PCB 3703L - Human Physiology Lab

Summer 2011 Midterm Exam Review Outline Please note: this is simple a rough outline to help direct you on certain topics to study for you midterm exam. This review outline may not include all of the topics that may be covered on the midterm and it your responsibility to all the material covered by your LAB TA during lab as well as any material included in the PowerPoint slides and Lab Modules.

Lab 1: Homeostasis and Diffusion

A. Lecture Slides
a. Homeostasis What is the average body temperature? (in both and ) Understand and define the following vocabulary terms:
1. Stimulus 2. Sensor (receptor) 3. Integrating center 4. Controlled Variable (set-point) 5. Effector 6. Negative Feedback Mechanism 7. Positive Feedback Mechanism 8. Afferent Pathway (input) 9. Efferent Pathway (output) -

Understand and be able to critically think about various examples of feedback control systems in the human body (positive and negative feedback). Figure 7.7 Structures of Plasma Membrane [slide 7] Be able to label parts of the cell membrane Use image to critically think and answer questions about the plasma membrane.

b. Diffusion and Transport -

Understand the concept of selectively permeable and how it is related to human physiology. Be able to give specific examples of molecules that are permeable (or) impermeable
1. Active transport (primary and secondary) 2. Passive transport 3. Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion 4. Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion 5. Osmosis

Understand and be able to define:

6. Osmolarity 7. Osmotic Pressure 8. Osmotic potential 9. Isotonic solution 10. Hypertonic solution 11. Hypotonic solution

What is the optimal (isotonic) concentration of NaCl for a normal red blood cell? What would happen to the cell if it were placed into an isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic solution?

B. Lab Module
Be able to use the terminology of homeostatic mechanisms to explain what occurred during exercise. Understand mechanisms your body uses to maintain homeostasis Understand and be able to explain what happened in each of the three different experimental conditions. Which direction did the iodine diffuse? What effect did starch concentration have on the color indicator, in this case the Grams iodine solution?

How would the tonicity of the solution in the dialysis bag (filled with DI-H2O) change or react, if it were to be placed into an isotonic, hypertonic, or hypotonic solution?

Lab 2: Enzymes and Digestion

A. Lecture Slides
a. Digestion - Understand and be able to explain the main functions of the digestive system. - Know where digestion occurs for each of the following: Proteins Lipids Carbohydrates

- What is the definition of a zymogen? Give one example of a specific zymogen. - Does pepsinogen bind to any substrates? Does pepsin bind to any substrates? Be able to explain the chemical reaction that occurs to activate pepsinogen pepsin.

- What are the roles of goblet, parietal, and chief cells in the stomach? What substances to each of these cells secrete? - What organs are considered accessory organs and how do they aid in digestion? - What is the role of the gallbladder in the digestive system? Where is bile produced? Where is bile stored? - What is the main site of absorption in the digestive system? What role do the increasing amounts of folds and microvilli in digestion? (hint: think surface area)

- What is the main function of the large intestine? Does digestion occur here? What does occur in the large intestine? What role might probiotics play in the large intestine? - What is the main function of the pancreas in the digestive system? Be able to identify the steps that occur between gastric digestion and intestinal digestion [slide 15]. - What is the main function of the liver in the digestive system? - Know the optimal pH of the important enzymes discussed during the lecture. b. Enzymes - Why are enzymes needed in biochemical reactions? - In terms of their effect on the energy of activation, how do enzymes work to catalyze reactions? Do they alter the reaction? Do they change the overall net energy of the reaction (G)? Are they consumed in the reaction? Can they be reused? - What environmental factors affect enzyme activity? - Are enzymes specific or nonspecific to substrates? - Does any change in the shape of the enzyme occur during the course of the reaction? Is there a net change in the shape of an enzyme during the reaction?

B. Lab Module
- What is the substrate for invertase, amylase, and pepsin? What products are formed by their catalytic activity? - What is the difference between gastric digestion and intestinal digestion? - Understand the concepts behind each of the three experiments and how they affect enzyme activity.

Lab 3: Endocrine System

A. Lecture Slides
- How does a hormone travel through the body? Are hormones specific to only one target tissue or are they nonspecific for various target tissues? - Know all the endocrine organs we covered in class, which hormones are produced & secreted by each of these organs. - Know the target organ and principal actions of the hormones covered in class. - Understand the examples of anterior pituitary feedback control systems - Which pancreatic cells secrete glucagon? Which secrete insulin? - What is the function of both glucagon and insulin? What type of relationship do they have? Understand how these levels change when a person has fasted for a prolonged amount of time and when they have just ingested a meal. - How is the blood glucose level affect by both glucagon and insulin? - What is the pathophysiology and difference between Type-I DM and Type-II DM? What is the approach toward treatment in each scenario?

