Thevenin's Theorem and Norton's Theorem To be replaced

LOAD i v
Q

Network A

Network B

Two networks to describe Thevenin's theorem

Thevenin's Theorem : Characteristics of Network A To be replaced

P

Network A
Q

1. Linear elements 2. Sources : dependent (controlled) or independent 3. Initial conditions on passive elements 4. No magnetic or controlled-source coupling to network B

Thevenin's Theorem : Characteristics of Network A

Linear Elements Nonlinear Elements D T M

i
L R C

Yes Independent Sources v1 Yes i1

No Controlled Sources i v Yes

Thevenin's Theorem : Characteristics of Network A

M L1 Vg C1 L2 C2 (1-D)(Vg-Vo) -D(Vg-Vo) Network A L1 Vg M P M C1 Network B L2 C2 (1-D)(Vg-Vo) -D(Vg-Vo) Q Vo R Vo R

NO

Thevenin's Theorem : Characteristics of Network A

L1 Vg C1 L2 C2 (1-D)(Vg-Vo) -D(Vg-Vo) Network A L1 Vg (1-D)(Vg-Vo) Q M P M C1 Network B L2 C2 -D(Vg-Vo) Vo R Vo R

NO

Thevenin's Theorem: Network A is replaced by C and Vth LOAD

M

Network C Vth Network A v

i Network B

Thevenin's Theorem: How to find Vth? LOAD P Network A Q Open Ckt. Voltage Vth Network B

Disconnect

Thevenin's Theorem: How to determine C?

P Network A Q

1. Set Initial Conditions to Zero 2. Independent Sources Turned Off 3. Dependent Sources are Operating P Network C M

Determination of Vth : An Example

Vcc Rc Ic Vcc IB+IC Re N Vth Network A Network B Rc Ic B Re Vcc IB+IC

R1 B IB R2

R1 B R2

Vth=Vcc[R2/(R1+R2)] Simplification of the base circuit

Thevenin's Theorem : Characteristics of Network B

Linear Elements Nonlinear Elements D T M

i
L R C

Yes Independent Sources v1 Yes i1

Yes Controlled Sources i v Yes

Determination of Network C : Example I

Note : No initial condition and No dependent source Network A Network C Network C B R1 R2 M

R1 Vcc B R2 Shorted

R1 B R2

Rb=(R1||R2)

Simplification of the base circuit

Application of Thevenin's Theorem: An Example

Vcc Rc Ic IB+IC Re N Rb=(R1||R2) Rb B M Vth Network B Rc Ic Vcc IB+IC Re N

R1 B IB R2

Vth=Vcc[R2/(R1+R2)]

Simplification of the base circuit

Application of Thevenin's Theorem: An Example

Vcc Rc Ic IB IB+IC Re N Vth IB Rb B Network B Linear Model Rc Ic Vcc IB+IC Re N

R1 B IB R2

Vth=Vcc[R2/(R1+R2)] Rb=(R1||R2) Simplification of the base circuit

Application of Thevenin's Theorem: Example II

Common Source Amplifier : Small Signal Gain Vdd RL D Id Is Rs N vo Av= vi

Cb

R1 G R2

vi

Vo=VO +vo

Application of Thevenin's Theorem: Example II

Linear Small Signal Equivalent Circuit of the CS Amplifier D Cb G gm vgs S Rs N RL rd vo

R2 R1 vi

Application of Thevenin's Theorem: Example II

Simplified Small Signal Equivalent Circuit of CS Amplifier Network A G vi N gm vgs S Rs D rd vo RL N Vth RL Network B M Network C D

Application of Thevenin's Theorem: Example II

Determination of Vth Network A G vi N gm.vgs S Rs D rd Vth=-(gm.vgs)rd =-(gm.rd)vi

Application of Thevenin's Theorem: Example II

Determination of Netwok C Network C G Shorted gm.vgs S Rs M D rd

M Rth

Application of Thevenin's Theorem: Example II Determination of Rth D vx=(ix-gm.vgs)rd-vgs gm.vgs S Rs vgs

ix
rd

vx

G,M

vgs=-ix.Rs Therefore, vx=ix.rd+gm.ix.Rs.rd +ix.Rs vx Rth= ix =rd+Rs(1+gm.rd)

Application of Thevenin's Theorem: Example II The equivalent circuit of the CS amplifier Rth M rd Rs(1+ ) =gm. rd D

vi

Vth

RL vo

Application of Thevenin's Theorem: Example III RLC Network : Zero Initial Conditions on L and C Network B Network A C L C L R vo vi RL R vi L Zth = 1/sC + sL||R Vth=vi R R+sL C R Vth

Zth

Norton's Theorem: Network A is replaced by C and Ith LOAD Network A

M P

i Network B

Ith

Network C

v
Q

Network C as in Thevenin's Theorem Ith =>Norton's Theorem is dual of Thevenin's Theorem

Network A
Q

B Vg

v1 R1

v2 R2

Loop v3 Direction R3 Fig.2 Ground

Fig. 1 One-loop resistive network to which Kirchoff's Voltage Law is applied

vg + v1 + v2 + v3 = 0 v1 + v2 + v3 = vg

i1

c i2 d 1 vg

ia

v1 R1

v2 R2

i3 a Fig. 3 i1+i2=i3+i4

i4

1 ib 1 vg 1 Equivalent Network Req Fig. 4(a)

