Ecology: Science of interrelationship between organisms and their relationship with the environment Ecosystem Natural unit which consists of biotic communities and their abiotic environment Basic functional unit in ecology, Types: Freshwater, grassland, marine, desert Characteristics of ecosystem 1. Biotic component: producer (green plants), consumers (animals), decomposers (microorganisms) 2. Abiotic component: air, water, soil 3. Energy flow: sun main source of energy 4. Matter 5. Interrelationship 6. Biological integration 7. Flexibility 8. Ecological regulation Human impact on environment/ecosystem Destruction or modification of habitat Overexploitation for commercial, scientific and education purpose Overgrazing for domestic animals Change in arable land Forestry Traditional rural practice Industrialization, Urbanization Mining and quarrying Pressure from introduced plants Population pressure Use of drugs and chemicals Destruction of ecological balance Environmental sanitation Cleaning of environment Environmental sanitation includes the following: 1. Collection and disposal of refuse and sewage from houses, buildings and other public places

2. Proper ventilation for the control of indoor air pollution: fresh air circulation 3. Sufficient light in the buildings for healthy conditions of human body 4. Heating Local environmental issues: water pollution, air pollution, noise pollution, solid waste pollution, deforestation, land degradation Global environmental issues: Global warming, Acid rain deposition, Ozone layer depletion 3.2 Water pollution Water pollution: presence of various types of impurities that tends to degrade its quality and either constitutes a health hazard or otherwise decrease the utility of water Sources of water pollution Natural: Soil erosion, solutions of mineral in water, rain water, storms, earthquake, seawater intrusion, dust/dirt falling from atmosphere, deposition of animal wastes and fallen leaves etc. Man made: Due to agriculture, sewage, wastes, industry Sewage: Liquid waste from community, contains 99.9% water, 0.1% solids (organic/inorganic matter, disease producing organisms) Types of pollutants Pathogenic organisms Oxygen demanding substances Plant nutrients: Nitrogen and Phosphorus Toxic organic chemicals: pesticides Poisonous inorganic chemicals Oil Thermal pollution (Heat): from power plants Sediment Radioactive substances Others: color, odor, taste Impact of water pollution Health hazard due to the presence of pathogenic bacteria from domestic sewage, toxic materials and industrial waste Water borne diseases: typhoid, cholera, dysentery, infectious hepatitis Economic loss: disturbance recreation, aesthetics, agriculture, industry, property Impact on aquatic and plant life Prevention of pollution Treatment of sewage

Treatment of industrial waste Providing training and technical facilities in industry to treat waste water Not using water source for discharging sewage Rules and regulations for controlling pollution Proper planning of towns

Sewage disposal method 1. Natural methods Dilution: discharging into water course e.g. sea, river or lake, self purification in due course of time Land treatment: spreading sewage on land, two ways: filtration, sewage farming 2. Artificial method: Sewage treatment method for removal of suspended solids, pathogens

Cause, Effect and remedial measures of various water pollutants Physical Impurity/pollutan ts 1. Suspended solids (turbidity)

Cause Clay, silt, organic matters, inorganic matter, minerals, algae, fungi Dissolved organic matters, inorganic matter and minerals, industrial waste Dead or living microorganisms, dissolved gases e.g. H2S, minerals, e.g. Nacl, industrial waste

Effect Turbidity, color, odor

2. Color

3. Taste and odor

Objectionable from aesthetic and psychological point of view, no health effect Bad smell, not suitable for drinking

Remedial measures Treatment: Settling, coagulation, filtration Treatment method, such as aeration, treatment with activated carbon, oxidation of organic matters

Biological Impurity/pollutants Cause Effect 1. Pathogenic Human and Water-borne organisms animal diseases, e.g. fecal waste cholera, typhoid, paratyphoid, Remedial measures Disinfection, e.g. by boiling, by ultraviolet rays, by using ozone, potassium per

dysentery, diarrhea, vomiting Chemical pollutants a. Some chemicals Impurity/pollutants Cause Acidity/alkalinity (PH) PH = log10[1/H+] Presence of acid or alkali

magnate, chlorination

Effect Acidic water: tuberculosis, corrosion Alkaline water: incrustation, sediment deposits Hardness Not significant in small amount, salty taste, corrosion

Remedial measures Neutralizing

Calcium and Magnesium Chloride (In the form of NaCl)

Natural Natural, pollution from sea water, brine or industrial and domestic waste Natural

Water softening

Sulfate

Fluoride

Phosphate

Water additive for promoting strong teeth, erosion of natural deposits, fertilizer and aluminum factories Natural, agriculture, boiler water, laundries

