Lovely Professional University

TERM PAPER
CHEMISTRY CHE 101

TOPIC SECONDARY STORAGE BATTERIES

Submitted to: Dr Gulshan Kumar

Submitted by: Name Shailesh singh Class B.tech (ME) Section D4901 Roll no. RD4901A59 Reg. No. 10908518

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am thankful to my teacher Dr Gulshan Kumar for giving me this opportunity. He trusted me and chose me for doing search on the topic Secondary Storage Batteries. Though I have taken maximum information from the internet but my friends and my books helped a lot. This project has been prepared under the guidance of my respected teacher Dr Gulshan Kumar. Books are the best friends and I have got lot of help from my text book Fundamental of Chemistry by Raymond Chang. At last I would like to thank my mother without whose support I would not have been able to make this project.

INDEX:2

1 Batteries 02Types of batteries 03Construction of Primary and secondary cell 04Secondary or rechargeable batteries 05Its usage and application 06Types of secondary batteries 07Will secondary battery replace primary ones? 08Advantages of secondary batteries 09Application of secondary batteries 10Protection of secondary storage battery

Batteries:
An electrical battery is a combination of one or more electrochemical cells, used to convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first Voltaic pile in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, the battery has become a common power source for many household and industrial applications. According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each year,[1] with 6% annual growth.[2]
Batteries may be used once and discarded, or recharged for years as in standby power applications. Miniature cells are used to power devices such as hearing aids and wristwatches; larger batteries provide standby power for telephone exchanges or computer data centers. A battery is an energy storing system based on electrochemical charge/discharge
reactions. During discharge the chemical energy is converted into electrical energy and during charge the energy is reconverted into chemical energy. In a primary battery system only the discharge reaction can be used. A secondary or rechargeable battery system is characterized by a charge/discharge reaction that is reversible. The higher the reversibility the more discharge/charge cycles can be performed. The electrical energy stored in a battery is directly related to the chemical energy being stored. The cathode incorporates an oxidizing material, the anode a reducing component. The laws of nature have fixed limits to specific energy of electrochemical systems from the periodic table of elements: The maximum theoretical specific energy is attained for Lithium and Fluorine at 6,085 Wh/kg. However, most chemical reactions cannot be used in a battery system because they are not reversible in an electrochemical cell. Batteries have to be distinguished from fuel cells and capacitors. A capacitor is based on a reversible separation of charge with a significant lower energy, compared to a chemical reaction associated with a battery technology. Fuel cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy without the ability to be recharged by electrical power. Whenever energy has to be reversibly discharged and recharged at high energy density, and with high efficiency, a battery is the most suitable energy storage system.

Some batteries-

Duracell (used in torches)

Lemon Battery

Car Battery (used in cars)

BL-5C Battery (used in mobiles)

Types of batteries:
Batteries are mainly classified into two types Primary or non-rechargeable batteries Secondary or rechargeable batteries

Primary BatteriesPrimary batteries are used once, then discarded. They have the advantage of convenience and cost less per battery, with the down side of costing more over the long term. Generally, primary batteries have a higher capacity and initial voltage than rechargeable batteries, and a sloping discharge curve . Most primary batteries do not presently require special disposal. The disadvantages of primary batteries are that it is not suitable for high drain applications due to short life time and the cost of continuous replacement.

In terms of overall energy efficiency, single use, disposable, primary batteries are an extremely uneconomical energy source since they produce only about 2% of the power used in their manufacture.

Secondary BatteriesThe various types of battery power systems in AtoN services are Primary Batteries (nonrechargeable)and Secondary (rechargeable) batteries.Secondary (rechargeable) batteries 01Lead-Acid batteries 02Sealed (maintenance-free, valve-regulated) batteries 03 Flooded electrolyte batteries (add-water type) 04Nickel-Cadmium batteries 05. Vented pocket-plate batteries 06Vented sintered-plate batteries 07Sealed batteries A number of countries are conducting trials with Nickel-Metal Hydride and Lithium-Ion batteries. These are further defined in section 2.2 G. and 2 H. The choice of battery types will be made at the design stage. The following listings outline the advantages and disadvantages of the majority of battery types in general use.
Secondary batteries are the rechargeable batteries. They have the advantage of being more cost-efficient over the long term, although individual batteries are more expensive. Generally, secondary batteries have a lower capacity and initial voltage, a flat discharge curve, higher self discharge rates and varying recharge life ratings. Secondary batteries usually have more active (less stable) chemistries which need special handling, containment

and disposal. Ni-Cd and small-size lead acid batteries require special disposal and should not be simply thrown away.

