Neuroscience and Behavior (Chapter 2)

- Basic premise: everything psychological is simultaneously biological - Behavior, thought, mood, etc... is the product of activity among billions and billions of interconnected cells called neurons. ___________ myelin sheath terminal branches of axon __________| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||/-------------< __________|cell body |_____axon _______________________-----------------< __________|___________|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||\__________ dendrites ->->neural impulses->-> - How do neurons communicate? - Each neuron contains: - a cell body - two types of branching fibers - dendrites: receive messages from other cells and pass it to the cell body - short bushes of fiber - axon: passes neural message (information) from the cell body and passes it to the other neurons, muscles or glands - can be short or long (e.g. short in brain, long in leg) - extensions of the neuron - usually end in terminal branch - many axons are covered in a fatty substance, called myelin (the myelin sheath) - increases speed of neural message traveling along the axon (neural conduction) - as you get older, you get more and more myelin - cells with no myelin = gray matter, cells with myelin = white matter - Multiple Sclerosis - decay of the myelin - causes lots of problems: loss of motor and mental abilities How do neurons work? - the neuron fires a brief electrical impulse when stimulated by heat, light, sound, pressure, chemicals, etc. (e.g. you put your finger near a flame) - the impulse is called an action potential - Occurs in one part of the neuron, then travels the length of the neuron (down the axon) to the next cell - the brain is bathed in salt water - inside and outside each cell are ions (charged particles) + + + sodium and chloride + + + (outside axon) - - - - potassium- - - - - - (inside axon) + + + sodium and chloride + + + (outside axon) - when the cell is at rest, the inside o f the cell is more negatively charged than the outside, because the positively charged sodium ions are kept outside the cell - the cell becomes less negative when stimulated, because channels in the cell open up allowing positive sodium ions outside to flow inside -> this causes the cell to depolarize -> if it depolarizes enough, It
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triggers an action potential - e.g. +++++++++ - - - - - - - - - - - - - -> ++++++++++ - ---++++++ +++++-------------+++++

-once a cell depolarizes in one part, it triggers the next part to open its sodium channels to depolarize that part - this carries the action potential down the length of the cell - an action potential in one part of the cell triggers succeeding action potentials in adjacent parts of the cell, which is how the neural message is carried along the cell - after the action potential: pumps move the sodium outside and the potassium inside so the cell is polarized once again - How does a message communicate with the next cell? - the axon terminals of the sending cell are filled with round sacks (vesicles) which contain a chemical (neurotransmitter) - an action potential causes the vesicles to move down the terminal fibers and release the neurotransmitter - the axon terminals of the sending cell almost but not quite touch the surface of the receiving cell - the gap is called a synapse - the neurotransmitter travels across the synapse into the receptors in the dendrites of the next cell The axon terminals of one cell almost, but not quite, tough the surface of another cell - the gap is called the synapse - when an action potential reaches the axon terminal, the even causes vesicles, containing neurotransmitters, to release the neurotransmitter, which flows out of the sending neuron, across the synapse to the receptor sites on the receiving neuron - that process can trigger an action potential in the receiving neurons - different neurotransmitters fit into particular receptors like a key in a lock - how do they know what path to take? - paths are laid down by genetics - memory/experience can also lay down neural paths - There are at least seventy -five types of neurotransmitters - e.g. serotonin and dopamine - both are related to mood disorders - both are in the limbic system - both have their own neurons that they like to stimulate - neurotransmitters have receptor sites that they fit into like a key in a lock - the two effects a neurotransmitter can have: 1.) Excitatory - makes an action potential more likely to happen - allows sodium to flow into the cell e.g. acetylcholine (ACh) is released at muscle junctures and activates the movements of muscles 2.) Inhibitory - makes an action potential less likely to happen - hyperpolarizes the cell, e.g. GABA makes cells stop firing to inhibit activity