Treatment method, such as dilution, reverse osmosis, distillation Not significant in Treatment small amount, method, such as Laxative effect, reverse osmosis, hardness, taste distillation <1ppm, fewer <1ppm, cavities in the teeth fluoridation of children (adding fluoride >1.5ppm, spotting compound) and discoloration >1.5ppm, deof teeth fluoridation (e.g. lime-soda process) Algal growth Chemical precipitation

b. Dissolved gas Impurity/pollutants Cause Dissolved oxygen Absorption from

Effect Positive effect:

Remedial measures Chemical method

atmosphere

Dissolved CO2

Absorption from atmosphere Natural: due to Sulfur reducing bacteria, hot water heater fitted with Magnesium

taste Negative: corrosion Bad taste, odor, corrosion Bad taste, odor, corrosion

Dissolved H2S

for treatment e.g. using Sodium sulfite, boiling Treatment method, such as aeration Treatment method, such as aeration, activated carbon, oxidation

c. Forms of Nitrogen Impurity/pollutants Cause Nitrite, Nitrate

Ammonia

Remedial measures Runoff from Effect to infants, Treatment fertilizer use, blue-baby method, such as leaching from syndrome, algal biological septic tanks, growth treatment, sewage, erosion of distillation, reverse natural deposits osmosis Metabolic, Not of Treatment agriculture immediate method, such as health biological relevance, treatment, Pollution, aeration growth of algae

Effect

d. Agrochemicals Impurity/pollutan ts Pesticide

Cause Agricultur e use

Effect Positive: Increase in crop production Negative: water pollution, effect to other animals, birds, including human health

Remedial measures Pest management by eco-friendly manner, e.g. crop rotation, multicrop agriculture, natural predator, parasites, pathogens for controlling pest, sterilization Use of organic fertilizers (manure, compost), use of minimum level of

Chemical fertilizer

Agricultur e use

Positive: Increase in crop production Negative: water pollution,

algal growth

inorganic fertilizer

e. Metals Impurity/pollutants Cause Iron and Manganese Natural deposits, iron pipes Effect Taste, color and turbidity, staining of clothes, incrustation in water mains Liver or kidney damage, effect on lungs, restriction in the growth of aquatic plants Not water hazard overdose: vomiting, dizziness Neurological disorders Remedial measures Treatment method, such as aeration, oxidation

Copper

Zinc

Corrosion of household plumbing systems; erosion of natural deposits Natural deposits

Corrosion control

Treatment method, such as coagulation, filtration Treatment method, such as reverse osmosis, softening

Aluminum

Natural deposits, treatment using Aluminium sulphate as coagulant

f. Some toxic metals Impurity/ pollutants Arsenic

Cause Natural, Industrial effluents (glass & electronics), medicinal use

Effect Toxic, respiratory and skin cancer, nervous disorders

Remedial measures Use of low arsenic water, e.g. rain water Treatment method, such as reverse osmosis, filtration Not using water containing lead, Treatment method, such as filtration

Lead

Corrosion of plumbing systems, erosion of natural deposits, industrial waste, dust, paint

Kidney problems, high blood pressure, nervous disorder

Mercury

Erosion of natural deposits, industrial discharge

Highly toxic, Kidney damage, nervous disorder, blurred vision Cadmium: kidney, lung Chromium: respiratory Cyanide: nerve damage Barium: High blood pressure

Cadmium Chromium Cyanide Barium

Erosion of natural deposits, industrial discharge

Treatment method, such as filtration, granular activated Carbon, reverse osmosis Treatment method, such as reverse osmosis

3.3 Air pollution Composition of atmosphere N2: 78%, O2: 21%, Other gases: 1% e.g. Argon, CO2, H2, He, CH4, O3, Neon, CO, NO2, NH3 etc. Air pollution: presence of certain substances in the air in high enough concentrations and for long enough duration to cause undesirable effects Sources of air pollution 1. Natural sources Forest fires, dust storms, volcanic eruption, salt sea spray, pollen grains 2. Man made sources Fuel combustion: coal, gas Automobile emissions Industrial emissions: iron and steel manufacturing, oil refining, brick factory, cement factory, chemical and petrochemical operations, pulp and paper industry, fertilizer plants, thermal power plants, textile industry etc. Decomposition of organic waste and municipal garbage Classification of air pollutants based on origin 1. Primary: pollutants that are directly emitted to the atmosphere Main primary pollutants SO2: due to coal burning NO2: due to combustion of fossil fuels, e.g. coal or gasoline CO: due to incomplete combustion of fossil fuels Particulate matter (solid or liquid droplets, <10 m, suspended in air) Particulate lead: due to vehicle emission 2. Secondary: pollutants that are formed in the atmosphere by chemical reaction Main secondary pollutants H2SO4: formed by chemical reaction between SO2 and H2O O3: photochemical reaction between HC and NO Definitions Dust: 1 to 100 m, Smoke or fume: less than 1 m, Mist: suspension of liquid particles between 0.1 to 10 m, Spray: liquid particles >10 m, Smog: Smoke and fog Hazardous or toxic air pollutants Asbestos: due to demolition of old buildings containing Asbestos fire proofing, cancer, lung disease Benzene: due to gasoline powered vehicles, cancer Beryllium: from foundries, ceramic factories, incinerations Mercury: coal burning, incineration of garbage