Fig. 4(b)

ia 1 vg 1 Fig. 5 R1 R2 Rn

R eq = R 1 + R 2 + ........... + R n =

n j=1

Rj

Series Connected Resistive Network

ia 1 i1 i2 L2 vg

ib

va L1 1

Leq

Fig. 5(a) Leq= 1/L1+1/L2

Fig. 5(b)

Equivalent Inductive One-Port Network

Number of Network Equations

Formulation: 3i1 + 2i2 - i3=4 (1) -i1 + 5i2 + 3i3 =-2 (2) i1 + 12 i2 + 5i3 = 0 (3) Solve: Ax=b Note: 2*(2)+(1)=(3) i2 * Equations must be linearly independent * Formulate the network using minimum no of variables i3 e Unique Solution g f'

e' No solution

g' i1 family of solutions f

How to formulate the network using linearly independent equations? => How many unknowns in a network with 'n' nodes and 'b' branches? C1 R1 1 b4 b1 C2 b2 b6 2 b5 R3 b3 b8 4 b7 C3 R2 3 RL => 2*b unknowns (branch voltage and branch current) => effectively b unknowns example : if voltage across a capacitor is known current can be found out from the expression CdVc/dt = Ic

0 : Ref Node n=5 and b=8

How many KCLs and how many KVLs? (1) (n-1) nodes => (n-1) KCL equations (2) b-(n-1) KVL equations must be used 3 example : n-1=4 => 4 KCLs b-(n-1)=8-4=4 => 4 KVLs

C1 R1 11 b4 V

b6 2 b1

4 b7 C3 R2 b5 R3 b2 b3

RL note: easy to apply KCL but difficult to apply KVL because there are so many b8 loops (b4,b1,b2), (b2,b5,b8), (b3,b7,b8), (b4,b1,b5,b8), (b4,b6,b3), (b4,b6,b7,b8), (b1,b6,b7,b5)

C2

0 : Ref Node

Problem: With a wrong choice the equations will be linearly dependent

How to define voltages and currents in KCL and KVL? VC3 C1 R1 11 b4 b1 C2 b2 b6 2 b5 R3 b3 b8 Example : VC3 (i.e. voltage across branch b7) 4 b7 C3 R2 3 RL Branch Voltage : Voltage across a branch of the network Node Voltage : Voltage of a node with respect to the reference node (0) Example : V4 (i.e. voltage across R1 in branch b3)

0 : Ref Node

Note: Vc3 = V4-V3 => KVL It is enough if we know the node voltages and vice versa

How to define voltages and currents in KCL and KVL? Loop Current : Current in a loop of the network 3 i2 RL Branch Current : Current in a branch of the network b8 Example : Ib2 (i.e. current in branch b2, through capacitor C1) Example : i2 (i.e. current in loop consisting of branches b2,b5,b8)

C1 R1 1

b6 2 b1

4 b7 C3 R2 b5 R3 b3

b4 i1 C2 V Ib2 b2

0 : Ref Node

Note: Ib2 = i1-i2 => KCL It is enough if we know the loop currents and vice versa

Formulate network equations with explicit application of KVL C1 4 b7 C3 4 b7 b6 b6 R1 1 b4 V b2 b3 b8 0 : Ref Node Choice of variables: Loop Currents and Branch Voltages b1 C2 2 b5 R3 R2 3 RL b4 1 2 b1 b2 b3 0 : Ref Node Graph of the network b8 b5 3

Independent Equations: => Draw a graph : Figure with connection information

Formulate network equations with explicit application of KVL b6 1 b4 2 b1 b2 b3 0 : Ref Node Graph of the network b8 b5 4 b7 3 1 b4 b1 b2 b3 b6 2 b5 b8 Co-tree: (b4,b6,b3,b8) 4 b7 3

Tree: (b1,b2,b5,b7)

0 : Ref Node A tree of the network

Construct a tree => A connected graph spanning all nodes that does not have a circuit. A tree has n nodes and (n-1) branches. => Graph has more than one tree

Formulate network equations with explicit application of KVL b6 1 b4 2 b1 b2 b3 b5 b8 Co-tree: (b4,b6,b3,b8) 4 b7 3 Every branch of the co-tree (known as chord) is responsible for \ formation of a loop (circuit). This is known as fundamental circuit. Example : (b6 , b1,b5,b7) forms a fundamental circuit No of fundamental circuits = no of chords = b-(n-1) =>The co-tree has b-(n-1) branches

Tree: (b1,b2,b5,b7)

0 : Ref Node Tree of the network

If we apply KVL to these fundamental circuits then the equations are linearly independent

Formulate network equations with explicit application of KVL b6 i3 2 i1 b1 b4 b2 4 b7 i4 C1 3 1 b4 V b2 b3 b8 0 : Ref Node Original Network 7 voltages and current in V are unknown (7+1=8) R1 b1 C2 b6 2 b5 R3 4 b7 C3 R2 3

Tree: (b1,b2,b5,b7)

b5 i2 b3 b8 Co-tree: (b4,b6,b3,b8)

