INTRODUCTION

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1.1 WHAT IS EMI?

Electromagnetic Interference or EMI is electromagnetic radiation

which is emitted by electrical circuits carrying rapidly changing signals, as a
by-product of their normal operation, and which causes unwanted signals
(interference or noise) to be induced in other circuits. This interrupts,
obstructs, or otherwise degrades or limits the effective performance of those
other circuits and also the nearby system. It can be induced intentionally, as
in some forms of electronic warfare, or unintentionally, as a result of
spurious emissions and responses, intermodulation products, and the like. It
is also known as Radio Frequency Interference (RFI).

EMI frequently affects the reception of AM radio in urban areas. It

can also affect FM radio and television reception, although to a lesser extent.

The most important means of reducing EMI are: use of bypass or

"decoupling" capacitors on each active device (connected across the power
supply, as close to the device as possible), rise time control of high speed
signals using series resistors and VCC filtering. Shielding is usually a last
resort after other techniques have failed because of the added expense of RF
gaskets and the like.

Switching power supplies can be a source of EMI, but have become

less of a problem as design techniques have improved.

Most countries have legal requirements that electronic and electrical

hardware must still work correctly when subjected to certain amounts of
EMI, and should not emit EMI which could interfere with other equipment
(such as radios).

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1.2 EMC : EXPLANATION

Electromagnetic Compatibility is defined as the ability of a device or

system to function without error in its intended electromagnetic
environment.

1.2.1 History

In the past a relaxed EMC regime existed apart from in the military
field, and equipment manufacturers did not care much about EMC issues.
However, because of increases of clock speeds used in modern digital
equipment coupled with the lower signal voltages these systems used, EMC
became more and more an issue. Many nations became aware of this
growing problem and issued directives to the manufacturers of these kinds
of equipments, which set out the essential requirements which must be
satisfied before such equipment may be sold. Organizations in each nation
were set up to draw up and safeguard these directives.

1.2.2 Achieving compatibility

In order to achieve such an objective, EMC pursues different issues:

emission issues, in particular, are related to the reduction of unintentional
generation of electromagnetic energy and to the countermeasures which
should be taken in order to avoid the propagation of such an energy towards
the external environment, susceptibility issues, instead, refer to the correct
operation of electrical equipments in the presence of electromagnetic
disturbances.

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 When the propagation of electromagnetic disturbances in guiding
structures (i.e. wires, cables, printed circuit board (PCB) traces) is taken into
account, conducted emission and susceptibility issues are considered,
whereas, when the open-space propagation of electromagnetic disturbances
is taken into account, radiated emission and susceptibility issues are
considered. A device is said to be Electromagnetically Compatible only if
satisfies the limits of all the interference shown below.

Figure 1.1 Classification of EMC

1.2.3 Examples of EMC problems:

∗ Computer interferes with FM radio reception

∗ Car radio buzzes when you drive under a power line
∗ A helicopter goes out of control when it flies close to a radio tower
∗ Telephone is damaged by lightning-induced surges on the phone line
∗ Screen on the video display jitters when the fluorescent lights are on
∗ Airport radar interferes with laptop computer display
∗ Pacemaker picks up cellular telephone calls

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1.3 STANDARDS CONCERNING EMC

The main objective of the national and international safety regulatory

agencies is to provide the user with a safe and quality product which is not
going to interfere with other electronic equipment. These safety agencies and
standards are different depending on the country they originated.

Equipment manufacturers that would like to sell their product in these

countries first need to get their product approved by the corresponding safety
agencies. Most power supply manufacturers use the IEC (International
Electro Technical Commission), VDE (Verband Deustcher Electrotechnik),
or UL (Underwriters Laboratories) and CSA (Canadian Standards
Association) as their base to the majority of the world’s safety requirements.
Therefore the final product, where the switching power supply is to be used,
must also comply with EMI and RFI specifications. They require
manufacturers to minimize the radiated and conducted interference of their
equipment which is connected to the AC mains and employs high frequency
digital circuitry.

1.3.1 Some Important Standards

Even though EMI is a common problem throughout the world,

different nations follow different standards, which define the permissible
EMI limits in that region. But these standards are more or less similar and
have only minor variations based on the specific regional needs. These
standards serve the main purpose of ensuring the safety of consumers, by
imposing limits on the various interference levels.

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These standards are framed by various international bodies like

∗ FCC (Federal Communications Commission),

∗ IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission),
∗ VDE (Verband Deutscher Elektrotechnik),
∗ ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute),
∗ ANSI (American National Standards Institute) etc.

1.3.2 Standards in Detail

Some of the important Standards and their region of acceptance are

mentioned below:

Some Important Standards

Sl. No Standard Region

1 FCC US, Other North American Countries
2 CISPR European Economic Community
3 VDE Germany

Table 1.1

1.3.2.1 FCC (Federal Communications Commission)

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is an independent

United States government agency, directly responsible to Congress. The
FCC was established by the Communications Act of 1934 and is charged
with regulating interstate and international communications by radio,
television, wire, satellite and cable. The FCC's jurisdiction covers the 50
states, the District of Columbia, and U.S. possessions.

