WATERHAMMER CONTROL IN PIPELINES by T.H.WEBB Published for JAMES HARDIE & COY. PTY. LIMITEDPREFACE These notes are considered to be introductory and more reading and practice at constructing the waterhammer diagrams and using computer programmes is necessary to become fully conversant with the subject, Bergeron's book “Waterhammer in Hydraulics and Wave Surges in Electricity’ can be regarded as a classical work on waterhamer. ‘There are also many other good arcicles in journals and books. However, the matter is generally glossed over and care should be taken in their usage. The material has been mostly collected from studies made in France in 1960-61 and 1967 with the L. Bergeron Company and others and subsequently in Australia with the Department of Public Works, N.S.W. T.H. WEBB Whilst the information, opinions, advice and recommendations contairied in this publication have been prepared with proper care, they are offered only in pursuance of the object of providing useful information to assist those interested in technical matters associated with waterhanmer. James Hardie & Coy. Pty. Limited Sydney NSW Australia April 1981 aleACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank James Hardie & Co, Pty. Ltd. for their contribution and assistance which has enabled these notes to be produced. I wish also to acknowledge the help from Mr. David Hickie of Laurie, Montgomerie and Pettit, and particularly Kristeen for the typing and her patience with me in the numerous changes and alterations. There are many other individuals and companies who have made valuable contributions to the contents of this publication.CONTENTS ) ; Chapter Page No. PREFACE oe 1 ' ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ee 2 LIST OF SYMBOLS pope 7 4 1. INTRODUCTION ON WATERHAMMER oe 8 Historic Review See 10 Definitions oe ee nl Causes & Effects of Surges - - - we. eB Surge Control Devices fe 4 Methods of Analyses eee 7 Fallacies oe ees 18 Economic Considerations 20 References Ae 2 WATERHAMMER THEORY ee ‘ ; Steady State Conditions fo Unsteady State Conditions ee Surge Wave Velocity a ( Surge Representation fo ee 7 References ae ) ‘THE PUMPED SYSTEM, as : The System es ‘The Pumping Unit ae Pumps and Characteristics er 1 The System Resistance eo y Multi-Pump Operation oe es } Electric Motors ee } Moment of Inertia eee 70 Operational Control LZ : References BeeCONTENTS (continued) Chapter Page No. 4, THE GRAVITY sysTEM pee 75 The System ee 76 Types & Characteristics of Valves ee 18 Operational Control es 81 References ee 85 5. WATERHAMMER DIAGRAMS ae Wave Propagation oo Boundary Conditions eo Notation for Diagrams oe 95 Basics for Diagram Construction fee 95 Surge Waves ee 96 Construction of Waterhammer Diagrams io Watercolumn Separation ee a Classical Waterhammer Diagrams fe References ico 6. SURGE CONTROL METHODS ier Surges to be Controlled ee Types of Control Devices ioe Considerations for Selection 9... . se.) M4l Air in Pipelines 6 er References lagets CONTENTS (continued) Chapter 7. _ STARTING SURGES IN PUMPED SYSTEMS oe Surge Diagrams Starting Times Surges along Pipeline ie Controlling Surges a Field Tests es References 8. FLYWHEELS Description fe Considerations for Selection Analysis : Calculation for Flywheel Size. References 4 SURGE RELIEF VALVES Surges to be Controlled . Description of "Neyrpic' valve Operation Selection & Example Installation oe References ce 10, SURGE TOWERS ae Surge Tower ae One Way Surge Tower a Operation ne Analysis ee Se Page No. 148, as 150 152 1s4 134 155 156 1s7 187 163 169 aa 176 180 11 196 190 193 14 196 196 199 201CONTENTS (continued) Chapter Page No. 11, AIR VESSELS oS Description ce Operation ce Selection Charts Se Example ce Field Tests 3 References — 12, CONCLUSION ae Defining the Problem Gg Effecting a Solution Gg Comparison of Surge Control Devices ag Fatigue ae Factors of Safety ae References : 205 206 213 214 222 224 228 229 230 230 2ar 234 235 236> B25 Ow RM me eo op 444570 ot LIST OF SYMBOLS. speed of surge wave (m/sec.) couple (Nem) thickness of pipe wall (mm) diameter of pipe (mm) diameter of pipe (m) diameter of flywheel (m) Modulus of elasticity (Pa) acceleration due to gravity (m/sec?) head (m) pressure rise above normal (m) moment of inertia (kg/m2) volume modulus of water (Pa) radius of gyration (m) length (m) mass (kg) speed (RPM) ratio of pump speeds pump efficiency (%6) shaft power (kW) flow (litres/sec) time under consideration (secs) total time (secs) velocity of flow (m/sec) angular speed (radians per sec) 1a.Lal 4.2 1.3 Ld LS. 1.6 La CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ON WATERHAMMER Historic Review Defi ons. Causes and Effects of Surges Surge Control Devices Methods of Analysis Fallacies Economic Considerations References BeCHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ON WATERHAMMER. Waterhammer and its control is of vital concern to all Hydraulic Engineers and operators because of its effects and the problems involved in dealing with its causes. ‘The phenomena of waterhammer is complex and is often regarded as mystic in nature; however, it can be readily analysed and its methods of control are numerous and effective. The type of surge control device to be used is determined by the system for which it is intended and before any selection can be made, a waterhammer analysis should be carried out. ‘The first part of the book explains what waterhammer is, why it occurs and how it can be analysed and the second part explains the methods of controlling the surges and the devices which can be used. ‘The fallacies which have arisen regarding this subject are numerous and particular emphasis will be made throughout the book to invalidate these. The waterhammer analysis will firstly permit the Designer or Operations Engineer to determine if dangerous surges can occur, then secondly, to provide 2 means for the selection of surge control equipment or the correct operation of the system. Some of the advantages to be gained by providing surge control devices are: 1 ‘An increase in capacity of existing installations is possible by allowing higher working pregsures in the pipeline. 