KVLs: 0 : Ref Node =>(b4: chord) V=Vb1+Vb2 =>(b8: chord) Vb2=Vb5+Vb8 Vb6=Vb1+Vb5-Vb7 =>(b6: chord) Vb7=-Vb3-Vb2+Vb5 =>(b3: chord)

Formulate network equations with explicit application of KVL

C1 R1 1 b4 V b2 b3 b8 0 : Ref Node Original Network b1 C2 b6 2 b5 4 b7 C 3 R2 3

V-I relationship of the elements

R4

Vb1=Ib1*R1 Vb2=1/C2 Ib2 dt Vb3=Ib3*R3 Vb4=V Vb5=Ib5*R2

R3

1 b4

4 b7 b6 I4 I3 2 b1 b5 I1 b3 I2 b2 b8

Vb6=1/C1 Ib6 dt Vb7=1/C3 Ib7 dt Vb8=R4*Ib8 Expressed in terms of 8 (branch) currents

Formulate network equations using KVL

1 b4

b7 b6 I4 I3 2 b1 b5 I1 b3 I2 b2 b8
Ib4

Apply KCL at b1: Ib1= (I1-I3)

Apply KCL at b2: Ib2=I1-I2+I4 Apply KCL at b5: Ib5=I2-I3-I4 Apply KCL at b7:

0
Note: Ib4=-I1 ; Ib6=I3; Ib8=I2; Ib3=I4

Ib7=I4+I3 => enough if we know the loop currents => chords

Formulate network equations using KVL: All the equations KCLs: Ib1= (I1-I3) Ib2=I1-I2+I4 Ib5=I2-I3-I4 Ib7=I4+I3 Ib4=-I1 ; Ib6=I3; Ib8=I2; Ib3=I4 KVLs: =>(b4: chord) V=Vb1+Vb2 =>(b8: chord) Vb2=Vb5+Vb8 Vb6=Vb1+Vb5-Vb7 =>(b6: chord) Vb7=-Vb3-Vb2+Vb5 =>(b3: chord) Elements: Vb1=Ib1*R1 Vb2=1/C2 Ib2 dt Vb3=Ib3*R3 Vb4=V Vb5=Ib5*R2 Vb6=1/C1 Ib6 dt Vb7=1/C3 Ib7 dt Vb8=Ib8*R4

Network equations using KVL

Unknowns: Loop Currents: I1,I2,I3 and I4 Therefore the analysis is called Loop Variable Analysis

V=Vb1+Vb2 => V = (I1-I3)R1+ 1/C2 (I1-I2+I4)dt Vb2=Vb5+Vb8 => 1/C2 (I1-I2+I4)dt = (I2-I3-I4)R2+I2*R4 Vb7=-Vb3-Vb2+Vb5 => 1/C3 (I4+I3)dt=-I4*R3-1/C2 (I1-I2+I4)dt+(I2-I3-I4)R2 Vb6=Vb1+Vb5-Vb7 1/C1 I3dt = (I1-I3)R1 + (I2-I3-I4)R2 -1/C3 (I4+I3)dt

Loop Variable Analysis: Matrix Representation V R1+1/C2 dt -1/C2 dt -R1 -1/C2 dt I1

0 = 0 0

-1/C2 dt

1/C2 dt +R2+R4

-R2

-R2 -1/C2 dt

I2

-R1

-R2

1/C3 dt +1/C1 dt +R1+R2

R2 +1/C3 dt

I3 I4

1/C2 dt -1/C2 dt -R2

dt +1/C2 dt dt +R2 1/C3 1/C2 +R3+R2

Loop Variable Analysis: Generalization

I1 I2 I3 IL I4

Graph of a network with L independent loop currents

Rkj = total resistance common to loops k and j Lkj = Ckj =

Voltage drop in loop k produced by current Ij Rkj*Ij+Lkj*dIj/dt +1/Ckj Ij dt = (Rkj+Lkj d/dt +1/Ckj dt)Ij =akjIj akj: symbol to summarize the operation on Ij

Loop Variable Analysis: Generalization

The general form of KVL L akjIj=Vk , Vk is the active voltage source in loop k j=1 General form of KVL for L loop akjIj=Vk , k =1,....,L j=1 Loop 1 => Loop 2 => Vector Equation: Loop L => L Operator on I1 I2 I3 I4 a11 a12 a13 ---- a1L I1 = ----- ------ --aL1 --I2 --- --- aLL IL

V1 V2 VL

Loop Variable Analysis: Matrix Representation V R1+1/C2 dt =a11 -1/C2 dt = 0 0 =a21 -R1 =a31 -1/C2 dt =a12 1/C2 dt +R2+R4 =a22 -R2 =a32 -R1 =a13 -R2 =a23 1/C3 dt +1/C1 dt +R1+R2 -1/C2 dt =a14 -R2 -1/C2 dt =a24 R2 +1/C3 dt I1

I2

I3 I4

1/C2 dt -1/C2 dt -R2 =a41

1/C3 dt +1/C2 dt 1/C2 dt +R2 +R3+R2

Solution : Find the inverse of the matrix (square: b-(n-1)*b-(n-1)) May use Gauss Elimination Method : A process called trangularization