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 The FCC Rules and Regulations, Title 47, Part 15, Subpart B regulates
"unintentional radio-frequency devices". Products regulated include any
unintentional radiator (device or system) that generates and uses timing
pulses at a rate in excess of 9000 pulses (cycles) per second and uses digital
techniques. This includes almost every product that employs a
microprocessor including workstations, personal computers, point-of-sale
terminals, printers, modems, and many electronic games. It is illegal to sell
or advertise for sale any products regulated under Part 15, Subpart B until
their radiated and conducted emissions have been measured and found to be
in compliance.

Most products regulated by Part 15, Subpart B fall into one of two
categories. Class A devices are those that are marketed for use in a
commercial, industrial or business environment. Class B devices are those
that are marketed for use in the home. Class B limits are more stringent than
Class A limits and the Class B certification process is administratively more
rigorous than the Class A verification process. The radiated and conducted
EMI test procedures are defined in the ANSI Standard C63.4. FCC Rules
and Regulations, Part 15, only regulates radio frequency emissions.
Currently there are no FCC regulations pertaining to product immunity to
electromagnetic fields.

For a Class A and Class B digital devices that is designed to be

connected to the public utility (AC) power line, the radio frequency voltage
that is conducted back onto the AC power line on any frequency or
frequencies within the band 150 kHz to 30 MHz shall not exceed the limits
in the following tables.

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 FCC Emission Limits for Class A Digital Devices
Radiated Emissions (10 meters)

Frequency (MHz) uV/m dB (uV/m)

30 - 88 90 39
88 - 216 150 43.5
216 - 960 210 46.5
>960 300 49.5
Conducted Emissions

Frequency (MHz) uV dB (uV)

0.45 - 1.705 1000 60
1.705 - 30 3000 69.5
Table 1.2

FCC Emission Limits for Class B Digital Devices

Radiated Emissions (3 meters)

Frequency (MHz) uV/m dB (uV/m)

30 – 88 100 40
88 – 216 150 43.5
216 – 960 200 46
>960 500 54
Conducted Emissions

Frequency (MHz) uV dB (uV)

0.45 – 30 250 48

Table 1.3

The plot showing the permissible EMI limits of FCC standard for both
Class A and Class B is shown below,

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 Figure 1.2 FCC Limits of Conducted Emissions

1.3.2.2 VDE (Verband Deutscher Elektrotechnik)

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 Since 1920, VDE, a German institute, have been ensuring the safety
of electro technical products, systems and installations. Today, more than
200,000 types of products worldwide carry VDE Certification Marks, issued
by an independent institution concerned only with consumer safety.

Over 60% of all Germans are familiar with the VDE Mark. The
majority of consumers consider the safety mark on electrical products as a
"very important" safety criterion, and nearly 90% feel that independent
safety tests are "important."

The VDE Testing and Certification Institute has facilities for testing
electro technical and electronic components, machines, appliances and
systems for electrical, mechanical, thermal and other relevant characteristics
- including electromagnetic compatibility. Operating as a neutral and
independent body, the Institute objectively and professionally conducts this
testing with state-of-the-art equipment, drawing on generations of
experience in standardization, testing, and participation in international
conformity assessment schemes.

The VDE Certification Marks are registered and protected in more

than 30 countries. Manufacturers in over 50 countries worldwide affix the
VDE Mark to their products. In many countries, the VDE Mark is a standard
requirement for imports. And in some cases, it is even in greater demand
than locally approved certifications.

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 VDE has subdivided its RFI regulations into two categories, 0-10 kHz
unintentional high frequency generation (VDE 0875) and 10 kHz – 30 MHz
intentional high frequency generation (VDE 0871, VDE 0872).

Figure 1.3 Comparison of FCC and VDE standards

The FCC includes all electronic devices which generate signals at a

rate greater than 10 kHz. The FCC and VDE regulations closely follow each
other. The FCC class A specification covers business, commercial and
industrial environments, while FCC B covers residential environments only.
The main difference, as can be seen in Figure 1.2, is the frequency span
covered by both agencies. The VDE frequency range for EMI and RFI
emissions covers a spectrum from 10 kHz to 30 MHz, while FCC’s
frequency span covers only the range of 450 kHz to 30 MHz.

1.3.2.3 CISPR 22 ITE

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 Countries in the European Economic Community (EEC) and many
other countries have adopted radiated emissions standards based on a
document called CISPR 22. CISPR is a committee of the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), which promulgates standards in order
to facilitate trade between countries.

Any equipment (or part of the ITE) which has a primary function of
radio transmission and/or reception according to the ITU Radio Regulations
are excluded from the scope of CISPR 22.

Classification of ITE

ITE is subdivided into two categories denoted as class A ITE and class
B ITE.