Secondary storage battery diagrame......

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In this project Im going to discuss more about secondary batteries.

Constructions of Primary and secondary cell:01 Primary Cell:The simplest of primary cells, the basis of batteries, is made from two conductive metals, called electrodes, and solutions that contain the corresponding metallic ions. Because of the reduction and oxidation reaction or redox as it is abbreviatedof these metals, which involves the loss and gain of electrons, current is able to flow through a wire from one metal to the other. The metal where oxidation occurs is referred to as the anode and the metal where reduction occurs is refer to cathode.

In figure Primary cell A salt bridge, comprised of a neutral solution, is placed between the two solutions to balance the charges of the metal-solution system. We began by constructing a simple primary cell from copper (Cu), copper (II) nitrate (Cu(NO3)2), zinc (Zn), and zinc nitrate (Zn(NO3)2), placing each metal in a small container of its corresponding solution. After connecting the two solutions with a salt bridge of potassium nitrate (KNO3), the cell was complete. The cell had a measurable voltage of approximately 1 V, but was unable to power a small motor or light bulb because of the high internal resistance caused by the salt bridge and nature of the cell. We constructed other primary cells made from the metals cadmium (Cd) and
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nickel (Ni) and the solutions cadmium nitrate (Cd(NO3)2) and nickel (II) nitrate (Ni(NO3)2), as well as the original materials, and tested the voltage and current of each combination. Like the Cu-Zn battery, however, each combination was unable to successfully power either the motor or the light bulb and, while having a measurable voltage, did not have a measurable current. Anode Cathode Measured Voltage ,did not have a measurabule current. Anode Zinc Zinc Zinc Nickel Cadmium Cadmium Cathode Copper Nickel Cadmium Copper Copper Nickel Measured voltage 0.942 V 0.839 V 0.16 V 0.0804 V 0.77 V 0.690 V

02.Secondary Cell
Unlike primary cells, secondary cells are able to be re-used multiple times. By supplying a certain amount of energy, we can force the chemical reactions to occur in the reverse direction. In this way, secondary cells can be recharged. Our group next constructed a simple lead-acid battery out of lead (Pb), pressed lead (IV) oxide (PbO2), and 1 mol/L sulfuric acid (1M H2SO4). The two electrodesthe solid Pb and pressed PbO 2were placed in approximately 20-mL of 1M H2SO4 solution in a small crucible and connected to a motor. However, due to its brittleness, the PbO2 repeatedly broke off in the H2SO4 solution. The PbO2 electrode, due to its shape, also constantly slipped into the solution, making it difficult to attach wires to the electrode without the wires short-circuiting in the solution. Despite attempts to wrap the wires in both tape and wax paper, the H2SO4 was still able to make contact with the wires and cause short-circuiting in the cell. To solve this difficulty as well as to further reduce the amount of internal resistance in the cell, our group experimented making a paste-like material. Made from cornstarch and 1 M H2SO4, the paste enabled the electrodes to not only be positioned closer together, which would help maximize the voltage, but also made it easier for the ions in the reaction to move in comparison with the original solutions. While it made it easier to prevent the PbO2 electrode from slipping, the paste material failed tolower the internal resistance of the battery enough to power our motor. Hoping to reduce the internal resistance even more, we attempted to decrease the distance between the electrodes. By using dialysis tubing, the two electrodes were able to be broughtvirtually as close together as possible while still not touching one another. The dialysis tubingalso allowed ions to pass freely between the two electrodes, ensuring that the reactions would still take place. A sandwich type model consisting of the Pb and PbO2 electrodes with the

dialysis tubing wedged in between and taped all together solved the problem of the PbO2 becoming totally submerged in the H2SO4 solution. However, the H2SO4 would slowly seep in between the electrodes, causing the wires that connected the electrodes to the motor to become wet. Without surprise, the voltage was not measurable and the battery failed to run our motor