Formulate network equations with explicit application of KCL C1 4 b7 C3 4 b7 b6 b6 R1 1 b4 V b2 b3 b8 0 : Ref Node Choice of variables: Node Voltages and Branch Currents b1 C2 2 b5 R3 R2 3 RL b4 1 2 b1 b2 b3 0 : Ref Node Graph of the network b8 b5 3

Independent Equations: => Draw a graph : Figure with connection information

Formulate network equations with explicit application of KCL b6 1 b4 2 b1 b2 b3 0 : Ref Node Graph of the network b8 b5 4 b7 3 1 b4 b1 b2 b3 b6 2 b5 b8 Co-tree: (b4,b6,b3,b8) 4 b7 3

Tree: (b1,b2,b5,b7)

0 : Ref Node A tree of the network

Construct a tree => A connected graph spanning all nodes that does not have a circuit. A tree has n nodes and (n-1) branches. => Graph has more than one tree

Formulate network equations with explicit application of KCL b6 1 2 b1 4 b7 3 =>The tree has (n-1) branches

Every branch of the tree b5 is responsible for the b3 formation of a cut-set. This b2 b4 b8 is known as fundamental cut-set. Tree: Co-tree: (b1,b2,b5,b7) (b4,b6,b3,b8) A cut-set is the set of branches whose removal disconnects the graph 0 : Ref Node Example : (b1 ,b4, b6) forms a cut-set Tree of the network No of fundamental cut-sets = no of branches in a tree = (n-1) If we apply KCL to these fundamental cut-sets then the equations are linearly independent

Identify the fundamental cut-sets to apply KCL 4 1 b1 b4 b2 1 b3 0 This is a fundamental cut-set 0 1 b3 (b7,b3,b6) 0 0 b8 4 b6 b7 3 b4 b2 b3 1 b6 b1 2 b6 2 b5 b6 b7 3 (b5,b3,b8,b7) 4 3 1 b1 2 b4 0 4 2 4

4 2

b7 3 b5

This node is disconnected

b2

b3

b8 (b1,b6,b4)

0 b7

3 b5

b8 (b2,b3,b4,b8)

Formulate network equations with application of KCL 4 b6 C1 C3 4 b7 b6 1 R2 R1 2 2 3 b5 1 b1 b5 b3 b4 RL b8 R3 C2 V b2 b3 b8 0 Cut-set of b5: Ib6+Ib3+Ib5-Ib8=0 0 : Ref Node
Conservation of Charges I1

Cut-set of b1: Cut-set of b7: Cut-set of b2:

A
In I1+ I2 + ... + In =0

-Ib4-Ib1-Ib6=0 Ib6-Ib7+Ib3=0 Ib2+Ib4-Ib3+Ib8=0

V-I relationship of the elements

C1 R1 1 b4 V b2 b3 b8 0 : Ref Node Original Network b1 C2 b6 2 b5 4 b7 C 3 R2 3

In terms of branch voltage and branch currents

R4

Ib1=Vb1/R1 Ib2=C2 dVb2/dt Ib3=Vb3/R3 Vb4=V ; Ib4=? Ideal voltage source Ib5=Vb5/R2 Ib6=C1dVb6/dt Ib7=C3dVb7/dt Ib8=Vb8/R4 Expressed in terms of 8 (branch) voltages

R3

Formulate network equations using KCL

b6 Ib6 1 2
Ib1

b7 Ib7
Ib5

Apply KVL at all branches: Vb1= (V1-V2)

3
Ib3

Vb2=V2-V3 Vb3= V4 Vb4=V1 Vb5=V2-V3 Vb6=V1-V4 Vb7=V4-V3 Vb8=V3 => enough if we know the node voltages

b1 b2

b5
Ib8

b4
Ib4

b3

b8

Formulate network equations using KCL: All the equations KCLs: Ib6+Ib3+Ib5-Ib8=0 -Ib4-Ib1-Ib6=0 Ib6-Ib7+Ib3=0 Ib2+Ib4-Ib3+Ib8=0 Elements: Ib1=Vb1/R1 Ib2=C2 dVb2/dt Ib3=Vb3/R3 Vb4=V ; Ib5=Vb5/R2 V2,V3,V4 and Ib4 Ib6=C1dVb6/dt KVLs: Vb1= (V1-V2) Vb2=V2-V3 Vb3= V4 Vb4=V1 Vb5=V2-V3 Vb6=V1-V4 Vb7=V4-V3 Vb8=V3

Note: V1 is given (V1=V) Ib7=C3dVb7/dt However, Ib4 is unknown Ib8=Vb8/R4

Note: You can write KCLs at all nodes except the reference node and obtain (n-1) linearly independent equations

Network equations using KCL

Unknowns: Node Voltages: V2,V3, V4 and Ib4 Therefore the analysis is called Node Variable Analysis

No. of Unknowns: n-1 =4 Solve a system of linear integro-differential equations: C1d/dt (V-V4) + V4/R3 + V2-V3/R2 - V3/R4 = 0 -Ib4 - (V1-V2))/R1 -C1d/dt ( V-V4) = 0 C1d/dt (V-V4) -C3d/dt (V4-V3) + V4/R3 = 0 C2d/dt (V2-V3) + Ib4 - V4/R3 + V3/R4 = 0 Note: If (n-1) < b- (n-1) then it is advantageous to use nodal analysis as we need to solve less number of linearly independent equations