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The all or none principle - any given cell can receive both excitory and inhibitory neurotransmitters - to fire, a receiving cell must receive more excitatory than inhibitory neurotransmitters and they must exceed the threshold - if it does not exceed the threshold the cell will not fire - strong excitation does not case stronger action potentials - like a gun: the trigger must be pulled past a certain point in order for it to fire, and it will not fire differently depending on how the trigger is pulled - it explains a lot of our behavior when we take chemicals that affect neurotransmitters Drugs and Poisons - Poisons that affect ACh 1)Curare - poison used in hunting by natives - paralyses prey - is chemically similar to ACh - it fits into the ACh receptor sites but will not cause the sodium channels to open - blocks ACh from working - ACh antagonist - it blocks the action of Ach 2)Botulin (botulinum toxin) - comes from improperly canned food - blocks release of ACh from the axon terminal - causes paralysis, loss of feeling, and sometimes death (the heart and lungs are paralyzed) - used in bo-tox cosmetic treatments - smoothes out wrinkles by paralyzing the face - can also relieve some diseases 3)Venom of the Black Widow spider - causes convulsions - causes ACh to flood across the axon terminal - mass activation of muscles - you can convulse to violently that you die - take home point: these 3 poisons have 3 different effects on the same neurotransmitter PART 2 Drugs 3 categories of drugs: 1) Depressants (downers) - anything that calms/slows body function or neural activity - e.g. heroin, alcohol 2) Stimulants (uppers) - anything that stimulates/quickens/excites neural activity or body function - e.g. cocaine, nicotine 3) Hallucinogens - anything that distorts perception - causes perception sensory images without sensory input - e.g. marijuana, LSD
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The effects on neurotransmitters of 5 drugs (heroin, cocaine, alcohol, nicotine, marijuana) 1. Heroin (depressant) - Runners High - pleasurable feeling from vigorous exercise, created by the release in the brain of endorphins (a peptide neurotransmitter) - controls the pain caused by overusing muscles - Endorphins = a contraction of endogenous morphine - they are the bodys natural morphine - chemically similar to the class of drugs called opiates (e.g. heroin, morphine) - Agonists - opposite of antagonists - fit into receptor sites and causes the same effect on the cell as the neurotransmitter would - Opiates are agonists for endorphins - they fit into the endorphin receptor sites and mimic their action - release from pain - bond to opioid receptor sites and produce pain-free, pleasurable feelings of endorphins - If you get addicted to heroin - the brain changes its release of endorphins; it will stop natural production of endorphins because it is getting them from an outside source - when you stop taking heroin, it causes withdrawal - it is very painful because you have little to no endorphins because your body stopped making them 2. Alcohol (depressant) - is a little bit complicated - it inhibits an inhibitory neurotransmitter, GABA - stops your normal social inhibitions (e.g. makes you less shy, sexually indiscriminant, etc...) - the complication: another neurotransmitter affects how much you drink - a study was done to discover shy students become binge drinkers - thought it could be genetic - the gene that affects your serotonin levels has two variations (the long and the short form of the gene) - people with two of the short form of the gene are very likely to become binge drinkers 3. Cocaine (stimulant) - a different system than heroin - affects a different part of action potentials - Reuptake - after the receptor sites are filled, the sending neuron reabsorbs the extra neurotransmitter for later use - Cocaine blocks the reuptake channels of 3 neurotransmitters: - dopamine, serotonin, norepineprine - results: the extra neurotransmitters stay in the synapse and keep stimulating neurons in the pleasure/emotional are of the brain - this feeling is called the cocaine rush - is followed by a crash because the neurotransmitters get depleted
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4. Nicotine (stimulant) - also very addictive - stimulates how the brain processes information - improves the efficiency of the brains processing of information - fits into nicotinic receptor sites that are used to process information - popular among schizophrenics and college students 5. Marijuana (mild hallucinogen) - complicated - the active ingredient is THC - THC fits into cannabinoid receptor sites - primarily used to control pain (also helps relive pressure in the eye from glaucoma) - people in pain get relief from marijuana - the complexity: is also a hallucinogen - amplifies sensitivity of sensations (taste, smell, color, etc...) - why is it a hallucinogen? - may be a serotonin antagonist (LSD blocks serotonin receptor sites) - long- term effects: - can destroy the neurons it inhabits (e.g. the limbic