CHAPTER -1 Introduction and selection of stones BUILDING STONES: Natural Material, obtained from rocks, used for construction

purpose. Properties of stones STRENGTH & DURABILITY: The more compact grained and heavier a stone the harder it is. Due to alternate wetting and drying the resulting crushing strength can be reduced even up to 30-40%. Being dry stones allow more crushing strength than when wet. Stone Granite Basalt or Trap Limestone Sandstone (stray) Slate Marble Weight in lb/cu. ft Ultimate strength crushing lbs/sq. in 165 185 160 140 175 170 13000 12000 7500 5000 10000 7500 to resist

Table showing the relationship between weights and crushing strength. It is the ability of a stone to endure and maintain its essential and distinctive characteristics i.e. resistance to decay, strength and appearance. Physical properties such as density, compressive strength and porosity are measured in order to determine its durability. Durability is based upon the stones natural physical properties, characteristics and the environmental conditions to which it will be or is subjected too. Another factor of stones durability is its Aesthetic Durability or Dimensional Stability. Cosmetic changes may occur. This has to do with the Color Stability of certain stones. These changes can take place in two ways. SUNLIGHT: When some stones are used in exterior applications and exposed to direct sunlight they fade or change color. Dark colored stones and those that contain organic matter will generally fade to a much lighter color. The Coral stone being of a biogenic origin contains organic material that will be affected by ultraviolet exposure. MOISTURE: Some stones have moisture sensitive mineral contents that will cause the stone to develop rust spots, or other color variations, or contain moisture sensitive substances that will cause blotchy and streaking discolorations. Certain lime stones contain bituminous materials that are soluble when exposed to moisture. Some marbles are also moisture sensitive when in high moisture areas, showers and those with steam features; these stones have a tendency to develop dark botches. POROSITY & PERMEABILITY: Porosity is the ratio of pores (micro-voids) in the stone, to its total solid volume. Pores and the capillary structure develop differently in each of the three stone groups. Dense and compact stones have very few or no pores in them. An important feature of sedimentary rocks is their porosity. Pores are natural holes in the stones which allow fluids like rainwater to enter and leave the fabric. Some free fluid flow through a rock is necessary to maintain the rock's durability, and it is not always advisable to block such flow by using incorrect mortar mixes or by injecting unsuitable synthetic fluids. Very high porosities, however, may allow excessive volumes of corrosive fluids such as acid rainwater to enter and cause severe damage to the rock. Thin section rock analysis can identify where such problems are likely to occur. Most durable sedimentary building stones commonly have moderate porosity. Associated with stones porosity is its permeability. This is the extent to which the pores and capillary structures are interconnected throughout the stone. These networks, their size, structure and orientation affect the degree and depth to which moisture, vapors and liquids can be absorb into the interior of the stone or migrate from the substrate by capillary action through the stone. Permeability is increased when a stone is highly fractured or the veining material is soft or grainy. A particular variety of stone may be highly permeable (a well defined interconnected network of pores), although its porosity is low (a low percentage of voids).

