UNIT 1

NATURE OF SCIENCE
Definition:Science was considered as invention of new thing, the discovery of wonders, introduction of some weapon (introduction). Definition:Science is a field that is constantly adapting to new advances in basic knowledge of medicine, technology, agriculture etc. Definition:Science is the human enterprise through which we understand the biological and physical aspect of development. This involves the development of concept or ideas that enables us:- In relating situation, objects, events to linked together - In making sense of new experiments Definition:Science is the systemize knowledge which is obtained through observation and experiment. Definition (Troubridge):Science is body of knowledge formed by continuous inquiry. Definition:Science is the social institute whose goal is the extension of certified knowledge. Definition:Science is the body of knowledge and ongoing self testing process of inquiry. CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENCE: Intellectual activity Testability Objectivity Consistency Hypothesis / prediction Observation Scientific inquiry Tentativeness

Intellectual activity Science defers in several ways from other scholarly inquires such as literature, criticism, historical writing or the development of philosophical or religious prospective. Testability Observation and inferences about science are based on natural world. An explanation should suggest a crucial experiment fact or empirical observation that can settle the controversy between items. Objectivity The observation made through senses are subjective and approaches each problem with certain explicit and implicit ideas about what we are looking for and possible outcomes of our investigation. One good objectivity of science is respectability of science which means any observation is repeatable and capable of being confined or rejected by other scientists. Consistency A scientific explanation does more than proving a plausible account. It must agree with all observable facts better than alternative explanation too and show an explicit connection between cost and effect. Hypothesis / prediction It is a statement based on previous observations that can be tested scientifically. Scientist build expectation on tremendous pre-existing body of observation, facts, inferences, hypothesis and theories. Thesis are broadly based concept that make senses of observation and experimentation. Observation Science is based upon observations that we gained through our senses on which the scientific work is based. When observation is confirmed or found to be repeated it becomes fact and its absolute certainty is only accepted when it is confirmed by scientific experimentation. Scientific inquiry Old theories are replaced by new theories as it explain all the thing or phenomenon but old theories was found enable to do so. The new theory can also be modified or replaced by another theory, this is how science proceeds. Tentativeness Although science knowledge is supported by huge data from repeated trial, but it is not considered as the final word. Scientist continuously tests and challenges the previous assumption and findings. This is a human endeavor and fundamental uncertainty is wider to studies and basis for the great discovers. TWO VIEW POINTS ABOUT SCIENCE:Science is the word comes out from Scientia that means knowledge (direct or indirect observation, scientific, inquiry and asking questions, drawing inferences from general

observation, recording observation, collection of data and background knowledge, developing ways and means to find answer to different problem). According to Conant there are two viewpoints about science:(i) Static c vies / product (ii) Dynamic view / process (i) Static views It includes the present interconnected sets of principles, laws, and theories together with the systematic information. Another words, It is the way of explaining universe in which we are living. Product:The knowledge aspect of science which is based on factual knowledge is called product. (ii) Dynamic view Science is an activity that present state of knowledge is of important as a basis for future operations. So science is both the knowledge and the way of acquiring it. Process:The outgoing behavior is based upon observation and experimentation is a process.
Product Science Process Experimentation & Observation Factual Knowledge

SCIENCE AS A PRODUCT It means that science is the body of information or body of knowledge. It is often thought as a body of established facts obtained by the scientific using the scientific method. Science information includes facts, generalization and theories. The theories and generalization are liable to change, while facts are truths unchangeable. Main point of Static View:A scientific fact is directly observable and can be demonstrable any time. What fact accumulate, they may show patterns of relationships. A statement that is most important among them is generalization. Many generalizations are based on so many observation or facts, so these generalization are known as principles and laws. A theory is defined as proposal explanation of a set of conditions, event, unproved but are usually supported by strong evidences. A hypothesis is some time synonymously used but is usually reserved for an explanation that has not been tested. All abovementioned aspects of science available in written and all the invention constitute the static view of science or product of science.

SCIENCE AS A PROCESS Dynamic view: It scientific subject area the knowledge is organized with various scheme determined by scientific process such as observation, measurement, experimentation and other experimental procedures to called scientific knowledge. The product of continuous process of inquiry is scientific knowledge that characterized the science teaching. To think science is a body of organized knowledge to conceive it for being static. This understanding ignores the investigation and the method of exploring knowledge. Science as a human activity is dynamic and it based on scientific investigation. When scientist questions explore or experiments, they demonstrate the inquiry nature of science. The recorded knowledge of science is history produced by men and women using scientific process. Teachers have emphasized this product of science but have often failed to give students and understanding of the means of problem solving which is the main aim of science education. This view point stress on dynamic and ongoing behavior of science that focus attention on the scientific inquiry of scientific methods which are (i) Problem stated. (ii) Observation relevant to the problem are collected. (iii) A hypothesis consisted with the observation is formulated. (iv) Prediction of the observable phenomenon is reduced from the hypothesis. (v) Occurrence or non-occurrence predicted phenomenon is reserved. (vi) The hypothesis is accepted, modified or rejected in accordance with the degree of the fulfillment of the prediction. BASIC SCIENTIFIC SKILLS Specific method followed for the search of truth in responsible to the observation collected form world around. (i) Observation The first step of scientific method is making observation and this observation can be done with naked eye or different resources. The most basic resource is human senses. (ii) (iii) Hypothesis The second step of scientific inquiry based upon observations known as hypothesis. Experiment The practical work used to test or choice to test or check the truth of hypotheses made.