Class B ITE

Class B ITE is a category of apparatus which satisfies the class B ITE

disturbance limits. Class B ITE is intended primarily for use in the domestic
environment and may include:

∗ Equipment with no fixed place of use; for example, portable

equipment powered by built-in batteries
∗ Telecommunication terminal equipment powered by a
telecommunication network
∗ Personal computers and auxiliary connected equipment

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 The domestic environment is an environment where the use of broadcast
radio and television receivers may be expected within a distance of 10 m of
the apparatus concerned.

Class A ITE

Class A ITE is a category of all other ITE which satisfies the class A
ITE limits but not the class B ITE limits. Class A devices are one which
conforms to industrial devices.

The equipment under test (EUT) shall meet the limits as shown in
Tables 1.4 and 1.5, as applicable, including the average limit and the quasi-
peak limit when using, respectively, an average detector receiver and quasi-
peak detector receiver and measured in accordance with the methods
described in clause 9 of CISPR 22.

CISPR 22 Emission Limits for Class A Devices

Radiated Emissions (30 meters)

Frequency (MHz) uV/m dB (uV/m)

30 - 230 31.6 30
230 - 1000 70.8 37
Conducted Emissions

Frequency (MHz) uV QP (AV) dB (uV) QP (AV)

0.15 - 0.5 8912.5 (1995) 79 (66)
0.5 - 30 4467 (1000) 73 (60)
Table 1.4

CISPR 22 Emission Limits for Class B Devices

Radiated Emissions (10 meters)

Frequency (MHz) uV/m dB (uV/m)

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 30 - 230 31.6 30
230 - 1000 70.8 37
Conducted Emissions

Frequency (MHz) uV QP (AV) dB (uV) QP (AV)

0.15 - 0.5 1995-631 (631-199.5) 66-56 (56-46)
(limit varies linearly)
0.5 - 5 631 (199.5) 56 (46)

5 - 30 1000 (316) 60 (50)

Table 1.5

If the average limit is met when using a quasi-peak detector receiver,

the EUT shall be deemed to meet both limits and measurement with the
average detector receiver is unnecessary.

If the reading of the measuring receiver shows fluctuations close to

the limit, the reading shall be observed for at least 15 s at each measurement
frequency; the higher reading shall be recorded with the exception of any
brief isolated high reading which shall be ignored.

The EUT shall meet the limits of Radiated Emission (as in tables 1.4
and 1.5) when measured at distance R in accordance with the methods
described in clause 10 of CISPR 22.

The plot showing the permissible EMI limits of CISPR 22 standard

for both Class A and Class B is shown below,

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 Figure 1.4 CISPR22 Limits of Conducted Emissions

1.4 SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLIES

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 Regulated DC voltage is required for semiconductor devices such as
ICs and Transistors to function. Regulated voltage can be generated from
commercial AC lines with an AC to DC power supply or from DC power
source (such as Batteries) with a DC to DC converter. Each type is further
classified to one that is isolated between primary (Input) circuit and
secondary (Output) circuit or non-isolated. Over the past 15 years, there
have been significant changes in the design of power supplies. The most
important of these has been widespread change from linear regulator to
Switch Mode Power Supplies (SMPS).
A Switch Mode Power Supply, or SMPS, is an electronic power
supply unit (PSU) that incorporates a switching regulator — an internal
control circuit that switches the load current rapidly on and off in order to
stabilize the output voltage. Switching regulators are used as replacements
for the linear regulators when higher efficiency, smaller size or lighter
weight is required.

1.4.1 REASONS FOR USING SMPS

The reasons for choosing SMPS over Linear Power Supply can be
summarized as follows,

∗ Size and weight: Linear power supplies use a transformer operating

at the mains frequency of 50/60 Hz. This component is larger and
heavier by several times than the corresponding smaller transformer in
an SMPS, which runs at a higher frequency (always above the highest
audible frequency, around 50 kHz to 200 kHz)

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 ∗ Efficiency: Linear power supplies regulate their output by using a
higher voltage in the initial stages and then expending some of it as
heat to improve the power quality. This power loss is a necessary to
the circuit, and can be reduced but never eliminated by improving the
design, even in theory. SMPS draw current at full voltage based on a
variable duty cycle, and can increase or decrease their power
consumption to regulate the load as required. Consequently, a well
designed SMPS will be more efficient.
∗ Heat output or power dissipation: An inefficient supply must
generate more heat to power the same electrical load. Therefore, a
SMPS will produce less heat.
∗ Audio noise: Linear PSUs typically give off a faint, low frequency
hum at mains frequency, but this is seldom audible. SMPS, with their
smaller transformers, are not usually audible.

1.4.2 WORKING OF SMPS

The first job of SMPS is to convert the AC input to DC. This is called
rectification. The rectifier circuit can be configured as a voltage doubler by
the addition of a switch operated either manually or automatically. It
produces an unregulated DC voltage which is then sent to a large filter
capacitor. The current drawn from the mains supply by this rectifier circuit
occurs in short pulses around the AC voltage peaks.