The size and shapes of pores and the capillary structure differs in stones and is an important factor in relation to stone decay. HARDNESS & WEATHERING: Hardness is the property of a material to avoid and resist scratching. It is determined by comparison with the standard minerals of the Mohrs scale. The objective of the MOHRs Scale is to measure stones resistance to hardness. Measurement of Hardness: 1. Talc 2. Gypsum 3. Calcite (Most Marbles) 4. Fluorite 5. Apatite 6. Feldspar (Granite) 7. Quartz (Granite) 8. Topaz 9. Corundum 10. Diamond Weathering It is a complex interaction of physical, chemical and biological processes that alters the stone in some general or specific way. The physical properties of stone differ widely between stone groups and even within the same stone type. The mineral composition, textural differences, varying degrees of hardness and pore/capillary structure are the main reasons why neither stone nor all the surface of the same stone shows signs of alteration the same and evenly. These minerals can be broken down, dissolved or converted to new minerals by a variety of processes which are grouped as Mechanical and Chemical. Intensity and duration are two key elements that govern to what extent weathering reactions will have on stone. WATER ABSORPTION: Moisture from rain, snow or other environmental conditions penetrates the wall leading to cracks, efflorescence, rust staining, wood rotting, paint peeling, darkening of masonry and spalling. The perfect sealing of a masonry wall surface is almost impossible since fine cracks and joints will allow the passage of water into the wall. Absorbency It is the result of these two properties (permeability and porosity). Absorbency is an important determining factor in stones sensitivity to stains. The size of the pores, their orientation, how well they are networked and the type of finish the stone has are important contributing factors to a stones overall absorbency. In relation to clean ability this factor is more important than how porous a stone is. Honed and textured surfaces are more susceptible to soiling and staining due to the fact that there are more open pores at the surface than a highly polished finish. The polishing process has a tendency to close off pores leaving fewer ones exposed, resulting in a low absorbent surface. However, some varieties of stone have large pores and capillary structures and even when these stones are polished they still remain very absorbent. Most common oils can be easily absorbed into all types of stone. FROST RESISTANCE Frost action or commonly called freeze/thaw cycles occur when water within the pore structure or cracks freezes to ice. It has been estimated when water freezes it expands between 8 to 11 percent, with a force of 2,000 pounds per square inch to 150 tons per square foot. This increase of internal pressure combined with repeated freeze/thaw cycles produces micro-fissures, cracks, flaking and spalli PARAMETERS CONSIDERED IN SELECTION OF A GOOD CONSTRUCTION STONE Being cheap, hard, durable and naturally good looking, stones are often used in construction but keeping in view the variable properties of stones of different types, there must be some criteria for the selection of stones for construction. The criterion is based upon the following parameters. 1. Chemical composition of stone: 2. Strength and hardness: 3. Durability: 4. Resistance to fire: 5. Bio-Deterioration: 6. Appearance: 7. Susceptibility to being quarried in large sizes:

1. Chemical composition of stones: Using/selecting a stone for construction, its chemical properties and composition must be tested and verified because different elements and compounds in stones have different properties. For instance, Magnesium in Limestone causes it to be stronger and is called Dolomite. Feldspar, in large quantities in stone is a source of weakness because CO2 dissolves Potassium, Sodium, and even Calcium in the Feldspar leaving pure white clay behind. Presence of Mica, even less than 2-3% makes stone unsuitable for building purposes. Stones with silicates as cementing materials are resistant to weathering. 2. Strength and hardness: The more compact grained and heavier a stone, the stronger it is. A crystalline stone is superior to a noncrystalline texture. The specific gravity of good stone should be above 2.7. Stones used for road metal, paving blocks, floor slabs and railway ballast have to withstand mainly abrasion or wear and tear. Stone wall subjected to vibrations of machinery and moving loads should necessarily possess toughness. Strength and hardness itself depend on some factors: Factors affecting strength, hardness and toughness a. Hardness or softness of the components b. Proportions of the hard and soft minerals c. Size and shape of the minerals d. Cohesion e. Porosity f. Density g. Cementing material a) Hardness or softness of the components: The composition of the compounds determines its hardness or softness. Stones containing Si, Na, K are poor while that containing Mg, Ca, and Fe are good, as they are harder. If the stone is composed of soft and unhardened materials it will result in soft materials and vice versa. b) Proportion of hard and soft materials: The amount of soft and hard material in a specific sample of stone also matters. Greater the amount of hard materials more will be the resistance to weathering. c) Size and shape of the minerals is stones: Crystalline solids are hard and compact, thus superior to non-crystalline. Finer the crystals, stronger the stones and vice versa, this property i.e fineness reduces the pores in the stone. d) Cohesion: It is the property of atoms or particles to attract each other. The fine grains have more cohesive power than the coarser grains. Greater the cohesion in stone causes increase in the hardness, strength and toughness of stones. The property of compactness also depends deeply on cohesion. e) Porosity: Stones in wet conditions and having pores in them allow a lower crushing strength than normal. Porosity can reduce the strength upto 30 - 40% e.g limestone and sandstone are affected by this property. Porosity is the property of a substance in which it contains pores i it. It also reduces the resistance to a concentrated (point) load. f) Density: If a stone is compact, dense, it would also be non-porous and strong, thus toughness also depends upon density. g) Cementing material: Stones with silicates as cementing material will be resistant to weathering than those with calcareous or ferruginous binding material. So, cementing material also affects the choice of stone selection. 3) Resistance to heat: Resistance to heat means that the stone must have a very low amount of expansion due to large increase in temperature. Silicious materials are good at areas where resistance to fire is required. 4) Bio-deterioration: Certain trees and creepers thrust their roots in the joints of stones and have both mechanical and chemical adverse effects. Special microbes can grow on the surface and in minute fissures, their by-products cause flaking and discoloration. 5) Appearance: The aesthetic aspect that is color, appearance and show of stones must also be considered when being used in a project. Appearance depends on the color and the ease with which the stone can be dressed, rubbed or polished. 1. Texture: fine grained structure, free form patches and cracks.