Node Variable Analysis:Matrix Representation C1dV/dt 0 1/R2 -1/R2-1/R4 -C1d/dt +1/R3 Ib4

V/R1 + C1dV/dt = C1dV/dt

-1

1/R1

C1d/dt

V2

C3d/dt

1/R3 + C3d/dt

V3

C2d/dt

1/R4 + C2d/dt

-1/R3

V4

Note : There is no active current source. The voltage source V is equivalent to a current source Ib4 (unknown) with terminal voltage V (known)

Node Variable Analysis: Generalization

C1 C2 R1 R2 L1 L2 Ikx Ikj node k Ik (Active Source) node x

1/Rkj = (1/R1+1/R2+...) 1/Lkj = (1/L1+1/L2+...) Ckj = C1+C2+...

node j

Elements Connecting Nodes j and k

Current flowing out of node k due to voltage in node j= Vj*(1/R1 + 1/R2 + ...) + (1/L1+1/L2 + ...) Vjdt + (C1+C2 +..)dVj dt = (1/Rkj + 1/Lkjbkj dt + Ckjd/dt)Vj = bkjVj bkj: symbol to summarize the operation on Vj

Loop Variable Analysis: Generalization

The general form of KCL L bkjVj=Ik , Ik is the active current source connected to node k j=1 General form of KCL for N nodes bkjVj=Ik , k =1,....,N j=1 Node 1 => Node 2 => Vector Equation: Node N => L Operator of I1 I2 I3 VN b11 b12 b13 ---- b1L V1 = ----- ------ --bL1 --V2 --- --- bLL VN

I1 I2 IN

Node Variable Analysis: Identify the operators V/R1 + C1dV/dt -1 1/R1 =b12 -1/R2-1/R1-C2d/dt =b22 1/R2 =b32 -C1d/dt 0 0 =b13 1/R2 =b23 C1d/dt =b14 0 =b24 C3d/dt =b34 Ib4

-V/R1 = 0

V2

-1/R2-1/R4-C3d/dt =b33

V3

0 C3d/dt -1/R3-(C3+C1)d/dt V4 =b42 =b43 =b44 Note : There is no active current source. The voltage source V is equivalent to a current source Ib4 (unknown) with terminal voltage V (known)

Apply KCL at each node: Formulation by observation C1 R1 1 b4 V b2 b3 b8 0 : Ref Node b1 C2 b6 2 b5 R4 R3 4 b7 C3 R2 3 KCL at Node 1: -Ib4 - (V-V2)/R1-C1d/dt (V1-V4) = 0 KCL at Node 2 : (V-V2)/R1 - C2d/dt (V2) - (V2-V3)/R2 = 0 KCL at Node 3: (V2-V3)/R2 -V3/R4 + C3d/dt (V4-V3) = 0 KCL at Node 4: C1d/dt(V-V4) - V4/R3 - C3d/dt (V4-V3) = 0

Note: For a DC source dV/dt = 0 Even without identification of the trees it will be possible to formulate the network equations

v1 v1+v2=v v2

i1

i2

i1+i2=i

Sources can be combined

R i i No Difference

R v(t)

v1(t)

i1(t) v/R R

i1(t)

Source Transformation

L v(t)

v1(t)

i1(t) i=1/L vdt

v1(t) i1(t)

C v(t)

v1(t)

i1(t) i=Cdv/dt

v1(t) i1(t) C

Source Transformation

R1

L1 R2

R1

L1 R2

v1

v1

v1

Equivalent Networks

Network Functions Port : A pair of terminals in which the current into one terminal equals the current out of other A one-port network is completely specified if voltage-current relationship at the terminals of the port is known. I 5 I I I 10 10

I V I

One-Port Network

Network Functions Two-Port Network : =>Defined by two pairs of voltage-current relationships =>The variables are V1,I1,V2,I2. =>Two dependent variables Two independent variables I1 V1 I2 V2 4. V1,I1 V2,-I2 A,B,C,D parameters Dependent 1. 2. Independent I1,I2 V1,V2

V1,V2 z parameters I1,I2 y parameters

3. Two-Port Network

V1,I2 I1,V2 h (hybrid) parameters

Network Functions Mathematical description using dependent and independent variables V1=z11*I1+z12*I2 V2=z21*I1 + z22*I2 Open-Ckt. Impedance Definition of z parameters: V1 z11 = I1 V1 z12 = I2 I1=y11*V1+y12*V2 I2=y21*V1 + y22*V2 Short-Ckt. Admittance Definition of y parameters: I1 y11 = V1 I1 y12 = V2

I2=0 Open-Circuit Parameters

I1=0

V2=0

V1=0

Short- Circuit Parameters I2 y21 = V1 I2 y22 = V2

V2 z21 = I1

I2=0

V2 z22 = I2

I1=0

V2=0

V1=0

Network Functions Mathematical description using dependent and independent variables V1=h11*I1+h12*V2 I2= h21*I1 + h22*V2 V1=A*V2 + B*-I2 I1= C*V2 + D*-I2

