Acknowledgment We would like to express our gratitude for the unconditional support of the Librarian of Arya Vidya Mandir,

Santacruz, Birju Kotecha, LLB, New Caslte University, United Kingdom and Mrs. Neeta Tandon, Senior History teacher, Arya Vidya Mandir without whose support it would not have been possible to complete this project.

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Index Introduction to Social Stratification Constitutional Gurantee Defination of Constitution The Fundamental Law of the land Fundamental Rights Six Fundamental Rights Rights and Duties Defence of Rights Commitments by various Government Human Rights Introduction to Human Rights Justification Significance Violations of Human Rights Organizations Human Rights in the New Millennium Human Right Laws Conclusion Bibliography

(Introduction to be put)

Constitutional Guarantee Constitution Its a set of doctrines and practices that form the fundamental organizing principle of a political state. At the close of 20th century, when humanity has come this far that everyone can vote irrespective of gender, colour, religion and so on, most people

continue to remain in the margins when it comes to the equality of rights and duties, the right to be elected and elect, their means of livelihood, their languages and culture, etc. These are all matters that pertain to the constitutional law, the political system, the form of government and state power defended by the fundamental law. India is a Democracy, that is, a Government by the people and for the people. In a democracy, people are supposed to be their own masters. They have an inalienable right to rule themselves or to be ruled in a way they like and by the people they choose. The Indian Constitution is said to be a model constitution. Everyone is entitled to Human Rights without discrimination of any kind. The non-discrimination principle is a fundamental rule of international law. This means that Human Rights are for all human beings, regardless of "race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status". Non-discrimination protects individuals and groups against the denial and violation of their Human Rights. To deny Human Rights on the grounds of cultural distinction is discriminatory. Human Rights are intended for everyone, in every culture. The Fundamental Law of the land Its significance is in the issue of livelihood, persecution, rights and well-being of the people who are directly linked to the fundamental law or the constitution. For example, if the fundamental law establishes that all citizens have equal rights and duties, laws have to be passed to turn this into reality. The equal right to elect and be elected, for example, requires laws, which will make it possible for people to present themselves for election with equal effectiveness regardless of whether they are rich or not.

Fundamental Rights The Fundamental Rights represent the basic values cherished by the people and they are formulated to protect the dignity of the individual and create conditions in every human being can develop his personality to the fullest extent. They give a pattern of guarantee on the basic structure of Human Rights and impose negative obligations on the State not to encroach on individual liberties. The Fundamental Rights embodied in the Indian constitution are guaranteed to all Indian citizens. These civil liberties take precedence over any other law of the land. They include individual rights common to most liberal democracies, such as equality before the law, freedom of speech and expression, freedom of association and peaceful assembly, freedom of religion, and the right to constitutional remedies for the protection of civil rights such as habeas corpus. In addition, the Fundamental Rights for Indians are aimed at undoing the inequities of past social practices. They abolish "untouchability"; prohibit discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth; and forbid traffic in human beings and forced labor. They go beyond conventional civil liberties in protecting cultural and educational rights of minorities by ensuring that minorities may preserve their distinctive languages and establish and administer their own education institutions. Originally, the right to property was also included in the Fundamental Rights; however, the Forty-fourth Amendment, passed in 1978, revised the status of property rights by stating that "No person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of

law." Freedom of speech and expression, generally interpreted to include freedom of the press, can be limited "in the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence" There are Six broad categories in which the Fundamental rights are divided: 1.The Right to Equality Equality is the foundation of our democratic system in which all men are equal. The right to Equality seeks to secure for all citizens, the same human rights-legal, civic and social. The Right to Equality includes: Equality before law It means that the State shall not deny any person equality before the law or the equal protection of law within the territory of India. All individuals are equal in the eyes of the law. Prohibition of Discrimination The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds of religion, caste, sex or place of birth. On these grounds no citizen can be refused access to shops, public places, wells, tanks and other places. Special arrangements are made for children, women, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Since, India is a culturally diverse country provisions have been made in our Constitution to protect a persons individuality. Constitutional and Legislative Measures for the Welfare of the Scheduled Castes: The Constitution ensures protection and assures the promotion of interests of the SC in the fields of a) Political representation b) Representation in services