These pulses have significant high frequency energy which reduces

the power factor. Special control techniques can be employed by the
following SMPS to force the average input current to follow the sinusoidal
shape of the AC input voltage.

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Inverter stage

The inverter stage converts DC, whether directly from the input or
from the rectifier stage described above, to AC by running it through a
power oscillator, whose output transformer is very small with few windings
at a frequency of tens or hundreds of kilohertz (kHz). The frequency is
usually chosen to be above 20 kHz, to make it inaudible to humans.
Computer supplies run at 360 volts DC.

The output voltage is optically coupled to the input and thus very tightly
controlled. The switching is done by MOSFET, which are a type of transistor
with a low on-resistance and a high current-handling capacity. This section
refers to the block marked "Chopper" in the block diagram.

Figure 1.5 Block Diagram of SMPS

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Voltage converter

If the output is required to be isolated from the input, as is usually the

case in mains power supplies, the inverted AC is used to drive the primary
winding of a high-frequency transformer. This converts the voltage up or
down to the required output level on its secondary winding. The output
transformer in the block diagram serves this purpose. If a DC output is
required, the AC output from the transformer is rectified and smoothed by a
filter consisting of inductors and capacitors. The higher the switching
frequency, smaller the value of components needed.

Simpler, non-isolated power supplies contain an inductor instead of a

transformer. This type includes boost converters, buck converters, and the so
called "buck-boost converter". These belong to the simplest class of single
input, single output converters which utilize one inductor and one active
switch (MOSFET).

The buck converter reduces the input voltage, in direct proportion, to

the ratio of the active switch "on" time to the total switching period, called
the Duty Ratio. For example an ideal buck converter with a 10V input
operating at a duty ratio of 50% will produce an average output voltage of
5V. A feedback control loop is employed to maintain (regulate) the output
voltage by varying the duty ratio to compensate for variations in input
voltage.

The output voltage of a boost converter is always greater than the

input voltage and the buck-boost output voltage is inverted but can be
greater than, equal to, or less than the magnitude of its input voltage. There

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are many variations and extensions to this class of converters but these three
form the bases of almost all isolated and non-isolated DC to DC converters.

By adding a second inductor the Cuk and SEPIC converters can be

implemented or by adding additional active switches various bridge
converters can be realized.

Regulation

A feedback circuit monitors the output voltage and compares it with a

reference voltage, which is set manually or electronically to the desired
output. If there is an error in the output voltage, the feedback circuit
compensates by adjusting the timing with which the MOSFET are switched
on and off. This part of the power supply is called the switching regulator.

The "Chopper controller" shown in the block diagram serves this

purpose. Depending on design/safety requirements, the controller may or
may not contain an isolation mechanism (such as opto-couplers) to isolate it
from the DC output.

1.4.3 DISADVANTAGES OF SMPS

The main disadvantages of SMPS include,

∗ Complexity: SMPS are complicated and difficult to design well; they

frequently require the use of custom-made transformers and inductors.
∗ Radio frequency interference: The currents in a SMPS are switched
at a high frequency. This generates undesirable electromagnetic
interference. This is what we are going to reduce in our project.

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INITIAL STUDY OF EMI
21
2.1 INITIAL MEASUREMENT
In this phase of the project, we are going to measure the Conducted
EMI introduced by the SMPS in both Line and Neutral. The Common Mode
and Differential Mode Noises are measured separately. The initial
measurement is done for determining the various parameters involved in the
filter design. In the initial measurements we follow the CISPR22 standard,
which is already discussed in the previous chapter.

2.2 APPARATUS USED IN MEASUREMENT

The apparatus we use for the initial measurements are described in
this section.
The major components involved are
∗ LISN
∗ EMI Receiver
∗ CMNDC & DMNDC
∗ Power Supply
∗ Spectrum Analyzer
∗ SMA – BNC Cables

2.2.1 LISN
LISN stands for Line Impedance Stabilization Network. LISN are
used to measure the noise that is conducted back down the mains lead from
the equipment under test (EUT). All standard LISNs are fully compliant with
the requirement of CISPR 22 in all respects for the frequency band B, 150
kHz to 30 MHz. Each standard LISN includes a mains RF low pass filter to
reject any noise already on the mains and an effective voltage transient

22
limiter to protect any sensitive analyzer or receiver against high energy
spikes. Note that these LISNs may be used on low voltage and/or DC
connections provided that the current rating is not exceeded.
The LISN must maintain characteristic impedance to the EUT and
isolate the EUT from unwanted RF signals on both the DC and AC power
source while allowing the necessary voltage and current to be delivered to
the EUT. The LISN provides 50Ω output impedance for measurement of RF
emissions produced by the EUT. Transfer impedance, voltage rating, current
rating, number of power conductors and connector types are the key
parameters in the selection of an LISN.
The impedance versus frequency of an LISN must match the
requirements of the test specification being applied to the EUT. Most LISN
attributes are defined in CISPR 16-1. The most widely used LISNs present a
50Ω impedance to the EUT. The 50Ω impedance was selected because
theoretical and empirical data have shown that the power circuitry
statistically looks like 50Ω impedance to standard electronic equipment and
RF test equipment is typically designed for 50Ω input.
The LISN used for the initial measurements is shown below,