In figure secondary storage battery To eliminate the risk of short-circuiting the battery once again, our group attempted to make a dry cell battery. Similar to the previous sandwich model, this next battery model consisted of the two electrodes glued together with the same paste of cornstarch and 1M H 2SO4. This model proved to be better than its predecessors. It was both easy to attach wires to the electrodes without having to worry about the battery short-circuiting and the internal resistance was successfully reduced drastically. For once, there was a measurable resistance (jumping between 130 and 300 ) instead of the previous overload reading displayed for all of the other types of batteries. The voltage of this battery, 1.4 V, was also the highest one we had read. Unfortunately, despite its drastic drop, the resistance was still too high for the battery to produce enough current needed to power the motor. After researching, our group realized that instead of using PbO2 as one electrode and Pb as the other, we could
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simply use two pieces of Pb as the electrodes. By first electrolyzing the H2SO4 solution, oxygen (O2) and hydrogen (H2) gases could be produced. The O2 that was produced then oxidized one of the Pb electrodes by plating it with PbO2. This process eliminated the problem of the PbO2 breaking apart in the H2SO4 solution as well as it slipping into the beaker. Because Pb is very malleable, it was easy to bend the electrodes so that they would fasten to the sides of the beaker without slipping which solved the difficulty of attaching the wires to the electrodes without coming in contact with the sulfuric acid solution. Using a direct-current adapted power supply, we first charged the cell for five minutes. Instantly the anode became a distinct brown colour, signifying that it was becoming plated with PbO2, and the H2SO4 began bubbling, indicating the production of O2 and H2 gases. Because of the alternate current that was being used, the bubbles looked as if they were pulsating; however there seemed to be no adverse effects in this phenomenon. After five minutes, the cell was disconnected from the power supply and hooked up to a small motor. Though for only a few seconds, the motor successfully ran for the first time. The cell also had a voltage of around 1.8 Vthe highest voltage achieved although it dropped at a rate of approximately -0.005 V/sec. We reconstructed the cell, with the two lead electrodes suspended in a solution of H2SO4, to test how the surface area and distance between the electrodes and the molarity, or concentration, of the sulfuric acid solution affected the voltage and motor run time of the cell as well as how well the cell retained its charge after being charged for five minutes using a 9 V battery. These results can be seen located below. Electrode Distance (cm) Motor Runtime (s) Standard 8.0 Variation One 8.0 Variation 11.0 Two using dialysis tubing) Note:- Both experiments done in 160-mL of 3 M H2SO4 with electrodes of surface area of 4.47 cm2 and 4.04 cm2. The distance between the electrodes has an inverse relationship with the motor run time and power output although the actual effect of decreasing the distance between the electrodes was minimal. The one visible difference of decreasing the distance between the electrodes was that doing so made the reactions occur at a faster rate and the motor run faster and smoother; during variation one, the motor would start and stop N/A (electrodes 5.5 1.0 separated

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a couple times whereas in variation two the motor ran constantly with no interruptions. Anode Anode Cathod Cathod Motor Dimensions Surface Area Dimension Surface area Runtime (cm) (cm.cm) (cm) (cm.cm) (s) Standard 3.15x0.6x0.1 4.47 2.8x0.60.1 4.04 8.0 Variation 19.76 One 2.8x3.8 11.2 (height insignificant) 21.28 2.6x3.8 (hight significant)

Note: - Both experiments done in 160-mL of 3 M H2SO4 with electrodes 5.5 cm apart. The surface area of the electrodes has a direct relationship with the motor run time but like distance, the effect was negligible in the lead storage battery. One observation made during the charging was that during variation one the production of hydrogen gas greatly increased, as well the speed of the motor, similar to decreasing the distance of the electrodes. When the surface to area was increased in the iron storage battery, the motor runtime increased greatly . Molarity Motor Runtime (M/L) (s) Standard Variation one Variation two Variation three 3.00 1.00 0.50 0.25 11.2 21.0 37.0 39.0

Note:- All experiments were done using lead electrodes with surface area of 21.28 cm2 and 19.76 cm2 at a distance of 5.5 cm apart. The molarity of the H2SO4 has an indirect relationship with the motor run time and had the most significant effect on it. However, while the motor runtime did increase with decreasing molarity, the power output of the battery decreased as well, i.e. the motor ran at a slower speed but for a longer period of time.
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Wait Time (min) Standard Variation One 0.0 30.0

Motor Runtime (s) 39.0 24.8

Note:- Both experiments were done in 160-mL of 3 M H2SO4, using Pb electrodes with surface area of 21.28 cm2 and 19.76 cm2 at a distance of 5.5 cm apart. The cell lost approximately half a second of motor run time with each minute that passed. Thus, it would be completely discharged after 80 minutes. Molarity Voltage Current ( mol/L) (V) (mA) Standard 0.21 Variation 1.63 Variation 1.87 Variation 1.68 Variation 1.39 6.00 One Two Three Four 3.00 1.00 0.50 0.25 2.15 2.06 1.85 2.05 2.05