c) Economic development d) Socio-cultural safeguards e) Legal support Measures for the upliftment of the Scheduled Tribes: The Constitution safeguards them by a) Instructing the administration to take special care to protect tribal interests in Scheduled Tracts or areas. b) Having reservations in employment areas, legislature etc. c) Protect the economic and educational interests of the tribals. d) The Centre is required to give grants-in-aid to the States for schemes of tribal welfare. Equality of Opportunity There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to an office under the State. This article does not restrict the reservation of posts for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Backward Classes, which is done so as to bring these weaker sections of the society at par with the advanced communities of the country. Equality of Opportunity guarantees selection on the basis of merit. Abolition of Untouchability and the System of Titles It is enforced to end the inhuman practices of treating certain fellow human beings as dirty and untouchables by reason of their birth. Constitutional and Legislative measures for the Removal of Untouchability: a) The practice of untouchability is a punishable offence, under the Untouchability Offenses Act, 1955. The System of Titles law prohibits the state to confer titles on anybody whether an Indian national or foreign person, exception is made in case of military and academic distinctions.

2.The Right to Freedom It includes the right to protection of life and personal liberty. The right to freedom of speech and expression-one is free to say and do as he/she wishes; assembly, association or union-one can meet up at any place and do as he wishes without breaking the law; movement and to reside and settle in any part of India-travel anywhere without any restrictions and the right to practice any profession or occupation. 3.The Right against Exploitation It prohibits all form of forced labour and child labour. As most of our population is under the age group of below 18,this law was necessary to be formed. It restricts the perpetrators in freely doing so. 4.The Right to Freedom It ensures free profession, practice and propagation of religion. In a nation, where people of different religions live together, this law ensures that we retain our culture. Also, one gets to increase the tolerance levels. 5.The Right to Minorities It helps to conserve their culture, language and script and to establish and administer educational institutions of their own choice. They are given a social standing in this society. Its helpful in a way as they arent bullied and over-shadowed by the other classes. 6.The Right to Constitutional Remedies

Its for the enforcement of all these fundamental rights. Also, it creates an environment where there is room for improvement. Rights and duties For every right that a person has there is usually a duty that is connected to that right. There is a general duty to respect and be tolerant of other people's rights. The state also has duties in terms of rights. These are examples of some rights and duties:

The right to be equal before the law Your duty: to respect other people even if they are different to you, and to accept that they are equal to you. The state's duty: to make laws apply equally to everyone regardless of their race, colour, gender and so on.

The right to life Your duty: not to hurt someone so as to threaten their life. The state's duty: to pass a law to stop the death sentence.

Right to freedom and security of the person Your duty: not to abuse your partner or children in the privacy of your home. The state's duty: to ban the use of torture to get information from people.

No slavery or forced labour

Your duty: not to allow your children to go to work when they are very young. The state's duty: to pass a law that sets a minimum wage and age for people who are working.

Right to privacy Your duty: to knock on someone's door before entering their home. The state's duty: to keep people's information about themselves private and confidential, for example a woman who wants to have an abortion should know that this information will be kept private.

Freedom of assembly, demonstration, picket and petition Your duty: not to carry a gun or dangerous weapon in a march or demonstration. The state's duty: to make it safe and secure for people who want to have a demonstration, for example by diverting traffic, and confiscating guns and weapons.

Freedom of movement and residence Your duty: to accept anyone who comes and lives next door to you as your neighbour. The state's duty: to issue passports and identity documents to all citizens who apply.

Right to education Your duty: to send all your children to school. The state's duty: to build enough schools and provide enough teachers so that everyone can go to school and get a proper education.

Right of access to health care, food, water, social security

Your duty: to look after and care for public water pumps and to keep these in proper working order not to pollute rivers that people are using for drinking water to throw household litter in a proper place away from people's homes to pay rates and duties for services to the municipal council

The state's duty: to provide a rubbish removal service to all communities to provide clean running water to all communities not to turn people away from hospitals if they need care

Right to a clean environment Your duty: not to throw rubbish on the ground. The state's duty: to pass laws that stop factories from dumping their rubbish into our rivers. Defence of Rights

One of the most important aspects of any constitution relates to the defence of rights. The issue of rights is the most crucial issue in the Constitution. Any modern constitution must begin by declaring that all human beings have rights because they are human. There can be no pretext what so ever to violate these rights in a democratic state

and constitutions have to create the kind of state and government so that this is accomplished. By defining rights as belonging to the beholder, which cannot be taken away nor given, the constitution will enable every member of the polity to enforce it through courts if it is encroached upon by the state. Commitments by various Governments The legal obligation for all States is to promote "universal respect for, and observance and protection of, all Human Rights and fundamental freedoms for all". Many countries have undertaken to comply with all the existing Human Rights obligations related to the right to education. States guarantee free and compulsory primary education to all children, without any reservations. Governments have agreed to adopt and implement national legislation to end violence against women, to provide shelters, legal aid and other services for girls and women at risk, and counseling and rehabilitation for perpetrators.