Vinyl Chloride Radioactive air pollutants

Effects of air pollution 1. Health effects Chronic disease, Respiratory illness: bronchitis, asthma, lung cancer Temporary effect: nose or eye or throat irritation, coughing, chest pain, general discomfort 2. Damage to material objects Soiling and deterioration of building surface, corrosion of metals, weakening of rubber, textile, synthetic 3. Effect on vegetation damage to tree, flowers, fruits, vegetables 4. Effects on physical properties of atmosphere Effects on visibility Effects on urban atmosphere and weather conditions: fog, cloud, precipitation Effects on atmospheric constituents: increase in atmospheric CO2 Air pollution control 1. Natural self-cleansing of the environment: dispersion by wind, settling by gravity, washout by rain, adsorption by soils, rocks, leaves, buildings 2. Control of particulate pollutants in industries using mechanical device 3. Control of gaseous pollutants in industries using mechanical device 4. Controlling air pollution from automobiles 5. Air quality legislation and standards Controlling air pollution from automobiles (CO, HC, NOx, particulates, SO2) Catalytic convertor: for complete oxidation of combustible fuel Reducing lead and sulfur content in gasoline Correct operation and maintenance of engine Fuel substitutions: use of reformulated gasoline (oxygenated fuel containing at least 2% of O2) or alternate fuels such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), compressed natural gas (CNG), methanol, ethanol, propane, Hydrogen, electric powered vehicle Indoor air pollution Pollution of air inside buildings Air exchange methods: infiltration (through cracks, joints, holes), natural ventilation, forced ventilation (e.g. fans) Sources of indoor air pollution

Combustion products: tobacco smoke, combustion from stove, heater, fireplace, chimney Asbestos: fire resistant and insulation in buildings Radon: Radioactive decay of Radium found in soil and rock Organic chemicals from household products: paints, waxes, varnishes, cleaning agents, pesticides, cosmetics, hobby materials Formaldehyde: used in paints, coatings, glues, adhesives Lead: paint, dust Biological substances: bacteria, fungi, viruses, house dust, pollen Effects of indoor air pollution Health problems: eye, nose and throat irritation, respiratory problem, headache, dizziness, visual problem, memory impairment, asthma, cancer, transmission of infectious disease e.g. influenza, measles etc. Remedial measures of indoor air pollution Proper ventilation, use of fans, exhaust fans, inspection of chimneys, furnaces annually, restricted use of asbestos, proper disposal of organic materials 3.4 Noise pollution Sound: produced by mechanical vibration of sound source, transmitted in the form of wave Wavelength: distance between peaks or valleys Amplitude: height of peak of wave Frequency: no. of wavelengths in 1S (cycle/s or HZ) Single wavelength: cycle Decible scale for sound Noise pollution: unwanted sound which produce undesirable physiological and psychological effect. Source Traffic: air traffic, road traffic and seashore and inland water traffic Industries Others: loudspeaker, siren, shouting, ringing bell, general daily activities Effect

General discomfort Reduction in efficiency of persons Psychological effect Effect on sleep, recreation and personal communication Reduction in gastric activity, dizziness, rise in breathing Irritation, anxiety and stress Lack of concentration

Mental fatigue Effect of prolonged exposure: Physical damage to ear, temporary/permanent hearing loss, or nervous breakdown, increase in blood pressure

Countermeasures Protection of the recipient: use of air plugs or air muffs Increasing path distance Noise barriers: absorptive materials, e.g. heavy drapes, carpets, special ceiling, wall acoustic material Reduction of noise at the source Rules and regulations

3.5 Global warming (Greenhouse effect) Global warming Rise in global mean temperature of the earth Solar energy: short wave radiation Energy radiated from the earths surface: long wave radiation Greenhouse effect Concept of conventional greenhouse with glass: transmit short wave radiation, opaque to long wave radiation Greenhouse effect: effect caused by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere in which short wave radiation is transmitted to the earths surface, but the long wave radiation from the earth is absorbed thereby increasing the temperature Greenhouse gases Group of about 20 gases responsible for the greenhouse effect through their ability to absorb long wave terrestrial radiation occupy less than 1% of total volume of atmosphere Major greenhouse gases CO2: major, responsible 60% of total GHG CH4 NOx, mainly N2O: responsible 7% of total GHG Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC): responsible 25% of total GHG O3 Water vapor Cause of global warming: Enhancement of green house effect due to anthropogenic activities Sources of GHG CO2: Burning of fossil fuels (oil, gas and coal), large scale deforestation CH4: large scale decomposition of organic matter in swamps, rice paddy, livestock yards, cattle rising, biomass burning N2O: soil and fertilizer, groundwater and oceans, combustion CFC: using refrigerant, air-conditioning, fire extinguisher, cleaning solvent, blowing agent, aerosol spray O3: upper natural environment Prediction of global warming Using global circulation models (GCM): computer analysis of mathematical equations that model earths atmosphere Impact of global warming