Note:- All experiments were done using Pb electrodes with surface area of 21.28 cm2 and19.76 cm2 at a distance of 5.5 cm apart. Because H2 gas explodes in the presence of a flame, we thought it would be best to eliminate, or at least reduce, the amount that was being produced. Instead of using a H2SO4 solution, the test cell used the H2SO4 paste that had been used in many other tests made from 6 M H2SO4 and cornstarch. While significantly less than previously, there was still a noticeable amount of bubbles, and therefore H2 gas being formed, but with proper ventilation, this small amount can quickly disperse and the risk of an explosion eliminated, should there be a fire nearby.

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Secondary or rechargeable batteriesA secondary battery (also known as rechargeable or storage battery) is a group of one or more electrochemical cells. They are known as secondary cells because their electrochemical reactions are electrically reversible. Secondary batteries or rechargeable batteries contain active materials that can be regenerated by charging. When the energy produced by rechargeable batteries drops below optimum efficiency, secondary batteries may be recharged in a couple of ways, depending upon their construction. In the United States, secondary batteries carry designations such as AAAA, AAA, N, 1/3 AA, 2/3 AA, AA, 1/2 A, 2/3 A, A, 4/5 Cs, Cs, C, 1/2 D, and D. Nonstandard rechargeable batteries or secondary batteries include prismatic cells, coin or button cells, sachet cells, lantern batteries, and battery packs.

Charging of secondary batteries

A method of charging a battery includes applying a charging current from a semiconductor device to the battery during a first battery charging time period. The method also includes measuring a charging voltage level at the battery during the first battery charging time period. During a non-charging voltage measurement time interval, the method includes temporarily stopping application of the charging current from the semiconductor device to the battery and measuring a non-charging voltage level at the battery while the charging current is not being applied to the battery. During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the negative material is reduced, consuming electrons. These electrons constitute the current flow in the external circuit. The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for ion flow between the electrodes, as in lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it may be an active participant in the electrochemical reaction. Rechargeable batteries are susceptible to damage due to reverse charging if they are fully discharged. Fully integrated battery chargers that optimize the charging current are available.

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Usage and applicationSecondary batteries currently are used for applications such as automobile starters, portable consumer devices, light vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric bicycles, and electric forklifts), tools, and uninterruptible power supplies. Emerging applications in hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles are driving the technology to reduce cost, reduce weight, and increase lifetime. Unlike non-rechargeable batteries (primary cells), rechargeable batteries have to be charged before use. The need to charge rechargeable batteries before use deterred potential buyers who needed to use the batteries immediately. However, new low self discharge batteries allow users to purchase rechargeable battery that already hold about 70% of the rated capacity, allowing consumers to use the batteries immediately and recharge later. Grid energy storage applications use industrial rechargeable batteries for load leveling, where they store electric energy for use during peak load periods, and for renewable energy uses, such as storing power generated from photovoltaic arrays during the day to be used at night. By charging batteries during periods of low demand and returning energy to the grid during periods of high electrical demand, load-leveling helps eliminate the need for expensive peaking power plants and helps amortize the cost of generators over more hours of operation.

Types of secondary batteriesRechargeable batteries can be divided into two main classifications based upon their chemical composition: alkaline secondary batteries and lithium secondary batteries. Both classifications include an assortment of battery styles. Common alkaline rechargeable batteries include nickel-cadmium batteries, nickel-zinc rechargeable batters, nickel-iron

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batteries, silver oxide batteries, sealed nickel-hydrogen secondary batteries, and nickelmetal hydride rechargeable batteries. Nickel is a common material in rechargeable batteries or secondary batteries. Nickelcadmium, nickel-zinc, and nickel-iron are the most common alloys. Nickel-cadmium batteries (Ni-Cd) are popular, but have a relatively low capacity. Nickel-zinc batteries are characterized by a high specific energy and power capability. Nickel-zinc batteries (Ni-Zn) provide energy for electric vehicles such as small vans and passenger cars. Nickel-iron batteries (NiFe) are the most important commercial rechargeable system that uses iron electrodes. They are nearly indestructible, have a long life, and can withstand electrical abuse (overcharge, overdischarge, short-circuiting, etc.). These rechargeable batteries or secondary batteries generally cost more than lead acid batteries, but have a low cell voltage, low power density, and lower energy density than competitive systems. Silver oxide batteries, sealed nickel-hydrogen batteries, and nickel-metal batteries are all types of alkaline rechargeable batteries (alkaline secondary batteries). Silver oxide (AgO) batteries are noted for their high energy density and power density. Silver electrodes are expensive, however, which limits their use. Silver-zinc cells have the highest energy per unit weight and volume. Sealed nickel-hydrogen secondary batteries (Ni-H2) are a hybrid that combines battery and fuel-cell technologies. They have a long cycle life, high specific energy, high power density, and tolerance for electrical abuse. Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) rechargeable batteries are interchangeable with most nickel-cadmium secondary batteries (NiCd). Nickel-metal hydride batteries generally deliver 10 to 25% greater capacity than NiCds, and are more environmentally friendly since they do not contain cadmium.