2. Appearance: uniform and pleasing 3. Sp. Gravity: Above 2.7 4. Resistance to weathering and frost action 5. Workability 6. Resistance to smoke, fire and atmosphere 7. Porosity: should not absorb more than 5 % of water 8. Seasoning: hard after seasoning, quarry sap should be removed 9. Toughness Index: 19 10. Hardness: strong, hard and durable TYPES OF STONES Natural stones are classified according to their mineral content and the process of their formation. Most of these minerals can be identified by their color, hardness and crystal formation. However, a wide array of minerals is often difficult to identify. Many stones look similar to each other, but are actually different. Good stones are characterized by durability, hardness, strength, amenability to dressing, appearance, and weight, fineness of grain, compactness, porosity and absorption. In order to be suitable as building stones, a rock should have specific qualities such as capacity to stand the ravages of time and weather, requisite strength to bear strain and super-incumbent weight, attractive colour and general appearance. Its structure must also be such as to allow quarrying into good sized blocks or planes. India possesses extensive deposits of different kinds of building and monumental stones. It is one of the few major countries known for the production and export of natural building stones of various colours. The most important building stones in India are the granites/and allied rocks, sandstone, limestone, slate and marble. The different types of stones are: I. Sedimentary Stones These stones came from organic elements such as glaciers, rivers, oceans, and plants. Tiny sedimentary pieces broke off form these elements and accumulated to form rock beds. They were bonded through millions of years of heat and pressure. Major types of sedimentary stones are: Limestone Mainly consisting of calcite, it does not show much graining or crystalline structure. It has a smooth granular surface and varies in hardness. Some dense limestone can be polished and is more likely to stain than marble. Common colors are black, grey, white, yellow or brown. Limestone is known to contain lime from sea water, and that's why the nomenclature. Sandstone Sandstone is a sedimentary stone that is typically the result of quartzite stone being eroded and redeposited by either wind or water. Sandstone mostly consists of quartz, silica, iron oxide and calcium carbonate and are durable, weather, acid and thermal resistant and have crushing strength. Sandstones are most highly craftable and manageable, they can at most take a honed polish, and are used as garden and commercial landscapes, exterior wall claddings, panels, pillars, sculptures, arches,etc. They come in an array of colors & shades and can be chiseled and dressed to a smooth surface in various attractive shapes. Soapstone It is a very soft stone made of a variety of talc. It is a dense mineral that wears well and is often resistant to oxide. Travertine Usually it has a cream or reddish color and is formed through the accumulation of calcite from hot springs. It contains lots of holes that were formed from water flowing through the stone. These holes are often filled with synthetic resins or cements and requires lots of maintenance if the holes are not filled. II. Metamorphic Stones These stones originates as a result of natural change from one type of stone to another type by the mixed action of heat, pressure and minerals. The change may be a development of a crystalline formation, a texture change, or a color change. Marble The term "Marble" is derived from the Latin word "Marmar" which itself comes from the Greek root "Marmarous" meaning thereby a shining stone. Marble is a metamorphic rock resulting from the recrystallization of limestone softened from heat and pressure. Main constituents are calcium and dolomite. Hardness ranges from 2.5 to 5 on the MOH scale. Marble is usually heavily veined and shows lots of grains. Dimensional marble specifications include smooth textures, ease in crafting sculptures, hence highly manageable. It is a reasonably strong and durable stone. It takes good polish, popularly used as wall

