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4: Performance and Failure: Torque and Tightening

5: Torque and Tightening

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To determine that a cap screw has been tightened sufciently to produce the proper clamping force, we rely on torque values. In reality, all the pointer on a torque wrench is actually measuring is the resistance to turning of the mating screw and nut, not the clamping force. By experimentation, it has been determined how much clamping force is developed when a cap screw is torqued to a specic value. Since torque is vastly easier to measure than actual clamping force, it is used as a reference scale in tightening fasteners. During tightening, approximately 50% of the applied torque is wasted in overcoming friction developed between the cap screw head and the surface it clamps beneath it. Another 40% of the applied torque is lost to frictional resistance between the mating threads; only about 10-15% of the total torque is exerted serves to produce the clamping force in the cap screw. How Torque is Measured: Torque is a measure of the turning effect of a force around a pivot point. The normal unit of torque measurement is the foot-pound. One foot-pound is the turning force generated by a one foot long lever pushed by a one pound force. Torque is calculated using the following formula: TORQUE = Force Applied X Length Of The Lever From The Center Of Rotation Torque = foot-pounds or inch-pounds (12 inch-pounds = 1 foot-pound) Force Applied = pounds or ounces Length of the Lever = feet or inches Figure 4.5.1 Depiction of torque measurement factors.
1 Foot
1 Foot

1 lb. Force X
Diagram 1
X
Diagram 2

2 lb. Force

In Diagram 1, a one pound force is applied through a one foot long lever, an adjustable wrench in this case. Calculated from the equation above, the turning effect, or torque, is one foot-pound at point X. In Diagram 2, a two pound force is applied through a one foot long lever. Calculated from the equation above, the torque is two foot-pounds at point X.

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4: Performance and Failure: Torque and Tightening

What Can Affect the Torque-to-Clamp Force Relationship

The surface nish of a cap screw plays a determining role on the clamp force that will be developed at a given torque value. We have to keep in mind that torque is measuring turning resistance, and that approximately 90% of the torque that is applied is used to overcome friction in the assembly, not to develop clamp force. If a cap screw is lubricated prior to installation, it will drastically reduce friction between the components. When this friction is reduced, more of the torque will be used to generate clamping force. To avoid overtightening and damaging the fastener, we would need to torque it to a lower value. This is ne except that now we do not know how much torque it will actually require to create the proper clamp force. Virtually all torque charts for cap screws are rated for dry (un-lubricated), plain or plated, fasteners even plating acts as a lubricant to change the torque-to-clamp force relationship. Each time a material is applied that changes the frictional characteristics of the cap screw the torque-toclamping force relationship must be experimentally determined. Materials that can affect this relationship include, but are not limited to: platings, oil, anti-seize, sealants, mechanical locking devices, etc. To illustrate how this can work, well look at the three identical size cap screws. One of these screws has perfect dimensional tolerances and smooth thread surfaces; one has poor dimensional tolerances and rough threads; one has been zinc plated. If we apply 40 foot-pounds of torque to each, the resulting loads will be seen in the following order: Rough Sample: Low clamping force Smooth Sample: Higher clamp force than rough sample Plated Sample: Highest clamp force of all three samples We can see that for any given size cap screw, applying the same torque value yields different clamp force results. Actual differences caused by minor surface defects, such as nicked threads, are usually minimal enough to be discounted. However, the difference caused by plating or lubrication can be substantial. Plated fasteners actually require approximately 25% less torque to produce the same clamping force as a non-plated fastener. If a plated fastener is torqued to unplated torque specications, over-torquing and possible failure will occur. Similar results will be seen if a lubricated fastener is torqued to dry torque specications.