Will secondary batteries replace primary ones?

Consumer market put aside, the largest users of primary (non-rechargeable) batteries are the military, specialty emergency services and forest fire fighters. High energy density, long storage and operational readiness are among their strong attributes. No charging and priming is required before use. Logistic is simple and battery power can be made available at remote locations that are unmanned and have no electrical power. Disposal is easy because most primary cells contain little toxic materials. Primary batteries have the highest energy density. Although the secondary (rechargeable) batteries have improved, a regular household alkaline provides 50% more power than lithium-ion, one of the highest energy-dense secondary batteries. The primary lithium battery used in cameras holds more than three times the energy of a lithium-ion battery of same size.

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Figure 1: Energy comparison of rechargeable and non-rechargeable batteries. The negative on the primary batteries is its relative high internal resistance, which inhibits current flow. High internal resistance has little affect when powering low-current devices such as a TV remote control or a kitchen clock. The problem arises with digital cameras and other power-hungry devices. A power drill on an alkaline would be unthinkable. The voltage would imply collapse.

Reverse charging of rechargeable batteries:

Reverse charging, which damages batteries, is when a rechargeable battery is recharged with its polarity reversed. Reverse charging can occur under a number of circumstances, the two most important being: When a battery is incorrectly inserted into a charger. When multiple batteries are used in series in a device. When one battery completely discharges ahead of the rest, the other batteries in series may force the discharged battery to discharge to below zero voltage.

The active components in a secondary cell are the chemicals that make up the positive and negative active materials, and the electrolyte. The positive and negative are made up of different materials, with the positive exhibiting a reduction potential and the negative having an oxidation potential. The sum of these potentials is the standard cell potential or voltage. In primary cells the positive and negative electrodes are known as the cathode and anode, respectively. Although this convention is sometimes carried through to rechargeable systems especially with lithium-ion cells, because of their origins in primary lithium cellsthis practice can lead to confusion. In rechargeable cells the positive electrode is the cathode on discharge and the anode on charge, and vice versa for the negative electrode.
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Advantages of secondary batteries:

Greater efficiency and performance Rechargeable batteries can be recharged up to 500 times! This results in far greater cost and power efficiency per battery compared to alkaline batteries. Rechargeable batteries will outperform the best alkalines in high-drain appliances such as digital cameras. Rechargeable technology has greatly improved over the years and is now leading the way for camera enthusiasts who require performance and reliability. Convenience With rechargeable batteries, you no longer have to remember to buy new batteries. Just imagine if you could not charge your GSM (mobile phone) battery. You would have to go shopping several times a week to buy a new battery. By having just 2 sets of rechargeable batteries you can have a spare set ready to use all the time so you will never run out! Rechargeable batteries will replace ordinary batteries in almost any appliance. They are of the same size as conventional batteries and are ideal for solicited or "energyconsuming" devices such as a Walkman, a portable CD player, digital cameras, radio cassette players, remote guided toys, electronic games, portable telephones, electric razors

Additional convenience through in-car chargers Uniross has allowed rechargeable battery users to recharge their batteries whilst on the move! In-car chargers provide batteries with power as and when required. Who knows when batteries will suddenly lose their power when its most needed? Taking the power from the cars battery means that rechargeable batteries are on hand whenever they are required!

Environment Using rechargeable batteries reduces household waste. 15 billion ordinary batteries are thrown away every year, all of which end up in landfill sites. Rechargeable batteries can be
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reused which helps reduce the impact disposable batteries have on the environment. The most ecological rechargeable batteries are Ni-MH rechargeable units (Nickel-metal hydride).