system) - the results: destroys emotion and memory neurons - can lead to Alzheimers-like symptoms Tools of Discovery Today we have tools to study the brain in action: 1) Clinical Observation - the oldest tool to study the brain - observing people with brain damage (e.g. injury, disease) to see the effects of the damage - has gotten better over the years, more systematic - e.g. aphasia (inability to produce or understand language) - we know that most people, especially righted- handed people, have language in the left hemisphere - damage to Brocas area (in the front of the brain) causes difficulty in producing speech, so we know it is key in language production - damage to Wernickes area causes difficulty in understanding language so we know it is key in language comprehension - we know all this from studying language 2) Manipulating/studying an intact brain - apply electrical stimulation to certain areas of the brain to see the effects - e.g. stimulating a band in the middle of the top of the brain causes involuntary movement - TMS - transcranial magnetic stimulation - a magnetic field at the back of your skull will let you have an experience without opening the skull 3) EEG - recording the brains electrical activity - Electroencephalogram - amplifies the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brains surface - requires electrodes on the head to record the electrical activity

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4) Brain- Imaging Techniques 1. CT scan (computerized tomography) - older technique - x-ray photograph of the brain that can reveal brain damage (e.g. brain tumors) 2. PET scan (positron emission tomography) - one form: inject patient with a radioactive glucose - provides a visual display of brain activity by detecting where the glucose goes when the brain performs a given task - e.g. people with high vs. low pain tolerance - PET scans showed that the limbic system is more active during pain sensations in people who are sensitive to pain vs. people who are not 3. MRI scans (structural magnetic resonance imaging) - 2 forms - Anatomical MRI: - the more common form - a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue - allows us to see structures within the brain - FMRI (functional MRI): - the newer form - like a PET scan without the radioactivity (shows the brain in action) - used to study brain function - shows how the brain consumes oxygen (e.g. listening to tones activates the temporal lobe) - e.g. in textbook: looking at faces activates the back of the brain FMRI (the Bilingual Brain): - FMRI gives two types of information: - the structures of the brain - what areas of the brain are working - give subjects a simple task - e.g. finger tapping action - see activity associated with the hands and a sections that controls both of the hands - Can be used to scan the brains of cancer patients before surgery - helps guarantee a safe surgery - language, sensory, and motor areas are the hardest to protect - helps surgeons see whats active (what should not be cut)

The Brain
-The Brain Stem -need it to survive - it keeps you breathing, functioning -The brainstem is necessary for survival -the oldest part of the brain in evolutionary terms -contains several structures - we will talk about 3 -the Medulla (Medulla Oblongata) -at the base of the brainstem
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-controls heartbeat/respiration -the Reticular formation -reticular means net-like -a network of fibers that goes all through the brainstem -controls arousal -in evolutionary terms: controls the fight or flight response -the Thalamus -on the top of the brainstem -a sensory relay station - receives information from the senses and passes it onto the cortex -The Cerebellum -the cauliflower thing that extends from behind the brainstem -cerebellum means little brain - it looks like one -helps you maintain balance -guides/coordinates voluntary movements -The Limbic System -limbus means border - is the border between the brainstem and the cerebral cortex -the main thing it does: controls emotion -e.g. the amygdala - an almond shaped structure that controls the expression of fear and aggression - if you stimulate it in a cat, the cat will attack other cats - do abnormally aggressive people have abnormal amygdalas? -some evidence says yes -e.g. Julia - epileptic who had abnormal discharges from he amygdala - she stabbed a woman in a steakhouse who accidentally bumped into her - once the abnormal part of her amygdala was removed, she had no more aggressive outbursts -the hypothalamus -very small structure (size of kidney bean) but does a lot -controls aggression and fear -regulates body temperature -regulates the autonomic nervous system -regulates emotional drives (fear and rage) -controls other drives (e.g. thirst, hunger, sex...) -e.g. man with tumor pressing on his hypothalamus attacked his girlfriends child () -Early experiment: 1960s - electrodes stimulated the midbrain of an aggressive bull and it stopped its charge -Better experiment: stimulate the hypothalamus of cats and they attack other cats -Man with tumor: -attacked a 2-year-old -was depressed/suicidal - moved to hospital -shortly before the incident: history of more and more frequent aggressive outbursts and difficulty controlling emotional responses -CAT scan found tumor (cyst - fluid filled sack) pressing on his amygdala and hypothalamus