Human Rights Introduction Human Rights refers to the concept of human beings as having universal rights, or status, regardless of legal jurisdiction or other localizing factors, such as ethnicity and nationality. As is evident in the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Human Rights, at least in the post-war period, are conceptualized as based on inherent human dignity, retaining their universal and inalienable character. The existence, validity and the content of Human Rights continue

to be the subject to debate in philosophy and political science. Legally, Human Rights are defined in International law and covenants, and further, in the domestic laws of many states. However, for many people the doctrine of Human Rights goes beyond law and forms a fundamental moral basis for regulating the contemporary geo-political order. For them, they are democratic ideals. Human Rights are sometimes divided into negative and positive rights. Negative Human Rights denote actions that a Government should not take. These include Right to Life and security of person; Freedom from slavery; Equality before the law and due process under the rule of law; freedom of movement; and freedoms of speech, religion and assembly. Positive Human Rights denote rights that the state is obliged to protect and provide. Examples of such rights include: the rights to education, to a livelihood, to legal equality Justification of Human Rights Numerous theoretical approaches have been advanced to explain how Human Rights became a part of the social expectations. The biological theory considers the comparative reproductive advantage of human social behavior based on empathy and altruism in the context of natural selection. Other theories hold that Human Rights codify moral behavior, which is a human, social product developed by a process of biological and social evolution (associated with Hume) or as a sociological pattern of rule setting (as in the sociological theory of law and the work of Weber). This approach includes the notion that individuals in a society accept rules from legitimate authority in exchange for security and economic advantage. On the other hand, natural law theories set Human Rights on the natural moral order that derives from religious precepts such as common understandings of justice and the belief that moral

behavior is a set of objectively valid prescriptions. Some have used religious texts such as the Bible and Qur'an to support Human Rights arguments. The contemporary significance of human rights Human rights have been defined as 'basic moral guarantees that people in all countries and cultures allegedly have simply because they are people. Calling these guarantees "rights" suggests that they attach to particular individuals who can invoke them, that they are of high priority, and that compliance with them is mandatory. Human rights are frequently held to be universal in the sense that all people have and should enjoy them, and to be independent in the sense that they exist and are available as standards of justification and criticism whether or not they are recognized and implemented by the legal system or officials of a country.' The moral doctrine of human rights aims at identifying the fundamental prerequisites for each human being leading a minimally good life. Human rights aim to identify both the necessary negative and positive prerequisites for leading a minimally good life, such as rights against torture and rights to health care. As James Nickel states, human rights aim to secure for individuals the necessary conditions for leading a minimally good life. Public authorities, both national and international, are identified as typically best placed to secure these conditions Violations of Human Rights Human Rights Violations is abuse of people in a way that it abuses any fundamental Human Rights. It is a term used when a Government violates National or International law related to the protection of Human Rights. According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Fundamental Human Rights are violated when:

A certain race, creed, or group is denied recognition as a "person". (Article 2) Men and women are not treated as equal. (Article 2) Different racial or religious groups are not treated as equal. (Article 2) Life, liberty or security of person are threatened. (Article 3) A person is sold as or used as a slave. (Article 4) Cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment is used on a person (such as torture or execution). (Article 5) (See also Prisoners' rights) Punishments are dealt arbitrarily or unilaterally, without a proper and fair trial. (Article 11) Arbitrary interference into personal, or private lives by agents of the state. (Article 12) Citizens are forbidden to leave their country. (Article 13) Freedom of speech or religion are denied. (Articles 18 & 19) The right to join a trade union is denied. (Article 23) Education is denied. (Article 26) Monitoring Human Rights violations and abuses include those documented by non-governmental organizations such as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, Freedom House, International Freedom of Expression Exchange and Anti-Slavery International. Only a very few countries do not commit significant Human Rights violations, according to Amnesty International. In their 2004 Human Rights report (covering 2003) the Netherlands, Norway, Denmark, Iceland and Costa Rica are the only countries that did not violate at least some Human Rights significantly. Some people believe Human Rights abuses are more common in dictatorships or theocracies than in democracies because freedom of speech and freedom of the press tend to uncover state orchestrated abuse and expose it. Nonetheless Human Rights abuses do occur in democracies. For example, the Macpherson report found that the British police had been institutionally racist in