Categories for Application of Secondary Batteries:The applications of the secondary batteries may fall into two main categories: 0A First Category :- those applications in which the secondary battery is used or discharged essentially as a primary battery, but recharged after use rather than being discarded. Secondary batteries are used in this manner for convenience, for cost savings (as they can b recharged rather than replaced), or for applications requiring power drains beyond the capability of primary batteries. 0B Second Category :- those applications in which the secondary battery is used as an energy-storage device, generally being electrically connected to and charged by a prime energy source, and delivering its energy to the load on demand when the prime energy source is not available or is inadequate to handle the load requirement.

MAJOR ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VARIOUS TYPES OF BATTERY:0A LEAD-ACID BATTERIES (compared with other electrochemical batteries) Advantages:01. Popular low cost secondary battery capable of manufacture on a local basis, worldwide, from low to high rates of production 02 . Available in large quantities and in a variety of sizes and designs manufactured in sizes from smaller than 1 Ah to several thousand ampere hours. 03. Good high-rate performance 04 . Electrically efficient turnaround efficiency of over 70 %, comparing discharge energy out with charge energy in 05. High cell voltage (open-circuit voltage of 2.0 V is the highest of all aqueous electrolyte battery systems) 06. Good float charge service 07. Easy state-of-charge indication (only wet electrolyte) 08. Low cost compared with other secondary batteries. Disadvantages:01.Relatively low cycle life (50 500 cycles), up to 2000 cycles with specil designs 02. Limited energy density typically 30 40 Wh/kg. 03.Poor low- and high-temperature performance. 04. Poor charge retention. 05. Long-term storage in a discharged condition can lead to irreversible polarization of electrodes. 06.Hydrogen evolution can result in an explosion hazard. 07. Thermal runaway in improperly designed batteries or charging equipment.
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08.Positive post blister corrosion with some designs. 09.An intolerance to deep discharging resulting in Sulphation of plates and battery failure. 0BVALVE-REGULATED LEAD-ACID (VRLA) BATTERIES Advantages:01. Maintenance-free 02. Long life on float service 03. High-rate capacity 04. High charge efficiency 05. No "memory" effect (compared to nickel-cadmium battery) 06. "State of charge" can be determined by measuring voltage 07. Low cost 08. Available from small single-cell units (2 V) to large 24 V batteries. Disadvantages:01. Cannot be stored in discharged condition 02.Relatively low energy density 03.Lower cycle life than sealed nickel-cadmium battery. 04. Hydrogen evolution can result in an explosion hazard. 05.Thermal runaway in improperly designed batteries or charging equipment 06.Poor low- and high-temperature performance 07.An intolerance to deep discharging resulting in Sulphation of plates and battery failure. 0C ABSORBED MATT GLASS BATTERIES (AGM) Advantages:01. Non-spill (absorbed electrolyte) 02. High rate charging Disadvantages:01. As per lead-acid batteries 02.Higher cost 0D VENTED (INDUSTRIAL) NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERIES (POCKET PLATE) Advantages:01. Excellent reliability 02.Good charge retention 03.Can tolerate deep discharge which enables the use of total battery capacity 04. Good high and low temperature performance 05. Excellent long-term storage (in any state of charge) 06.Low maintenance 07.Absence of corrosive attack of the electrolyte on the electrodes and other components in the cell Disadvantages:01 Hydrogen evolution can result in an explosion hazard 02Thermal runaway in improperly designed batteries or charging equipment 03 Low energy density 04 Higher initial cost than lead-acid batteries. E. VENTED-SINTERED-PLATE NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERIES Advantages:01.Flat discharge profile
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02.Higher energy density (50 % greater than pocket plate) 03.Superior high-rate and low-temperature performance 04.Rugged, reliable, little maintenance required 05.Excellent long-term storage in any state of charge and over a very broad temperature range (-60 C to +60 C) 06. Good capacity retention; capacity can be restored by recharge Disadvantages:01. Hydrogen evolution can result in an explosion hazard 02. Thermal runaway in improperly designed batteries or charging equipment 03. Contains cadmium, which may increase cost of disposal depending on recycling facilities available. 04.Higher initial cost . 05.Memory effect (voltage depression) if not periodically deep cycled. 06.Temperature controlled charging system required to enhance life.

Physical protection of secondary storage battery:Physical protection needs to be provided against consequences of adverse site conditions and handling, for example, against effects of 1. temperature gradient and extremes of temperature, 2. exposure to direct sun light (UV radiation), 3. airborne dust or sand 4. explosive atmospheres 5. high humidity and flood water 6. earthquakes 7. shock, spin, acceleration and vibration (particularly during transport, and light buoy applications) 8. several mechanical abuse and rough handling.