4: Performance and Failure: Torque and Tightening How Torque Relates to the Actual Clamp Force Developed

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As mentioned previously, the torque to clamp force relationships must be experimentally determined. However, once we know how a cap screw of any given size with a specic coating will torque to produce a clamp force, we can calculate how other diameter cap screws with the same coating will react. The formula for calculating the torque-to-clamp force as specied by the Industrial Fasteners Institute (IFI) is: TORQUE = K x D x W/12 K* = torque coefcient (determined experimentally)** *K has been determined by experimentation to be: .20 for unplated fasteners .15 for plated fasteners D = nominal cap screw diameter (1/4, 5/16, 3/8, etc) W = cap screw tension in pounds this is equal to the clamp force or work strength available, normally 60% of the actual strength of the given fastener **In applications where lubricants, greases, waxes, anti-seize, or sealants are applied to the fastener, K may be as low as .12. This is almost half of the unplated fastener value, and will drastically alter the torque-to-clamp force relationship. The only way to determine these values is through experimentation. The effects of these coatings can change the relationship as much as 45%. Relative torque/clamp force effects of some materials: 1. Oils up to 40% 2. Sealants up to 25% 3. Grease up to 40% 4. Hard wax up to 33% 5. Anti-Seize up to 45% All torque charts are derived using the IFI calculation formula. To see how this works well look at an example of a 1/4 diameter Grade 8 cap screw. 1/4-20 Grade 8 Cap Screw: Actual Available Ultimate Strength = 4,770 pounds Clamp Force = 4,770 x 60% = 2,862 pounds Plated Cap Screw Torque = K x D x W /12 = .15 x .25: x 2862/12 = 8.95 foot-pounds Unplated Cap Screw Torque = K x D x W /12 = .20 x .25 x 2862/12 = 11.95 foot-pounds

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4: Performance and Failure: Torque and Tightening

How Torque Relates to the Actual Clamp Force Developed (continued)

If we compare our calculated torque gures with the gures given in the torque tightening charts below, we see that the numbers are virtually identical. Our calculated gures are slightly more accurate than those in the tightening charts; the charted numbers have been rounded off, making them easier to use.
Table 4.5.1: SAE Grade 5 - Coarse Thread Size 1/4-20 5/16-18 3/8-16 7/16-14 1/2-13 9/16-12 5/8-11 3/4-10 7/8-9 1-8 Clamp Load 2025 3330 4950 6788 9075 11625 14400 21300 29475 38625 Plated 8 ft.lbs. 18 ft.lbs. 31 ft.lbs. 50 ft.lbs. 75 ft.lbs. 109 ft.lbs. 150 ft.lbs. 268 ft.lbs. 429 ft.lbs. 644 ft.lbs. Table 4.5.2: SAE Grade 5 - Fine Thread Size 1/4-28 5/16-24 3/8-24 7/16-20 1/2-20 9/16-18 5/8-18 3/4-16 7/8-14 1-12 Clamp Load 2325 3675 5558 7575 10200 12975 16350 23775 32475 42300 Plated 9 ft.lbs. 20 ft.lbs. 35 ft.lbs. 55 ft.lbs. 85 ft.lbs. 121 ft.lbs. 170 ft.lbs. 298 ft.lbs. 473 ft.lbs. 704 ft.lbs.

Table 4.5.3: SAE Grade 8 - Coarse Thread Size 1/4-20 5/16-18 3/8-16 7/16-14 1/2-13 9/16-12 5/8-11 3/4-10 7/8-9 1-8 Clamp Load 2850 4725 6975 9600 12750 16350 20325 30075 41550 54525 Plated 12 ft.lbs. 25 ft.lbs. 44 ft.lbs. 70 ft.lbs. 106 ft.lbs. 153 ft.lbs. 212 ft.lbs. 376 ft.lbs. 606 ft.lbs. 909 ft.lbs.

Table 4.5.4: SAE Grade 8 - Fine Thread Size 1/4-28 5/16-24 3/8-24 7/16-20 1/2-20 9/16-18 5/8-18 3/4-16 7/8-14 1-12 Clamp Load 3263 5113 7875 10650 14400 18300 23025 33600 45825 59700 Plated 14 ft.lbs. 27 ft.lbs. 49 ft.lbs. 78 ft.lbs. 120 ft.lbs. 172 ft.lbs. 240 ft.lbs. 420 ft.lbs. 668 ft.lbs. 995 ft.lbs.

These gures represent an estimate of the torque required to induce a given preload (clamp load) in a bolt for non-critical applications only. For critical or special applications, where greater control is desired, this should be determined experimentally. Because of the many interrelated variables that directly or indirectly affect friction, such as surface texture, type of coating or nish, lubrication, speed of tightening, human error, etc., it is possible to experience as much as 25% deviation in preload with the use of a torque wrench.

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