Rise in temperature: 0.3 to 0.6 deg c in the last century Sea level rise: due to thermal expansion of water on oceans and melting of ice caps and glaciers, 1-2 mm/year over the last century, flooding of coastal areas, beach erosion, saltwater intrusion into coastal areas Effect on water resources: change in the pattern of evaporation and precipitation, increase in evaporation and precipitation, more precipitation on the form of rain, increase in runoff Effect on storms and desertification: more storms, expansion of deserts and sub-arid areas with higher evaporation Socio-economic effect: chances of disease due to high temperature, increase in poverty due to flood and drought Ecological effect: effect on agriculture and forest ecosystem

Countermeasures Environmental taxes on GHG emissions Using the revenue of tax to develop permanent and stable funding for improved efficiency and developing renewable energy sources International efforts to control global warming 1. Atmospheric scientists meeting in Geneva in 1990 Steps to reduce emission of GHGs: industrialized nations could reduce CO2 emission by 20% by 2005 2. Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 Signing of treaty to stabilize emissions of GHGs at year 1990 level by year 2000 3. Global warming conference in Berlin in 1995 Binding time table for reduction in GHGs emission after year 2000 4. International conference in Kyoto, Japan in 1997 Kyoto protocol: set of binding emission targets and timelines for developed nations 3.6 Acid rain PH: measure of H ion concentration, range: 0-14, 7: neutral, <7: acidic, <7: alkaline Rainwater: naturally acidic, with PH of about 5.6 Acid rain: Rainwater with PH<5.6 that results from air pollution caused by human activities Causes Emission of SO2 and NOx into the atmosphere o Natural source: decomposition and forest fire, volcanic eruptions o Anthropogenic: burning of fossil fuels, industrial process and gasoline powered automobiles

Transformation into mild sulfuric or nitric acid by combining with water vapor Dissolution of H2SO4, HNO3 and oxides of Nitrogen and Sulfur and other gases in cloud containing rain and settling down of acid rain

Wet deposition: the pollutant material that comes down with rain, includes particulates and gases Dry deposition: the material reaching the ground by gravity during dry intervals, includes particulates and gases and aerosols Impact of acid rain Lowering of PH in lakes and rivers, springs, wells, harming fish and aquatic life Decline in forest, reduction in pollination of crops, crop quality and quantity Deterioration of building materials, e.g. steel, paint, plastics, cement, masonry, limestone, marble, sandstone Potential infiltration to groundwater and increase in solubility of toxic materials (Pb, Cu, Zn) in groundwater Effect on human health: due to acidic surface and groundwater consumption, respiratory illness, asthma Corrosion of water pipes, dissolving metals, e.g. lead , cupper and iron in water pipes causing direct harm to human through consumption Damage to soil fertility Countermeasures a. Technological approaches 1. pre-combustion: choose fuel with low S and N content or treat the fuels, physical and chemical process to remove S and N 2. Reduce emission of pollutants during combustion, e.g. catalytic or coal-limestone combustion 3. post-combustion: reduce emissions by high efficiency removal techniques, e.g. scrubber b. Environmental clean up and restoration e.g. liming of acidified surface water bodies (for neutralization) to save or restore many important resources c. Technical measure to reduce CO2 emission 1. Improve the efficiency of fuel to useable ends 2. Direct removal of CO2: technique for removal of CO2 from atmosphere by power plant 3. Reduction of CO2 by forestry 4. Cleaner energy production, e.g. photovoltaic, wood or wind 3.7 Ozone depletion

Important role with regard to atmospheric chemistry in both troposphere and the stratosphere Pollutant at ground level, but stratospheric O3 is crucial for life on the earth: blocks/absorbs most of the harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays coming from the sun, thus protecting plants and animals

Effect of UV Human skin cancer, eye cataracts, suppression of immune system response Effect on plants and aquatic life Ozone hole: ozone depleted region over Antarctica O3: unstable molecule, balance between formation and removal Main cause of O3 depletion: presence of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) in atmosphere Source of CFC: using refrigerant, air-conditioning, fire extinguisher, cleaning solvent, blowing agent, aerosol spray From CFC, release of Cl atom by UV, acts as catalyst for destruction of O3 Countermeasures Adoption of environmentally safe alternatives to CFCs for refrigeration and thermal insulation Reduction in CFC use