01 Capacity:The storage capacity is expressed in ampere-hours (Ah) and varies with the conditions of use (electrolyte temperature, discharge current and final voltage). Normally the rated capacity for 10 h and 5 hours discharge, respectively, is published. The knowledge of the capacity for a 100 hours (C100 ) discharge time is also required as these times are commonly used in PV applications.

02 Cycle Life:The cycle life (endurance) is the ability of the battery to withstand repeated charging and discharging. The cycle life is normally given for cycles with a fixed depth of discharge (DOD) and with the battery fully charged in each cycle. Batteries are normally characterized by the number of cycles that can be achieved before the capacity has declined to the value specified in the relevant standards (e.g. 80 % of the rated capacity). In photovoltaic applications the battery will be exposed to a large number of shallow cycles but at a varying state of charge. The batteries should therefore comply with the requirements of the test described in IEC 61427, which is a simulation of the PV system operation. The manufacturer should specify the number of cycles the batteries can achieve before the capacity has declined to 80 % of the rated capacity.

03 Charge control:To maintain optimum performance of a battery it is essential that its charge is properly controlled. Ideally the charge current should be limited at the start of the charge cycle to
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ensure that gassing does not occur due to excessive applied cell voltage; while the recharge capacity is being restored the charge current should be limited to maintain the cell voltage to that, or just below that required for gassing; once the full discharge current has been restored a finish charge at constant current should be applied for a fixed time period. Whilst these conditions may not be practically achieved in PV energy systems, there are certain conditions that need to be addressed in order to minimise maintenance and maintain battery life. The parameters of the regulator should take into account the effects of the PV generator design, the load, the temperature and the recommended limiting values for the battery. Wet lead-acid or nickel-cadmium batteries should have sufficient electrolyte to cover at least the period between planned service visits. Excessive overcharge does not increase the energy stored in the battery. Instead, overcharge affects the service interval due to water consumption in wet lead acid batteries as a result of gassing. To minimise this effect the charge / regulation voltage should be compensated for changes in battery temperature since this has a direct affect on the gassing voltage threshold. Contrary to this, stratification can occur in wet lead acid batteries, particularly in PV systems where insulation is often insufficient to provide regular gassing during normal operation. Stratification is where the electrolyte settles.

04 Charge retention:Charge retention is the ability of a battery to retain capacity during periods of no charge, when not connected to a system, during transportation or storage. A battery for PV application should show a high capability of charge retention. The charge retention should be stated by the manufacturer and should meet the requirements of the relevant battery standard,

05. Over discharge protection:Lead-acid batteries should be protected against over discharge to avoid capacity loss due to irreversible sulphating. This can be achieved by low voltage disconnect that operates when the design maximum depth of discharge is exceeded. .

06. Mechanical endurance:Batteries for PV application should be designed to withstand mechanical stresses during normal transportation and rough handling. Additional packing or protection may be required for off road conditions. Batteries for PV application on light buoys should be chosen to withstand shock, vibration and acceleration as the light buoy can be subject to violent movement. The battery design should prevent any electrolyte leakage and an adequate venting arrangement provided to enable any gas generated to escape but to prevent water

06.Recycling and Disposal:Laws and regulations governing the recycling and disposal of batteries are getting stricter every year. In many countries, batteries are considered hazardous waste. The heavy metals used in these batteries, when improperly disposed of, will damage the environment; the corrosive nature of battery electrolytes can also cause damage if released. While lithium batteries pose little pollution risk they must still be disposed of as hazardous waste because of their history of explosive venting in various circumstances. Lead-acid and nickelcadmium batteries are recyclable in most countries, although restrictions on nickel-cadmium recycling appear to be increasing, along with the associated costs. Every effort should be made to handle these batteries correctly when it comes time to dispose of them, in most countries, strict laws govern the handling of hazardous waste. In addition detailed records must be maintained to account for the Where about of batteries during all phases of disposal. Reputable transporters are used to ensure that the material ends up at the destination and not by the wayside. The first point of
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contact for establishing disposal arrangements should be the battery vendor.

04 Safe handling of batteries:Batteries are an integral part of any solar, wind or hybrid power system used in aids to navigation, yet little has been written on their safety, installation, maintenance, recycling and disposal.