claddings, floors, skirtings, table tops, treads and risers, sculptures, artifacts, etc. Marble is classified into three categories: a. Dolomite: If it has more than 40% magnesium carbonate. b. Magnesium: If it has between 5% and 40% magnesium. c. Calcite: If it has less than 5% magnesium carbonate. Slate Slate is a very fine grained metamorphic rock derived from the sedimentary rock 'shale'. Slate is composed mostly of mica, chlorite and quartz. Characteristically, the rock may slit into relatively thinner slabs and can break easily. Some slates take very good polish, are extremely beautiful and more cost effective than most other wall and floor coverings. Slate has a fine to medium grained surface texture. It renders a very graceful, natural finish to any building or home. Serpentine It is identified by its marks, which look like the skin of a serpent. Hardness rates from 2.5 to 4 on the MOH scale and most popular colors are green and brown. Contains lots of magnesium, and has an igneous origin. It does not always react well to recrystallization or diamond polishing. III. Igneous Stones These rocks are mainly formed through volcanic material such as magma. Underneath the earth's surface, liquid magma cooled and solidified. Mineral gases and liquids penetrated into the stone and created new crystalline formations with various colors. Granite The term "Granite" is derived from the Latin word "Granum" meaning "grain" because of its granular nature. Granite is an Igneous Stone, primarily made of Quartz(35%), Feldspar(45%) & Potassium. Dimensional granite specifications include high load bearing capacity, amenability to cutting without secondary flaws, ability to yield thin and large slabs and - above all - durability. Granite is a very strong and durable stone. It takes heavy gloss polish, popularly used as architectural stone for interior and exterior walls, floors and monumental stone. IV. Man Made Stones These stones are derived from unnatural mixtures such resin or cement with the additive of stone chips. Terrazzo Marble and granite chips embedded in a cement composition. Agglomerates or Conglomerates Marble chips embedded in a colored resin composition. Cultured or Faux Marble It is a mix of resins that are painted or mixed with a paint to look like marble. Advantages: i) can be of any shape and size ii) Economy can be achieved iii) Can be cast as per architectural requirement

DISINTEGRATION OF STONE
DISINTEGRATING AGENTS Classification of Agents.- The disintegration or decay of stone is commonly referred to as weathering, and is caused by agents of three kinds; namely, physical or mechanical, chemici1 and organic. The mechanical agents are heat and cold, air in the form of wind, and water in the form of rain and ice. The chemical agents are the various acids present in the atmosphere. The organic agents are vegetable growths that thrive in damp and shady places, and marine insects or boring mollusks, which perforate the stone between the high and low water marks. Heat and Cold: An increase in temperature causes expansion in a stone, and a decrease in temperature causes contraction; hence, as a result of ordinary changes in temperature, there is a continual slight movement among the particles of the stone, which may destroy their cohesion, and thus produce a slow and gradual disintegration. Fire: All building stones are injured by high temperatures. Sandstones, if somewhat porous, uncrystallized, and free from feldspar, are the most refractory of the common building stones. Gneiss is quite fire resistive when it contains a large proportion of quartz in which the particles are of the nature of sand. Limestones and granitic rocks usually crack when subjected to a high temperature. Stone is subjected to a very severe test when it is heated during a fire and then cooled suddenly by a stream of water from a hose. The exterior layer of the stone is cooled much more rapidly than the interior, and in some cases the uneven rate of contraction causes large pieces to break off.