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-when tumor was removed: -he could handle himself better -he could control his temper -demonstrates the role of the hypothalamus -the hippocampus -shaped like a seahorse - is why it is called a hippocampus -most important in memory -especially lays down new memories for facts -Alzheimers strikes hippocampus first -Cerebral Cortex -on top of brainstem and limbic system -only 1/8 inch thick, but contains 30 billion neurons and 270 billion glial (supporting) cells that nurture, support, and protect neurons -divided into 4 areas (lobes) 1) Occipital lobe -at back of brain -necessary for initial processing of visual stimuli -blow to back of head can cause blindness 2) Temporal lobe -necessary for hearing and smell -located over the ears 3) Parietal lobe -over occipital lobe -necessary for touch 4) Frontal lobe -largest lobe - has the most control of all the lobes -necessary for planning/ decision making -involved in speech -controls muscle movements -controls lots of activities -PET scans of the lobes -listening to music causes activation in the temporal lobe -watching a video (no sound) causes activation in the occipital lobe -speaking causes activation in the frontal lobe (sidenote: it is hard for people to think of their thoughts as being part of the brain, i.e. the lit up areas) -Central Sulcus -divides the frontal from the parietal lobe -the frontal side controls muscle movements - called the motor cortex -the parietal side controls the sense of touch - called the somatasensory or sensory cortex -they are coordinated with each other -people have mapped out which areas control which body parts -the larger the area (the more neurons), the more control you have over that body part (e.g. there are more neurons, and more control, devoted to the fingers than the arms) -if you stimulate a particular part of the cortex you will get involuntary movement or sensations of touch in that particular body part
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-is lateralized (i.e. the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body) -greater sensitivity (i.e. sensory cortex) devoted to a body part corresponds to more motor control (i.e. motor cortex) -if you lost a part of your body, the region of the cortex devoted to that part would be taken over by neurons devoted to other parts of the body - those parts would increase in sensitivity -Neural Plasticity - the loss of one function can be replaced by brain reorganization -e.g. Phantom Limb: -the experience that an amputated limb still exists -amputees often still feel the missing limb - they often experience pain from it -a neural plasticity issue: -people feel the pain in their arms when their faces are touched - facial neurons migrate to the hands region - the face increases in sensitivity but there is still some kind of connection to the hands -people experience phantom limb in their feet during sex because the genitals are right next to the feet in the sensory cortex Our Divided Brains -the two hemispheres serve different functions -the left is usually better in speaking, reading, and performing calculations -the right is usually better at perceiving, drawing, listening to music, recognizing faces, and expressing emotion -the original discovery that the hemispheres differ from Split-Brain Patients -in 50s and 60s doctors found that the worst form of epilepsy could be helped by cutting the corpus collosum - the corpus collosum is the main connection between the hemispheres - made of 200 million fibers -Split-Brain - a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly corpus collosum) -these patients can be used to study the hemispheres in isolation -e.g. the left visual field is linked to the right hemisphere and the right visual field is linked to the left hemisphere -one experiment: present the word heart with the letters HE on the left of center and ART on the right of center -ask them what they see - they say ART because the left hemisphere is the language hemisphere and it saw the right visual field -ask them to point with their left hand to the word they say - they point to HE because the right hemisphere controls the left hand and saw the left visual field -another experiment: provide a display of objects -place a spoon on the left -ask patients what they saw - they say nothing because the left (language) hemisphere saw the right (empty) field of view -but they can pick out the item with their left hands

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