05 Battery Safety Issues:Large battery systems are a source of extremely high short circuit currents. Care must be exercised when installing and servicing any of the components in the power system to prevent shorting. Secondary batteries generate hydrogen gas during the charging process. Significant amounts of hydrogen gas are generated when the battery reaches full charge. Hydrogen gas ignites easily and produces an especially violent explosion. Accordingly, the following safety precautions should be observed at all times. (a) Do not smoke, use an open flame or create arcs or sparks in the vicinity of the battery. (b) Sense the interior of a battery enclosure with a suitable gas detector before entering. The compartment should have a removable, non-sparking pipe fitting for insertion of a sensor probe. (c) Ventilate the enclosure (leave doors open) for at least 5 minutes before servicing the batteries. (d) Discharge static electricity from the body before touching the cells by touching a grounded surface such as a conduit. (e) Hydrometers for nickel-cadmium and lead-acid batteries must be kept separate and not interchanged.

06 Ventilation:Lead-acid and nickel-cadmium batteries produce hydrogen and oxygen gas when charging. Secondary batteries that employ recombination features will only gas when the gassing rate exceeds the recombination rate. This generally occurs during overcharge. Batteries without recombination features will gas when they are fully charged and continue to receive a charge (float condition). The amount of hydrogen and oxygen evolved is not dependent on the type and size of battery (lead-acid or nickel-cadmium), but rather on the charging rate, number of cells and the length of time charge is applied. Hydrogen and oxygen are produced as a result of electrolysis of the water in the electrolyte. Hydrogen concentrations of up to 3% (by volume) are non-flammable, at 4- 8% hydrogen will burn if exposed to an open flame or spark, and above 8% hydrogen will ignite explosively. Hydrogen can also be produced in battery pockets by reaction between residual water and dissimilar metals or corrosion of metals by spilled electrolyte. The maximum hydrogen concentration for an enclosed space set by the Occupational and Safety Health Act (OSHA) in the USA is 1%. Check with your department which regulates worker safety or fire protection for acceptable limits in your country. Some countries have substantially lower limits. Some batteries also release small quantities of toxic gases. However, calculating the ventilation requirements based on the predominant gas, hydrogen, will maintain these gases below their toxic limits. Hydrogen production for lead-acid and nickel-cadmium standards should be complied with: H = 0.459 x N x I Where: H is the amount of hydrogen produced in I/hr (litres/hour); 0.459 I/hr is the maximum hydrogen production per cell per ampere charge current at standard temperature and pressure; N is the number of cells; I is the estimated charge current. The charge current for the battery must be determined. Battery manufacturers can provide information on gassing
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rates for their batteries. Be aware that some batteries, especially lead-antimony, will gas at a higher rate as they age, and as the battery temperature rises above nominal (usually 25 degrees C). Short of this, a general rule of thumb is that the float current will not exceed one percent (0.01) of the rated capacity in Ampere-hours. This rule of thumb does not account for charger failure, which could charge the battery at a rate higher than one percent of the rated capacity. While this type of failure is rare, it is wise to see if the factor of safety between the maximum concentration level (see below) and the lower flammable limit (4 percent) can accommodate the excess hydrogen production. Hydrogen detectors or overvoltage alarms tied to telemetry systems can provide advance warning of dangerous levels of gas. Installation of such warning systems in enclosed compartments in aids to navigation Knowing the amount of hydrogen produced, the amount of new air required to prevent the concentration from exceeding the predetermined level can be calculate: A = H/C Where: A is the amount of new air required in I/hr; H is the amount of hydrogen production in I/hr; C is the maximum concentration level as a decimal. Next, the size of the battery enclosure or room must be calculated. For larger systems ashore, manufacturers of Modular rooms may be able to provide information on natural air change rate. On converted dwellings, a tight battery room will have an air exchange in about 4 hours. Therefore, as an example, if we require 8000 I/hr of new air, then the battery room must have a volume of at least 32000 litres if no vent system is installed. If additional venting is required, then the preferred type is a low mounted louvered vent in the door or wall and a ridge vent (to expel hydrogen trapped near the ceiling) at the highest point in the shelter.

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REFFERENCES: www.nikon.co.in/products.php?categoryid=57 www.azsolarcenter.org/tech.../battery-handbook-for-pv-systems.html www.tutorvista.com/topic/advantages-of-secondary-storage-battery

Fundamental of Chemistry by Raymond Chang Advanced Physical Chemistry

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