the handling of the death of Stephen Lawrence. Also Amnesty International has called the running of Guantanamo Bay detainment camp by the United States "a Human Rights scandal" in a series of reports. The Various Types of Violations The number of deaths related to combat and the collateral damage caused by warfare are only a small part of the tremendous amount of suffering and devastation caused by conflicts. Over the course of protracted conflict, assaults on political rights and the fundamental right to life are typically widespread. Some of the gravest violations of the right to life are massacres, the starvation of entire populations, and genocide. Genocide is commonly understood as the intentional extermination of a single ethnic, racial, or religious group. Killing group members, causing them serious bodily or mental harm, imposing measures to prevent birth, or forcibly transferring children are all ways to bring about the destruction of a group. Genocide is often regarded as the most offensive crime against humanity. The term "war crime" refers to a violation of the rules of jus in bello (justice in war) by any individual, whether military or civilian. The laws of armed conflict prohibit attacks on civilians and the use of weapons that cause unnecessary suffering or longterm environmental damage. Other war crimes include taking hostages, firing on localities that are undefended and without military significance, such as hospitals or schools, inhuman treatment of prisoners, including biological experiments, and the pillage or purposeless destruction of property. Although clearly outlawed by International law, such war crimes are common. According to Kofi Annan, Secretary-General of the United Nations, it is increasingly true that "the main aim...[of conflicts]... is the destruction not of armies but of civilians and entire ethnic groups." Women and girls are often raped or forced into prostitution. For a long time, the International community has failed to address the

problem of sexual violence during armed conflict. However, sexual assaults, which often involve sexual mutilation, sexual humiliation, and forced pregnancy, are quite common. Such crimes are motivated in part by the long-held view that women are the "spoils" of war to which soldiers are entitled. Trafficking in women is a form of sexual slavery in which women are transported across national borders and marketed for prostitution. These socalled "comfort women" are another example of institutionalized sexual violence against women during wartime. Sexual violence is sometimes viewed as a way to destroy male and community pride or humiliate men who cannot "protect" their women. It is also used to silence women who are politically active, or simply inflict terror upon the population at large. Mass rapes may also form part of a genocidal strategy, designed to impose conditions that lead to the destruction of an entire group of people. For example, during the 1990s, the media reported that "rape and other sexual atrocities were a deliberate and systematic part of the Bosnian Serb campaign for victory in the war" in the former Yugoslavia. Rather than simply killing off whole populations, government forces may carry out programs of torture. Torture can be either physical or psychological, and aims at the "humiliation of the dignity of the person. Physical torture might include mutilation, beatings, and electric shocks to lips, gums, and genitals. In psychological torture, detainees are sometimes deprived of food and water for long periods, kept standing upright for hours, deprived of sleep, or tormented by high-level noise. Torture is used in some cases as a way to carry out interrogations and extract confessions or information. Today, it is increasingly used as a means of suppressing political and ideological dissent, or for punishing political opponents who do not share the ideology of the ruling group. In addition to torture, tens of thousands of people detained in connection with conflicts "disappear" each year, and are usually

killed and buried in secret. Government forces "take people into custody, hold them in secret, and then refuse to acknowledge responsibility for their whereabouts or fate. This abduction of persons is typically intended to secure information and spread terror. In most cases, interrogations involve threats and torture, and those who are arrested are subsequently killed. Corpses are buried in unmarked graves or left at dumpsites in an attempt to conceal acts of torture of those in custody. Because people disappear without any trace, families do not know whether their loved ones are alive or dead causing mental anguish. Various lesser forms of political oppression are often enacted as well. Individuals who pose a threat to those in power or do not share their political views may be arbitrarily imprisoned, and either never brought to trial or subject to grossly unfair trial procedures. Mass groups of people may be denied the right to vote or excluded from all forms of political participation. Or, measures restricting people's freedom of movement may be enforced. These include forcible relocations and mass expulsions. Political oppression may also take the form of discrimination. When this occurs, basic rights may be denied on the basis of religion, ethnicity, race, or gender. Apartheid, which denies political rights on the basis of race, is perhaps one of the most severe forms of discrimination. In South Africa Certain individuals were held to be inferior by definition, and not regarded as full human beings under the law. The laws established under this system aimed at social control, and brought about a society divided along racial lines and characterized by a systematic disregard for Human Rights. In addition, women are uniquely vulnerable to certain types of Human Rights abuses -- in addition to the sexual abuse , discrimination against women is prevalent in many parts of the world and leads to various forms of political and social oppression. This includes strict dress codes and harsh punishments for sexual "transgressions," which impose severe limitations on women's basic liberties. In addition, women in some regions (Africa , for

example) suffer greater poverty than men and are denied political influence, education, and job training.