Air and Water :Air acts mechanically in the form of wind, especially when it carries dust; it erodes the surface and removes small particles, much in the Same way as a sandblast apparatus, thus, exposing new surfaces to be acted on. Rain alone has a slight mechanical effect when simply falling on the stone and washing loose particles away. Rain and wind together, however, act very energetically. Water penetrates into all rocks, no matter how dense or compact they may be, and, when it freezes, it expands and tends to split them. A volume of water occupying 100 cubic inches before freezing would occupy 109 cubic inches after freezing. When this expansion is resisted, the pressure exerted is equal to 150 tons per square foot, which is sufficient to split the strongest rocks. Air and water also act together to produce the following changes in the composition of stones: (1) rusting or oxidation of the iron particles present in the stone; (2) reduction or de oxidation of the oxygen in iron oxide, which is caused by the presence of an organic acid or of continual moisture; (3) absorption of water by an oxide; (4) solution of the constituents that are soluble in water. Absorption occurs only when there is continual moisture, as in bridge piers and abutments. Acids: Pure water has but little effect in dissolving the ingredients of stone, but the air contains many acids which, in combination with rain, form powerful solvents of mineral matter. The stones that are most susceptible to this dissolving action are limestone, sandstone, and granite containing feldspar. Carbonic acid, which is contained in the atmosphere to the amount of about 400 parts of acid to 1,000,000 parts of air, has, when combined with water, a corroding action on the carbonates, whether they form the principal constituents of the stone or are only present as cementing materials. This acid transforms the insoluble earthy carbonates of lime and magnesia into bicarbonates, which are soluble in water and can, therefore, be washed away. On granite, carbonic acid acts by eliminating the alkaline constituents in the form of carbonates; a friable or crumbly residue of hydrated silicate of alumina is left, which contains the unaltered particles of quartz and mica. In the case of greenstones the acid acts on the iron present, and also dissolves out the lime, leaving a loose, friable, and bulky stone of a red or brown color. Sandstones containing iron are disintegrated by the solution and washing away of the iron. Nitric acid is frequently present as a constituent of the atmosphere; its destructive action is exerted on the limestones. Sulfuric acid, which results from the combustion of coal, is present in the atmosphere of cities to an extent as great as 250 parts in 1,000,000. It has a marked destructive influence on all stones, and especially on granite. The feldspar is attacked, and the potash, soda, or lime is dissolved out, and in time the stone becomes filled with small holes. Living Agents :The disintegration and decay of stone by the inanimate agents are frequently hastened by many forms of life, such as bacteria, mosses, worms, etc., all of which are in a sense destructive agents. Their presence gives rise to small amounts of organic acids which exercise a corrosive influence. PREVENTION OF STONES Disintegration of stone is hastened or retarded by the methods employed in quarrying, seasoning, finishing, and setting the stone. Quarrying The excessive use of explosives in quarrying shatters the cohesion of the particles composing the stone and causes cracks and flaws that make the stone more permeable to moisture. Small charges of powder, uniformly distributed over the area to be blasted, have a lesser weakening effect on the stone. Stone cut out by quarrying machinery is preferable to that blasted or wedged out, because the stone is not jarred and cracked by this method and because denser faces are produced which render the stone less permeable to moisture. The position of the stone in the quarry also affects its durability. Stone taken from the exposed faces and the top ledges of the quarry is likely to be less durable than unexposed stone. Seasoning Before a stone is placed in a structure, the interstitial moisture, called quarry water or sap, must be removed by evaporation. This process is termed seasoning, and should be affected by exposing the stone to the drying action of the atmosphere for some months; the stone should be stored under cover for protection against rain. If the stone is not seasoned, the quarry water will be alternately frozen and thawed during a series of years, and the stone will be broken up. Finishing The life of a stone is dependent on the style of finish given to its exposed faces. A smooth or polished surface aids in prolonging the life by facilitating the rapid discharge of rainwater. The methods employed in dressing the stone also affect its life. Minute fissures that render the stone more susceptible to atmospheric influences are produced by impact; hence, stones sawed to the required dimensions are more durable than those hammered and broken to size. Setting The position in which the stone is set in the structure affects its ability to resist disintegration. When stratified stones are placed on edge, and the mortar joints are not properly filled, water enters between the layers and in freezing causes the stone to scale off; therefore, laminated stones should be set with their layers horizontal. The portions of a structure most liable to early decay are those under cornices, belt courses, window sills, etc., on which the rainwater slowly falls or drips. As a protection from this source of decay, the under surface of a projecting stone should have a narrow groove, called a drip, extending its whole length. The

water that collects on the upper surface of the projection flows over the upper edge and down the face to the under side, where its further progress is interrupted by the drip; it then falls to the ground.