Figure 2.1 LISN

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2.2.2 EMI Receiver
The hardware architecture of an EMI receiver is very similar to a
super heterodyne receiver and measures signal voltages frequency
selectively. Most commercial EMI standards refer CISPR Publication 16
Part 1 as the standard specifying the instrumentation for EMI and EMS
measurements. The current version of CISPR 16 Part 1, dated 10 - 1999,
calls out receiver specifications for the frequency range of 9 kHz to 1 GHz.
If an instrument meets this criterion, it can be used for compliance
measurements. Accurate signal detection using an EMI receiver is dependent
on many different parameters.
A scanning receiver allows signals to be displayed in the frequency
and time domains, which greatly simplifies the identification and analysis of
emissions. The frequency resolution of an EMI receiver is predominantly
determined by its IF filters. The receiver display modes may also affect
signal detection, because an additional frequency shift may be introduced by
the selected mode or narrower frequency spans may have to be used to avoid
missing signals. The receiver’s IF detectors directly determine the measured
emission amplitudes.
The EMI Receiver used in emission measurement is shown below,

Figure 2.2 EMI Receiver

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2.2.3 CMNDC and DMNDC
The Common Mode Noise Diagnostic Circuit and Differential Mode
Noise Diagnostic Circuit are special circuits that are used to separate the
Common Mode and Differential Mode Noise from the Total Noise. The
CMNDC can detect common mode noise and reduce the differential mode
noise by 40dB. This circuit is constructed using three resistors and is shown
in fig.

The differential mode noise is diagnosed by adding a broadband

transformer to provide a 180 degree phase shift. When this transformer is
added to CMNDC, we obtain DMNDC. Similar to the CMNDC, the
DMNDC suppresses the common mode noise by 40dB. The circuit is shown
in fig.

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2.3 MEASUREMENT OF NOISE LEVEL
The experimental setup with respect to CISPR 22 is to be followed
while doing all measurements. The standard setup for the measurements and
the measured noise level is shown in the following chapters.

2.3.1 INITIAL MEASUREMENT

In this, the total noise emitted by the power supply under loaded
condition is measured, i.e. the sum of Differential and Common Mode
Noises. This is achieved by connecting the LISN to the EUT without any
diagnostic circuits in between. The RF port of LISN is connected to the EMI
Receiver, by BNC – BNC Cable.
The block diagram representing this setup is shown in Figure 2.5
below.

Figure 2.5 Initial Measurement

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 The setup as shown in Figure 2.5 is arranged and the initial
measurement is done. The output sheet of initial measurement is shown
below.

Fig 2.6 Noise level in Neutral line of SMPS

This is the noise level measured in Neutral of the power line. This is
taken for the analysis because Neutral is always worse than Line in noise
performance. It is noted from the output sheet that the noise level is quite
high over a band of frequency and thus the product is clearly non-
compatible.

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2.3.2 DIFFERENTIAL AND COMMON MODE NOISES
There are two major sources of noise, common mode
and differential mode. Common mode noise (Figure 2.7 (b))
comes from common mode current. Common mode energy
is common to both lines in a single phase system. This
energy travels on all the lines, or wires, in the same
direction, and this energy is between all these wires and
ground. Because the same level is on both wires at the same
time, no attenuation is given by any device between the
lines. Common mode noise from common mode current
always exists on cables entering the device.
Differential mode noise (Figure 2.7 (a)) is the opposite
of common mode noise. This noise is produced by current
flowing along either the live or neutral conductor and
returning by the other. This produces a noise voltage
between the live and neutral conductors.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.7 Illustration of

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 (a) Differential Mode Noise
(b) Common Mode Noise

The Differential Mode and Common Mode Noises can be separated

and measured by the use of DMNDC and CMNDC respectively. This
required diagnostic circuit is connected between LISN and the EMI Receiver
to obtain that Noise alone.
The block diagram for this is shown below.

(a)

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 (b)

Figure 2.8(a) DM Noise Separation,

(b) CM Noise Separation
The output of these measurements is obtained in the EMI Receiver,
from which they are printed. The Differential Mode and Common Mode
Noise levels are obtained by the setup as shown in Figure 2.8 (a) and (b),
respectively.
The Differential Mode Noise levels obtained are as shown in Figure
below.

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 Figure 2.9 Differential Mode Noise levels

It is evident from the output chart that the DM Noise is more

dominant in low frequencies, than at mid frequencies.
The Common Mode Noise levels obtained are as shown in Figure
below.

Figure 2.10 Common Mode Noise levels

It is evident from the output chart that the CM Noise is more

dominant in low frequencies, than at mid frequencies.