Definition of h (hybrid) parameters: Definition of A,B,C,D parameters: V1 h11 = I1 V1 h12 = V2 Open_Ckt I2 h22 = V2 A= I1=0 V1 V2 B= -V1 I2

V2=0 Short-Ckt

I2=0 Open-Ckt C= I1 V2

V2=0

Short-Ckt D= -I1 I2

I2 h21 = I1

V2=0

I1=0

I2=0

V2=0

Network Functions Example: Find the open-circuit parameters for the T- circuit V1=z11*I1+z12*I2 V2=z21*I1 + z22*I2 Definition of z parameters: V1 z11 = I1 Transfer V2 z21 = I1 V1 z12 = I2 2 1 7 2

Rc I2 I1 Ra V1 V2 Rb 10 2 Note: Z12=Z21 Reciprocal Network => All passive networks

1 I1=0 z11= Ra+Rb=12 I2*Rb = 10 z12= I2 z22 = Rb+Rc = 17 z21 = I1*Rb = 10 I1

I2=0

Driving Point I2=0 V2 z22 = I2

I1=0

How do we obtain the z parameters of any two port (active or passive) network? A set of Node Equations: I1 = b11V1 + b12V2 + b13V3 +.........+ b1nVn I2 = b21V1 + b22V2 + b23V3 + ........+ b2nVn 0 = b31V1 + b32V2 + b33V3 + ........+ b3nVn ........................................................................ ........................................................................ 0 = bn1V1 + bn2V2 + bn3V3 + ....... + bnnVn Vector Equation: I= GV Solution: -1 V=G I=ZI z11 z21 Z= G -1 = z12 11 12 21 22 z22 V1,V2 : terminal voltages V3,....,Vn : Node Voltages : dependent variables I1,I2, .... : Current Sources : independent Variables bjk : operator due to Vj on node k n1
----------------------------

ij = co-factor of bij = determinant of G

For passive network: 12 = 21 z12 = z21

----------------------------------nn 2n 1n

Example: Open-circuit (Z parameters) of the Pi Circuit 1 I1 1 V1 GC GA GB 2 I2 = GA*GB+GA*GC+GB*GC 11 = GB+GC 12= GC 21= GC 22 = GA+GC GB+GC z11= GA*GB+GB*GC+GC*GA GC z21= z12= GA*GB+GB*GC+GC*GA GA+GC z22= GA*GB+GB*GC+GC*GA V2 2 I1=(GA+GC)V1-GCV2 I2=-GCV1+(GB+GC)V2

Delta-star(wye) Transformation: z12 = Rb = GC/ z22 = Rb+Rc = (GA+GC)/ => Rc = GA/ z11 = Ra+Rb = (GB+GC)/ => Ra = GB/

How do we obtain the y parameters of any two port (active or passive) network? A set of Loop Equations: V1 = a11I1 + a12I2 + a13I3 +.........+ a1nIn V2 = a21I1 + a22I2 + a23I3 + ........+ a2nIn 0 = a31I1 + a32I2 + a33V3 + ........+ a3nIn ........................................................................ ........................................................................ 0 = an1I1 + an2I2 + In3I3 + ....... + annIn Vector Equation: V= RI Solution: -1 I=R V=YI y11 y21 Y= R -1 = y12 11 12 21 22 y22 I1,I2 : Port input currents I1,I2,I3,....,In : Loop Currents : dependent variables V1,V2, .... : Voltage Sources : independent Variables ajk : operator due to Vj on node k n1
----------------------------

ij = co-factor of aij = determinant of R

For passive network: 12 = 21 y12 = y21

----------------------------------nn 2n 1n

Network Functions Example: Find the short-circuit parameters for the bridged T- circuit 5 I3 1 V1 1 2 I1 7 10 I2 2 V2 11 =17*14 - 7*7=189 2 y11= 11 = 189 520 = 0.363 = 12(17*14 - 7*7) -(10)(10*14 - 7*-2) +(-2)(10*7 - (17)*-2) = 520

V1 = (10+2)I1 +10I2 - 2I3 21 = -154 V2 = 10I1 +(10+7)I2 +7I3 y12= 520 = -0.296 =y12 0 = -2I1+7I2 +(5+7+2)I3 22 = 164 y22= 12 10 -2 520 = 0.315 R = 10 17 7 When y11=y22 or z11=z12, the network -2 7 14 is symmetrical

The h parameters : comparison Extremely useful for describing bipolar junction transistor circuits V1= Vbe = Base to emitter voltage I2 = Ic = Collector current I1= Ib = Base current Definition of h (hybrid) parameters: V2 = Vce = Collector to emitter voltage I1 y11 = => h11= 1/y11 V1 V1 V1 h12 = h11 = V2=0 V2 I1 I1=0 V2=0 V2 => h22 = 1/z22 z22 = Short-Ckt I2 Open_Ckt I1=0 I2 I2 V1 h21 = h22 = => h12 = z12/z22 z12 = I1 V2 I2 V2=0 I1=0 I1=0 I2 => h21 = y21/y11 y21 = V1 V2=0 V1=h11*I1+h12*V2 I2= h21*I1 + h22*V2