B. Lab Module

- Understand how eating sugar and how exercise affects blood glucose levels. What effectors are activated after both of these processes? What is the relationship between glucose levels and ketone body levels in a patient who is in a state of ketosis vs. diabetic ketoacidosis?

Lab 4: Special Senses

A. Lecture Slides
a. Nervous System - Know the functions of the special sensory organs - Understand and be able to define:
1. Afferent sensory neuron 2. Interneuron (or) association neuron 3. Efferent motor neuron

- Know each of the various types of sensory receptors, what they sense, and their location throughout the body. - Understand and be able to explain the difference between myelinated and unmyelinated axons found in nociception. - Understand and be able to explain difference between phasic receptors and tonic receptors. How to each of these receptors respond to a constant stimulus? Does adaption occur at all? If so, at what rate does adaption occur? - Know the following types of nerve endings, their location, what they sense, and their rate adaptation? Which are considered encapsulated nerve endings?
1. Free-nerve endings 2. Merkels discs 3. Pacinian corpuscles 4. Meissners corpuscles 5. Ruffini corpuscles

- Understand and be able to explain/critically think about the concept behind the TwoPoint Threshold Test. How do longer/shorter distances relate to the density of sensory neuron bundles in the area? - How is the tactile acuity of the fingertips exploited in the reading braile? - Understand and be able to explain/give examples of each of the following:
1. Monosynaptic reflex 2. Polysynaptic reflex 3. Crossed-extensor reflex 4. Ipsilateral reflex

- Know the individual steps of the knee-jerk reflex (patellar reflex). Be able to use the terms alpha motorneuron, muscle spindle, sensory neuron. - Know the structures and functions responsible for the sense of equilibrium - Know the functions of each structure(s) that make up the vestibular apparatus - Know the structures and functions responsible for the sense of hearing.

- What is the functional unit of hearing? - Know the order of structures a sound wave encounters - Understand how a sound is detected and interpreted. - What is the function of the Eustachian tube? - What is considered to be the true organ of hearing? - Which nerve transmits the nerve signal from the organ of corti to the temporal lobe of the brain? - Understand and be able to define the following terms:
1. Otolith organs 2. Utricle 3. Saccule 4. Semicircular canals (posterior, anterior, and lateral) 5. Auditory nerve 6. Cochlea

- Know the location of rods and cones in the eye. Does the concentration of rods increase or decrease as you move toward the peripheral areas of the eye? - What area of the retina are light rays specifically focused at? - Understand and be able to explain trichromatic color vision. What three types of cones are found in humans? What size wavelength is found in each (short, medium, long)? - Understand concept of convergence vs. none convergence as applied to rods & cones. Does convergence occur in rods? Does it occur in cones? Which of the two have dedicated bi-polar neurons and which share a set of bi-polar neurons? - What types of vision are rods and cones used for? - What is the fovea and optic disk? What types of photoreceptors are found in each region? - In the above visual abnormalities, where do the rays focus in relation to the retina? How are each of these abnormalities corrected? What is the scientific name for each of these abnormalities? What type of lens is used to correct for astigmatism?

A. Lab Module

- Understand and be able to explain the concept behind visual acuity testing as demonstrated using the Snellen eye chart. What does the number in the numerator mean? What does the number in the denominator mean? What types of visual abnormalities can the Snellen eye chart test for? - Know and be able to explain the different abnormalities associated with visual acuity. 1. Myopia 2. Hyperopia 3. Astigmatism 4. Presbyopia - Be able to compare the differences in someone with a visual acuity score of 20/10 versus someone with 20/50 vision.

- What does a Babinskis reflex test look for? What would a positive Babinskis test indicate about the nervous system?

Lab 5: Skeletal Muscle

A. Lecture Slides
- What are the characteristics and main functions of skeletal muscle fiber? - Understand and be able to identify the main properties of skeletal muscle fiber. - What is a sarcomere? What is the functional unit of skeletal muscle? - Understand and be able to explain the contraction cycle and sliding filament theory of muscle contraction. - How does muscle contraction occur? What is the role of ATP in muscle contraction? What is the role of [Ca2+]? Why does rigor mortis occur? - Be able to identify each of the following structures: 1. H zone 2. A band 3. I band 4. Z disc 5. M line - What is a motor unit? What is the significance of the precision ratio found when discussing the amount of fibers a motor unit innervates? - Understand and be able to explain each of the steps involved in a monosynaptic reflex and a crossed-extensor reflex. - Understand and be able identify characteristics of each type of skeletal muscle fiber: 1. Slow Oxidative 2. Fast Oxidative-Glycolytic 3. Fast Glycolytic - Understand and be able to critically think about each type of muscle contraction: 1. Isotonic Concentric contraction 2. Isotonic Eccentric contraction 3. Isometric contraction