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32
 FILTER DESIGN
3.1 FILTER PARAMETERS

In this chapter, the filter design technique what we use is discussed in

detail. There are so many techniques available for designing a power line
filter. Here we use a new and efficient method for designing the filter. The
filter circuit may have four or five elements. Designing a power line filter is
always challenging in achieving the required attenuation in the allotted
package, considering the limitation imposed by the safety and other factors.

Now let us see about the elements used in the filter. The elements used
in power line filter are,
∗ X-type capacitor
∗ Y-type capacitor
∗ Common Mode Inductor
∗ Differential Mode Inductor

X-capacitor

Class X capacitors (X capacitors for short) are capacitors with an

unlimited capacitance used for applications in which failure of the capacitor
will not lead to a dangerous electrical shock. EN 132400 divides X
capacitors into 3 sub-classes according to the peak pulse voltage to which
they are exposed in operation, in addition to the rated voltage. This kind of

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impulse can be caused by lightning in overhead cables, switching surges in
neighboring equipment or in the device in which the capacitor is used to
suppress interferences.
The standard for classification and their application are given in the
table that follows.

Classification of X Capacitors

Table 3.1

Y-capacitor

Class Y capacitors (Y capacitors for short) are capacitors for an

insulating voltage 250 V with high electrical and mechanical reliability and
limited capacitance. The enhanced electrical and mechanical reliability are
intended to eliminate short-circuits in the capacitor.
Limitation of the capacitance is intended to reduce the current passing
through the capacitor when AC voltage is applied and to reduce the energy
content of the capacitor to a limit that is not dangerous when DC voltage is
applied.

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 Y capacitors are used in electrical equipment and machines to bridge
operational insulation that provides safety, in connection with additional
protective measures, in order to avert danger to humans and animals.

Classification of Y Capacitors

Table 3.2

Common Mode and Differential Mode inductors

The common mode and differential mode inductors are integral part of
most EMI filters; its very high impedance over a wide frequency range
suppresses high frequency power supply spikes.
The basic parameters needed for the inductor design are input current,
impedance, and frequency. Input current determines the size of the
conductor needed for the windings. Four hundred amps per square
centimeter is a common design value for calculating wire size, but may be
altered depending upon the acceptable temperature rise of the inductor.
Single stranded wire is almost always used because it is the least expensive

35
and it helps contribute to the noise attenuation through high frequency skin
effect losses.
The impedance of the inductor is normally specified as a minimum
value at a given frequency. This impedance, in series with the line
impedance, will provide desired noise attenuation.
3.2. EXISTING TECHNIQUES
In today’s approach, trial and error methods are used often to find the
suppression solution. While this is ultimately successful, it is time-
consuming, expensive and often is difficult to achieve optimized results. For
a cost-effective and time saving approach, the EMI characteristics of the
SMPS need to be analyzed at an early stage.
A simple procedure to design filter is using trial and error method to
achieve suppression. In this method, standard value elements are used in the
filter and the performance is measured. Depending on the performance the
value is changed and again the performance is noted. The main disadvantage
is that, the performance cannot be optimized.
Another method is also used in which, the filter elements are found
using the PWM switching frequency and Turns ratio of the transformer. This
also doesn’t provide satisfactory performance.
Both of these two methods, does not consider the EMI performance of
the SMPS. This leads to the poor performance of the designed filter. Thus a
new method involving the EMI performance of the SMPS at an early stage
is devised and used in our project.

3.3 OVER VIEW OF OUR TECHNIQUE

The following are the steps involved in the filter design,
∗ Measurement of suppression level

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 ∗ Selection of cut-off frequency
∗ Selection of Common Mode capacitor and inductor.
∗ Selection of wire size and suitable core.
∗ Selection of DM inductor and capacitor.

3.3.1 MEASUREMENT OF SUPPRESSION LEVEL

In the previous chapter itself, the initial picture of the EMI level in
the Neutral of the power supply has been well analyzed. From that, the
required attenuation at a particular frequency is marked. Once again let us
see the initial EMI response of the SMPS.

Figure 3.1 Initial EMI level in the SMPS

The initial reading shows the level of noise. From this, the peak
value (in dBuV) and its corresponding frequency is noted. This peak value is

37
compared with the CISPR22 standard value. The difference is the required
attenuation.
In our case the maximum noise level is 27dB at 175 kHz with
which a 6dB is included for Head-room. Thus the required attenuation in
our case is 33 dB at 175 kHz.

3.3.2 SELECTION OF CUT-OFF FREQUENCY

Before any filter design, it should be decided how that filter should
respond to a range of frequency. For selection of cut-off frequency, two
parameters are required.
Those are the
∗ Attenuation needed.
∗ Frequency at which the attenuation is needed.
In our case, the attenuation needed is 33db at 175 kHz.

Cut-off frequency for attenuation (A) at frequency (f) is given by,

fc = f * 10(-A/20).

f = 175 kHz
A = 33db
fc = 175 kHz * 10(-33/20)

fc = 26.184 kHz.