Example: h parameters of the Pi Circuit 1 I1 1 V1 h11 = I1 V1 h12 = V2 V1 GC GA GB 2 I2 2 h11 = 1/(GA+GC) V2 h21 = -GC/(GA+GC) h12 = GC/(GA+GC) h22 = GB + GC*GA/(GC+GA) Note: h12=-h21 => Reciprocity Condition

V2=0 Short-Ckt

I1=0 Open_Ckt

I2 h21 = I1

V2=0

I2 h22 = V2

I1=0

The A,B,C,D parameters : comparison Extremely useful for describing transmission network Transmission engineers convention V1=A*V2 + B*-I2 I1= C*V2 + D*-I2 V1, I1 are sending end voltage and current variables A B <= Transmission V2, I2 are receiving end voltage C D Matrix and current variables Definition of A,B,C,D parameters: A= V1 V2 B= -V1 I2 V1 z11 = I1 V2 z21 = I1 z11 z21 1 z21

I2=0 Open-Ckt C= I1 V2

V2=0

I2=0 => A =

Short-Ckt D= -I1 I2

=> C = I2=0

I2=0

V2=0

The A,B,C,D parameters : comparison Extremely useful for describing transmission network Transmission engineers convention V1=A*V2 + B*-I2 I1= C*V2 + D*-I2 V1, I1 are sending end voltage and current variables A B <= Transmission (T) V2, I2 are receiving end voltage C D Matrix and current variables Definition of A,B,C,D parameters: I1 -y11 -V1 V1 y11 = => D = B= A= V1 y21 I2 V2 V2=0 V2=0 I2=0 Open-Ckt Short-Ckt I2 -1 -I1 I1 y21 = => B = D= C= V1 y21 I2 V2 V2=0 V2=0 I2=0

Example: T parameters of the Pi Circuit 1 I1 V1 1 A= V1 V2 B= GA GC GB I2 2

1 I1 V1 GA GC GB V2 2

Ix
2

V2 2 -V1 I2

I2=0 Open-Ckt C= I1 V2

V2=0

GB+GC 1/GB+1/GC A= = GC 1/GB 1/GA Ix = I * 1/GA + 1/GB + 1/GC V2 = Ix*1/GB = GA*GB +GB*GC+GC*GA = GC GA*GB+GB*GC+GC*GA C= GC

Short-Ckt D= -I1 I2

I2=0

V2=0

Example: T parameters of the Pi Circuit 1 I1 V1 1 A= V1 V2 B= GA GC GB I2 2

I2
1 I1 V1 1 GA GC GB 2 2

shorted

V2 2 -V1 I2

I2 = - V1*GC 1 B= GC I2 = D= 1/GA I1 1/GA+1/GC

I2=0 Open-Ckt C= I1 V2

V2=0

Short-Ckt D= -I1 I2

I2=0

V2=0

GC+GA GC Note : AD-BC = 1 Equivalent condition for reciprocity

Relationship Between Two Port Parameters The z and y relationships can be obtained by using matrix notation z11 z12 y11 y12 Z= ; I = YV ; V = ZI Y= z21 z22 y21 y22 V = ZI = ZYV y11 = z22/ y12 = -z12/
z z

Therefore, Y = Z y22 = z11/ y21 = -z21/

z

z11 = y22/ z12 = -y12/

y

z22 = y11/ z21 = -y21/

= z11*z22-z12*z21

= y11*y22-y12*y21

h and ABCD parameters can be expressed in terms of y and z parameters

Interconnection of Two Port Parameters I1 V1 Na I2a V2a I2b V2b Nb I2 V2

Cascade connection of Two Ports A C B = D Ca Da Cb Db Aa Ba Ab Bb

The transmission matrix of overall two port network is simply the product of the transmission matrices of the individual two-ports

Interconnection of Two Port Parameters I1 V1a I1a Na I2a I2 1:1 V2a V1a=V1b = V1 V2a = V2b = V2 I1 = I1a + I1b I2 = I2a + I2b I1 I1b V1b Nb I2b V2b V1 Parallel Connection of two ports V = V2 I = Ia + Ib = YaVa + YbVb = (Ya+Yb)V Y = (Ya+Yb) Va = V2 V1 Ib = V2 V1 I= I2 Ia = I2a I1a Ib = I2b I1b

Interconnection of Two Port Parameters I1 I1a V1a V1 I1b V1b Nb I2b V2b V1 Series Connection of two ports V= V2 V = Va + Vb = ZaIa + ZbIb = (Za+Zb)I Z = (Za+Zb) Va = V2a V1a Ib = V2b V1b Na I2a I2 1:1 V2a V1a +V1b = V1 V2a + V2b = V2 I1 = I1a = I1b I2 = I2a = I2b

V2 I1 I1 I1 Ib = Ia = I= I2 I2 I2

Interconnection of Two Port Parameters 1. When the two ports are connected in parallel, find the y parameters first, and, from the y parameters derive the other two-port parameters 2. When two-ports are connected in series, it is usually easiest to find the z parameters 3. When two ports are connected in tandem, it is generally easiest to find the transmission matrix.