Amnesty International Amnesty International (commonly known as Amnesty or AI) is an international non-governmental human rights organization with the stated purpose of promoting all the human rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other international standards.AI seeks to inform the public about violations of human rights,especially abridgements of freedom of speecyh and religion and the imprisonment and torture of political dissidents. In particular, Amnesty International campaigns to free all prisoners of conscience; to ensure fair and prompt trials for political prisoners; to abolish the death penalty, torture, and other treatment of prisoners held by international law to be cruel or inhumane; to end political killings and forced disappearances; and to oppose all human rights abuses, whether committed by governments or by other groups. In addition, it has recently expanded its campaigns to include "economic, social and cultural rights". Amnesty International has a long history of pursuing neutrality within the context of its campaigning for the protection of human rights. The organization officially describes itself as "independent of any government, political ideology, economic interest or religion. It does not support or oppose any government or political system, nor does it support or oppose the views of the victims whose rights it seeks to protect. It is concerned solely with the impartial protection of human rights. It was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1977 for its work defending human rights around the world.

Amnesty International was founded in 1961 by Peter Benenson a london lawyer. Diana Redhouse, located at London, Great Britain, designed Amnesty's Candle and Barbed-Wire logo, based on a old Chinese phrase: Better to light a candle than curse the darkness. In its early years, Amnesty focused only on articles 18 and 19 of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights those dealing with political prisoners, or more precisely, prisoners of conscience who espoused non-violence. Amnesty International was in particular a thorn in the side of the Soviet Union; they published detailed reports both of conditions in Soviet prisons and of how the Soviet political system as a whole was structured to prevent dissent and political freedom. Amnesty was also very active in condemning oppressive regimes which committed murders, disappearances, extrajudicial killings, and outright massacres against their own citizens. For example, the September/October 1988 newsletter's lead article was an appeal to the United Nations Security Council to "act immediately to stop the massacre of Kurdish civilians by Iraqi forces" under Saddam Hussein. Goals and strategy AI aims to maintain every human's basic rights as established under the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights. In accordance with this belief, Amnesty works to:

Free all Prisoners of Conscience (a "POC" is a person imprisoned for the peaceful exercise of their beliefs, which differs somewhat from the typical use of the term political prisoner, but not including persons whose beliefs Amnesty International define as "hate speech"). Ensure fair and prompt trials. Abolish all forms of torture and ill-treatment of prisoners, including the use of the death penalty. End state-sanctioned terrorism, killings, and disappearances.

Assist political asylum-seekers. End all forms of violence against women Co-operate with organizations that seek to put an end to human rights abuses. Raise awareness about human rights abuses around the world.

Their mission statement is : "to undertake research and action focused on preventing and ending grave abuses of the rights to physical and mental integrity, freedom of conscience and expression, and freedom from discrimination in the context of our work to promote all human rights, as articulated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights." They follow their mission statement by obtaining funding and support from other people. To fulfil these goals, Amnesty sends teams of researchers to investigate claims of human rights abuses. It publicizes its findings and mobilizes its members to lobby against the abuse by letterwriting (to various government officials), protesting, demonstrating, organizing fund-raisers, educating the public about the offence, or sometimes all of the above. AI members and supporters are said to be one million people in some 140 countries. Example: Irene Khan-AI secretary general Their campaigns: Stop violence against women Control arms Stop terror and ill-treatment in the war on terror. PARTICULARS OF NHRCS ORGANIZATION, FUNCTIONS AND DUTIES The National Human Rights Commission was set up in the year 1993 under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993. The NHRC

has the following constituent Divisions:a. Law Division: It deals with the matters relating to Human Rights violations either on its own or on a request by a party, provides hearing to the parties in appropriate cases depending upon the facts and circumstances of each case. b. Investigation Division: It deals with the matters/cases entrusted to it by the Commission including custodial death and finding facts from state authorities regarding cases of alleged Human Rights violations and conducting sport enquiries. c. Administration Division: It deals with the overall management of General Administration, Establishment, Accounts and Hindi Sections. d. Policy Research Projects and Programme Division: It deals with the matters relating to Policy, Research, Projects and Programme such as Abolition of Bonded Labour and Child Labour. Quality Assurance in Mental Hospitals, Monitoring of working of Protection Homes, Jails etc. e. Information & Public Relations Division: The important function of the I& PR Division is to create Human Rights awareness through print/electronic media, website and printing of various publications, advocacy materials etc. f. Training Division:

It deals with need of training in the different categories of officials and non-officials, Institutions/ organizations etc. Networking with National/State level Institutions (both Government/ NonGovernment/ UN Institutions) etc. g. National Informatics Centre : NHRC It deals with the preparation of software programmes for the Commission. 2. THE POWERS AND DUTIES OF ITS OFFICERS AND EMPLOYEES The Commission functions as per the powers given to it under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993. 3. PROCEDURE FOLLOWED IN THE DECISION MAKING PROCESS, INCLUDING CHANNELS OF SUPERVISION AND ACCOUNTABILITY: The cases are, generally, processed at the Section/Desk level and the files are submitted to Under Secretary/Deputy Secretary/Director/Joint Secretary/ Secretary General/Chairperson, as per the requirement of each case. In the Law Division: the cases are generally processed at the Section level and the files are submitted to Assistant Registrar (Law)/Deputy Registrar (Law)/ Joint Registrar (Law)/ Registrar (Law)/ Members/ Chairperson, as per the requirement of each case. 4. NORMS SET BY NHRC FOR THE DISCHARGE OF ITS FUNCTIONS: The complaints are prioritized and efforts are made to deal with the

cases as expeditiously as possible in accordance with the rules, regulations and other instructions issued from time to time. Human Rights in the New Millennium Human Rights issues are taking on new focus in the new millennium. Economic and Social Rights are a paramount concern as the link between adequate and inadequate living standards. Governmental and Non-Governmental organizations are realizing that some countries take precedent over other countries when it comes to Human Rights. In the new millennium, cases that violate Human Rights are being taken more serious than ever before. International prosecution against individuals and corporations will take place if Human Rights charges are brought against them. Human Rights have been an issue in the International community since the beginning of time. Many bills and declarations have been written to distinguish what rights humans have by nature and what constitutes a Human Rights violation. Human Rights have and will continue to be a serious issue and concern of the International community. Poverty, Rights of women and children, and corporate and military involvement are only some of the issues that Human Rights involve. Human Rights law The foundations of this body of law are the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the General Assembly in 1948. Since then, the United Nations has gradually expanded Human Rights law to encompass specific standards for women, children, disabled persons, minorities, migrant workers and other vulnerable groups, who now possess rights that protect them from discriminatory practices that had long been common in many societies. Rights have been extended through groundbreaking General Assembly decisions that have

gradually established their universality, indivisibility and interrelatedness with development and democracy. Human Rights action Education campaigns have tirelessly informed the worlds public of their inalienable rights, while numerous national judicial and penal systems have been enhanced with United Nations training programmes and technical advice. The United Nations machinery to monitor compliance with Human Rights covenants has acquired a remarkable cohesiveness and weight among Member States. The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights works to strengthen and coordinate United Nations work for the protection and promotion of all Human Rights of all persons around the world. The Secretary-General has made Human Rights the central theme that unifies the Organizations work in the key areas of peace and security, development, humanitarian assistance and economic and social affairs. conclusion Human rights have a long historical heritage. The principal philosophical foundation of human rights is a belief in the existence of a form of justice valid for all peoples, everywhere. In this form, the contemporary doctrine of human rights has come to occupy centre stage in geo-political affairs. The language of human rights is understood and utilized by many peoples in very diverse circumstances. Human rights have become indispensable to the contemporary understanding of how human beings should be treated, by one another and by national and international political bodies. Human rights are best thought of as potential moral guarantees for each human being to lead a minimally good life. The extent to which this aspiration has not been realized represents a gross failure by the contemporary world to institute a morally compelling order based upon human rights. The philosophical

basis of human rights has been subjected to consistent criticism. While some aspects of the ensuing debate between philosophical supporters and opponents of human rights remain unresolved and, perhaps, irresolvable, the general case for human rights remains a morally powerful one. Arguably, the most compelling motivation for the existence of human may rest upon the exercise of imagination. Try imagining a world without human rights!