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 Once the cut-off frequency for the filter is decided, it is easy to
calculate the parameters of the filter. The number of stages is taken to be
one, in order to reduce the bulkiness and the cost of the filter circuit.
3.3.3 SELECTION OF COMMON MODE CAPACITOR
Here the common mode capacitor is selected by considering the
leakage current that is flowing after the filter implementation. Selection of
the leakage current is based on the application of the filter. For medical
applications the maximum tolerable leakage current value is 0.5 mA.

Leakage current I = 2πFCyV

F = 50Hz
V = 230 V
I = 0.5mA
Thus, Cy = 6900pF

For the cost, bulkiness and availability reasons, 4700pF is used

instead of 6900pF. Now, in the filter circuit, two 4700pF capacitors are used
in such away that one between Line & ground and another one between
Neutral & ground.

3.3.4 SELECTION OF COMMON MODE INDUCTOR

A relationship among the frequency, inductance and the capacitance is
given by the following equation,

L = 1/ (2πfc)2*Cy
fc = 26.184 kHz

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 Cy = 4700pF
Thus, Ly = 7.861 mH
Thus, the common mode inductance and capacitance values are
calculated.

3.3.5 SELECTION OF WIRE SIZE

This is one of the major steps in the filter design. This is done in order
to achieve the required inductance by selecting and winding the coil that is
having the suitable thickness.
Allowed rise in temperature of the coil should be between 15 and 30
Degree Celsius. This can be satisfied by avoiding excessive current intensity.
Cross section area = (πD2)/4 = I/J
where,
D is the Diameter of the wire,
I is the line current which is taken as maximum,
J is the current density which ranges from 5-8 A/mm2.

Using theses values, D is found to range from 0.3mm to 0.9mm.Thus

the selected thickness of the coil is 0.9mm. In order to allow the maximum
current through the coil, a coil having maximum allowable thickness is
selected. Hence 0.9mm thick coil is selected.

3.3.6 SELECTION OF DIFFRENTIAL MODE CAPACITOR.

Largest allowed X capacitor value is 2.2 µF. We use commonly

available 0.22 µF in parallel with 0.1 µF to get a Differential Mode
Capacitance of 0.32 µF.

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3.3.7 DETERMINATION OF NO. OF TURNS

Suitable Core Size is selected for the frequency Range of 150 kHz to
30 MHz (CE). Toroidal core is selected.

Number of turns N = [L/AL] 1/2

where,
L is the inductance value in H,
AL is the per turn inductance in H.
Using an AL of 8.73 µH, the number of turns for achieving 7.86 mH is 30.

3.3.8 SELECTION OF DIFFRENTIAL MODE INDUCTOR

Generally, the differential mode inductance is ranging from 4% to 8%
of the common mode inductance. In some cases, it is suggested that it may
go up to 10% of the common mode inductance.
Thus, in our case the differential mode inductance is ranging from
0.786mH to 3.14mH. This inductance is provided by the common mode
inductor itself. Hence it is not needed to implement the differential mode
inductance separately.

3.4. FILTER IMPLEMENTATION

After designing the filter, it is vital to assemble the components
perfectly and to check whether desired filter response is got by using a
tracking generator in both differential and common mode. After all the
designed values are realized, the components are mounted in single layered
PCB as shown in the Figure 3.2.

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 Figure 3.2 Assembled filter

As it can be seen in the photograph, two inductors have been used to

realize a total of 7.86mH. This is done to reduce the bulkiness of the
inductor. When it is wound on a single core, 30 turns are needed. This
requires a larger core diameter and increases the size of the inductor. To
avoid this, we used two inductors having windings of 14 and 16. Thus the
total inductance is realized and also the size is reduced.

3.5 FILTER RESPONSE

After the filter circuit is assembled, the main task is to check its
operation. This is done to verify its Attenuation characteristics. From this we
can confirm that the filter satisfies our requirements at the required
frequency band.

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The arrangement for getting the filter response is shown below,

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 From the filter response curve, we could find that the attenuation
required for our frequency range is clearly met.
3.5.1. FILTER RESPONSE IN DIFFERENTIAL MODE
The next step involved is to test the filter in Differential Mode. The
experimental arrangement is shown below,

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3.5.2. FILTER RESPONSE IN COMMON MODE
After the filter satisfies the Differential Mode testing, it is tested in
Common Mode. The arrangement for this is as shown below,

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3.6 CONNECTING FILTER TO THE SMPS
After assembling the filter, it should be connected in front of the
SMPS properly as shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.7 Filter connected to the SMPS and Load

Proper care should be taken while connecting the filter to the SMPS.
The Line and Neutral wires are to be connected correctly and the SMPS
should be properly grounded via the filter. This is ensured for proper
operation of the filter and also to avoid shocks.

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 With this the Design Phase is over and the next work is to get Final
Measurement, where in we obtain the Noise levels after the filter is
connected to the SMPS.