Q5. Fig. A a:1 I1 1 z V1 -(V1/a) z 21 1 I1/a Ideal Transformer Iin T1 Z

I2 b

2 11 z 12

I2

1:b

I2/b

V2 z 22 2 Ideal Transformer

-(bV2)

Vin T2

= I 1 /a => Ideal Transformer

(2) (2) (2) (2)

V in = V 1 bV 2 => Circuit connection I in = I 1 /a => Ideal Transformer Z=

V in I in V

V 1 bV 2 I 1 /a

=> Definition Input Impedance

a1 V2

z 11 z 21

z 12 z 22

I1 I2

=> Definition Z parameters

(2)

V 1 = a(z 11 + b z 12 )I 1 => Eq. of the 1st row a b V 2 = (z 21 + a z 22 )I 1 => Eq. of the 2nd. row Z=
a(z 11 + b z 12 )I 1 b(z 21 + b z 22 )I 1 a a I 1 /a

(2) (2) (4)

= a 2 z 11 + abz 12 + abz 21 + b 2 z 22

Q6. Fig.B I1 1 Zb V1 Zb Za 1 2 Za I2 2

V2

V1 V2

z 11 z 21

z 12 z 22

I1 I2

=> Definition of Z parameters

(1)

Let us set I 2 = 0 => 2-2 open circuited

I1 =

2V 1 (Z a +Z b )

=> z 11 =

Z a +Z b 2 Za Z a +Z b V 1 Z b Z a Z a +Z b V 1

(1) (1)

V 21 =

Zb Z a +Z b V 1

and V 2 1 =

Therefore V 22 = V 21 V 2 1 =

= V2

(1)

z 21 =

V2 I1

Z b Z a Z b +Z a

V1

I1

Z b Z a Z a +Z b Z b +Z a 2

Z b Z a 2

(1) (1) (1) (1) (2) (2)

Since this is a passive network, z 12 = z 21 Since this is a symmetric network, z 22 = z 11

z

= z 11 z 22 z 12 z 21 =
1 Za )

(Z a +Z b ) 2 (Z b Z a ) 2 4

= ZaZb

y 11 = 1 ( Z1b + 2

= 1 (1 j) = y 22 4 = 1 (1 + j) = y 21 4

y 12 = 1 ( Z1a 2

1 Zb )

Q7. Fig. C -gmV3

Rth rd V1 gmV1 rd V3 RL Vth RL

(i)

(ii)

V3 = Ixrd
Fig. C

(2)

Determination of Rth

-gmV3

Ix =

V x V 3 rd Vx Ix

+ (g m V 3 ) =

Vx rd

Ix gmrdIx
(2) (2)

R th =
rd V1=0 gmV1 =0 rd V3 Ix Vx

= r d (2 + g m r d )

(i)

V 3 = r d g m V 1
Fig. C

(2)

Determination of Vth

-gmV3

V th = (g m V 3 )r d + V 3 (2) V th = (1 + g m r d )(r d g m )V 1 (2)

-gmV3 rd V1 gmV1 rd gmV1 V3 Vth

(i) 8

Q8. Fig. D R3 Ik R1 1 I1 V1 C1 R2 2 (V1-Vk) k R4 Vk L R 5 i2 i2 R5 6

R6

Introduce two new variables I 1 , that is the current through V 1 and I k , that is the current through (V 1 V k ), so that KCL at every node (1,2,3,4,5,6 and k) can be written. KCL at node 1:

R1 + 1
V1 R1

V2 R1

= I 1 =>I 1 +
V2 R1

V2 R1

V1 R1

(since V 1 is known and I 1 is unknown)

V2 R2

KCL at node 2:

V2 R2

C1

dV 2 dt

= 0 =>

V2 R1

C1

dV 2 dt

= R1 1 Ik =
V1 R 3 (since

KCL at node 3: V3 V4 R 3 R 3 = I k => unknown) KCL at node 4:

V3 R3

V k + (V 1 V k ) R3

I k = 0 =>

(1 )V k R3

V 1 is known and I k is

V4 R3

V4 R5

V4 R

+
5

V5 R

V6 R5

= 0 =>

(1 )V k R3

V4 R3

V4 R5

V4 R

V5 R

V6 R5

V1 R3

KCL at node 5:
V4 R

Vk R4

1 L

V 5 dt VR

V6 R5

=0
V4 R5

KCL at node 6:
V4 R5 V6 R6

+ i 2 = 0 =>

V6 R6

V6 R5

V6 R6

=0

KCL at node k:

+ Ik = 0

The unknown variables are I 1 , V 2 , I k , V 4 , V 5 , V 6 , V k . Therefore we can organize the KCLs as

Bp = q

I1 V2 Ik p = V4 V5 V6 Vk B= 1 0 ( R11 0 0 0 0 0

1 R1 1 R2 d C 1 dt )

0 0 1 0 0 0 1

0 0
1 R3

0 0 0
1 + R) 1 R 1 L

0 0 0
1 R5

0 0
(1 ) R3 (1 ) R3

0 0 0 0 0

( R13 +

1 R5 1 R 1 R5

1 (R +

dt)

0
1 R6

0
R6 )

0 0

( R15 + 0

0
1 R4

q=

V1 R1 V R1 1 V1 R3 V1 R3

0 0 0

10