(iv)

Theory: After successful experiment of phenomenon and relate close to our general observations this is called theory. If the experiment fails, the observation are once again taken into concern and are modified and the phenomenon are experimentized and re-experimentized to modify the result and gain the best result.

OBSERVATION

HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT

MAKING OF DEDUCTIION

PERFORM EXPERIMENTATION

CONTROLLED

UNCONTROLLED

DEDUCED RESULTS

HYPOTHESIS PROVED

NOT SUGGESTED

SUPPORTED / SUGGESTED

NO FURTHER RESEARCH NEEDED

THEORY

LAW / PRINCIPLE (WRITTEN THESIS)

(v)

Prediction In response to the present knowledge the future knowledge is predicted that this knowledge can be modified and developed in future. (v) Law or principle:If the experimental results are in accordance to the predictions then it is the law. Scientific skills or process or methods that we use in scientific investigation. Mental activities and some physical aspects or also called scientific process Scientific skills are also called scientific indicators. Scientific skills involves:(i) Accurate and precise description that is the explanation of science is common to the points. (ii) Classification of categorizing different steps on the basis of its function.

(iii) Repetition is the test or retest or the quality of science to prove understanding and assumptions of experiments. (iv) Consensus is knowing the opinions and drawing the conclusions on the basis of data obtained through these opinions of people. (v) Experimentation is to perform experiments for priority.

(vi) Measurements are the particular kind of description with the involvement of mathematical representation and calculation.

UNIT 2

GOALS, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

GOALS Goals are broad statements that give a general direction to classroom instruction as they are broad, they have advantages of relating many aspects of society and education. Due to their broad nature, they are achieved after a long time. AIMS Aims are narrow as compared the goals, they are the targets to achieve the goals. Aims are broader than objectives, they are long ranged as compare to objectives but narrow if compared the goals. OBJECTIVES These are best thought of as the extended outcomes of educational process. They are highly specific and short term. BLOOMS TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES Taxonomy of educational objective is a scheme for classifying education objectives in some particular order. Bloom and his associates divide the objectives into three areas:a) Cognitive Domain b) Affective Domain c) Psychomotor Domain

COGNITIVE DOMAIN
It includes objectives, dealing with knowledge and intellectual abilities cognitive domain is subdivided into six categories. (i) Knowledge It is the recall of learnt material that provide base of new concept. (ii) Comprehension The capability to grasp the meanings of reading materials. To comprehend a material to know the information conveyed in the material. This may involve the translation of material from one from to another or exploring and summarizing materials. (iii) Application The capability to use learnt materials in new and concrete situation. This may include the application of rules, principles, laws, methods and concept etc. (iv) Analysis The ability to break down material into its components so that is organizational structure may be understood.

(v)

Synthesis The ability to combine together the separated parts to form a new whole or to arrange them in a new and meaningful pattern. (vi) Evaluation The judgment of the value of the learnt materials in education, the judgment of students knowledge behavior or other assessment of an educational programme is called evaluation. AFFECTIVE DOMAIN It includes objectives dealing with attitudes, interest, and appreciations, skills in affective domain describes, The way people react emotionally and their ability to feel another living things pain and joy. Affective objectives typically targeted the awareness and growth in attitudes, emotions and feeling. It is further subdivided into five categories. (i) Receiving (ii) Responding (iii) Valuing (iv) Organizing (v) characterizing to values Receiving It is the lowest level; the students passive pace attention. Without this level there is no learning. Responding The students actively participates in the learning process not only attends to stimulus the student also reacts in some way. Valuing The students attached a value to an object, phenomenon or piece of information.

Organizing Student can put together different values, information and ideas and recommendations with them with her/his own schema, comparing relating and elaborating on what has been learnt. Characterizing The student holds a particular value or belief that now exerts influence on his or her behavior, so that it becomes a characteristic.

PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
The objective this domain deal with or based on psychomotor activities such as skills development for example, reading, writing, painting etc. skills in psychomotor domain describe, the ability to physically manipulate a tool or instrument like a hand or a hammer. It is further divided into six categories: Reflex Movement These are involuntary motor responses that very common in infants. These movements continue to develop throughout life. Fundamental Movement These are simple movement related to the body movement, pattern like walking, running and jumping etc. Perceptual Ability The child can make visual discrimination. The child looks at the picture or objects and captures the idea. Physical Ability It refers to vigour, power, energy, courage, strength, agility and dexterity.

Skilled Movement Practice, agility play very important role pertained to very efficiently performed movement such as PT, Juggling, playing with musical instruments. etc. Non Discursive Communication Child will be able to express his idea with gestures, facial expressions, body movement