47
 FINAL MEASUREMENT
4.1 FINAL MEASUREMENT
Under this phase of the project, we are going to take the final EMI
level in the line generated by the SMPS, after connecting the filter designed
in the previous phase.
Here the same experimental setup as for the initial measurement is
used. The only change will be that the filter is connected to the SMPS
circuit.
Under Final measurement the following tests are done,
∗ Testing Line & Neutral for EMI
∗ Testing in Common Mode and
∗ The Differential Mode for EMI

4.2 LINE AND NEUTRAL MEASUREMENT SETUP

The Line and Neutral test is done using the following equipments.
∗ LISN
∗ EMI Receiver
∗ SMPS with filter circuit

Arrangement of Equipments

The LISN, optimized for pure line and neutral output is connected to
the power supply. The LISN output supplies power to the Filter unit which is

48
in front of the SMPS. Thus a pure AC voltage is ensured at the SMPS input.
LISN is connected also to the EMI receiver.

The experimental setup is made as depicted previously and is

photographed. This photograph is given below.

Figure 4.1 Final Measurement Setup

4.2.1 EMI MEASUREMENT IN LINE

49
 The Line output from the LISN is connected to the EMI receiver.
Then the equipments are switched on and the Final Measurement is
performed on the Line.

Figure 4.2 shows the level of EMI in the Line, generated by the SMPS
after the inclusion of the filter in its input side.

Figure 4.2 Final EMI level in Line of SMPS

4.2.2 EMI MEASUREMENT IN NEUTRAL

Now the LISN is configured to send the signal level in Neutral to the
EMI receiver. Figure 4.3 shows the level of EMI in the Neutral.

50
 Figure 4.3 Final EMI level in Neutral of SMPS
4.3 MEASUREMENT OF DM AND CM NOISES
The SMPS along with the Filter is tested in the two modes for its EMI
level. For measuring the EMI level in common mode, CMNDC (Common
Mode Noise Diagnostic Circuit) is used. For EMI measurement in
differential mode, the DMNDC (Differential Mode Noise Diagnostic
Circuit) is used. The experimental setup for these is shown in Figure 4.4.

51
 Figure 4.4 Measurement of CM and DM Noise
The experimental setups for CM and DM noise measurement are
same, except that for DM, DMNDC is used and for CM, CMNDC is used.
The Final EMI levels of DM Noise and CM Noise are obtained as shown in
the Figure 4.5 and 4.6 respectively.

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Figure 4.5 Final DM Noise levels

Figure 4.6 Final CM Noise levels

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 CONCLUSION
5.1. CONCLUSION
Successfully, the EMI level in both the Line and Neutral, generated by
the SMPS has been restricted well below the threshold level, which is

54
specified by the CISPR22 standard for IT products, by using an external
boxed filter.

5.2. ADVANTAGES OF EXTERNAL BOXED FILTER

Noise suppression in SMPS often is considered a necessary evil.

Maximum suppression with minimum space requirements and no additional
temperature rise is expected at the lowest possible cost. The common
discussion arises whether suppression should be realized onboard with
discrete components or with external boxed filters.
Discrete components offer flexibility in terms of fast design changes
at lower material cost. They can be placed easily on the PCB and usually
take less space. This sometimes conflicts with the rules for proper EMC
design.
Comparatively boxed filters are optimized in terms of EMC design
and supplement the suppression effects of the components by additional
shielding of the box. However, they take up a little bit more space and come
at a higher material cost.
In a useful comparison between the two solutions, do not forget the
administrative cost. While the material cost is lower for discrete
components, the administrative work increases. Several components need to
be stocked, and several suppliers need to be administered. A decision based
solely on material cost is not always the most reasonable approach.

SMPS, by definition, produce high amounts of electromagnetic noise.

The parasitic components of the MOSFET switches as well as the equivalent
series inductance (ESL) and equivalent series resistance (ESR) of all

55
components lead to high-frequency interference, which exceeds common
EMC limits and can cause functional problems. DM noise, typically in the
lower frequency range and associated with the switching frequency, and CM
noise, relating to the higher frequency range, need sophisticated suppression
solutions. Here size, cost, and efficiency of the suppression circuit top the
list of requirements.
While the switching frequencies of SMPS are continuously
increasing, the market demands a constant decrease of size, price, and
development times. The development cycle typically is so short that
engineers must optimize their functional designs quickly. Implementing the
necessary noise suppression adds another factor to the equation that can
increase development time.
The ongoing discussion is whether suppression should be done with
discrete components or external boxed filters. While discrete solutions look
less expensive in the beginning, this often is a false conclusion. Considering
the total cost of ownership and performance, a boxed filter generally is a
better solution.
One additional advantage of a boxed filter can be seen here: The
housing works like an additional shield for high frequency and prevents
coupling of noise signals at the power entry module. While the good result
with the filter components in the box might look random and coincidental, it
is the result of simulation and good engineering practice combined with
experience.

5.3. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

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