2. The saving of existing installations from extensive modifications when frequent and disturbing operational incidents occur. 3. The improvement of the operation of systems by allowing more flexibility of control, thereby improving efficiency and reducing operational costs. 4 The savings which can be realised in new installations by avoiding the necessity of providing pipes of sufficient strength to withstand the high pressures due to waterhammer effects. 9%INTRODUCTION ON WATERHAMMER ‘he carrying out of an analysis and the determination of the surges in a hydraulic System is analogous to the normal design procedure in other facets of engineering where the loads to be applied to structures or machines must initially be determined. The ‘all too prevalent’ current practice of Providing a design allowance for waterhammer on the pipe size (Ref. 1) is not to be commended in any way. If the sllowance is too small then troubles con reault, und if it is tov large, then the system is not designed economically. ‘The mathematical derivations to formulae are beyond the scope of this book but they can be obtained from the various reference works. (Ref. 8) In order to clarify the subject matter to be dealt with in these notes,a brief description of the history of waterhammer will now be given, also an explanation of waterhammer, its causes, its effects and surge control devices, together with the Popular fallacies on the subject, the importance of analysis and the economics of providing surge controls. The necessary definitions are also included. qa Historic Review Waterhammer is a natural phenomenon and the discovery of its laws, the development of its analysis and the methods of control makes interesting reading. 1 ‘The first apparent reference to surges appears to be in a publication in 1878 when Michaud observed the surge effects in conduits. 2 In 1898, Professor N. Joukowsky published a paper in Moscow on his experiments (Ref. 2). He developed a law for waterhammer at instantaneous valve closure. This is known as Joukowsky's Law and is: (max) = avo 8 where h(max) is the maximum head rise above the normal pressure ais the wave speed +10.INTRODUCTION ON WATERHAMMER 6 Vo is the fluid velocity before valve closure g is the acceleration due to gravity Joukowsky's Law is basic only and its application is modified by many other considerations. L. Allievi contributed greatly to the subject from 1903 and developed a mathematical analysis for waterhammer as well as charts for the determination of the maximum head increase in simple pipelines. The Allievi Chart Method is still written up in some text books (Ref. 3) and is apparently used as a method of analysis by some Engineers; however, it only has a very limited field of application and simpler and more accurate methods are now available (e.g. Bergeron). Professor R. W. Angus developed a graphical method of analysis in 1935 and also published many excellent papers on the subject (Ref. 3). Professor Wood in the 1930's contributed greatly to the subject. The first practical graphical method was developed independently by O. Schynder and by L. Bergeron. It is a method now commonly used. Many good articles have been published on the subject by Stepanoff, Kerr, Parmakian, Rich, Quick and others. Attempts have been made at simplification but in some cases this has led to some confusion. Computer methods have been extensively developed by V. L. Streeter and Wylie (Ref. 7). A report by F. M. Wood entitled "History of Waterhammer" (Ref. 4) covers the subject very fully. 1.2 Definitions In order to appreciate the subject matter given, the following definitions are given: aes\ INTRODUCTION ON WATERHAMMER 10. Waterhammer is the phenomenon which occurs in a closed conduit under Pressure when the liquid flowing changes its velocity due to any circumstances; this results in pressure surges, both positive and negative, being set up. Positive Surge is an increase in pressure above the normal pressure. Negative Surge is a decrease in pressure below the normal pressure. Surge Control Device is any device or apparatus which limits or controls the surges. Cavitation is that condition which occurs when the pressure falls below the vapour pressure of water. In the waterhammer phenomenon this pressure is expressed as 10 metres of water below atmospheric pressure. Water Column Separation is when a vacuous or air space occurs in a liquid in the pipeline. Sudden Stoppage is considered to occur when the time (T) of the surge wave to return to the source 21 is greater than the time interval from normal to zero flow condition of the fluid for a pump or valve (t) T= >t Wave propagation is the movement of the surges of increasing or decreasing magnitudes along the conduits of a system. Wave attenuation is the reduction in the magnitude of the surges with respect to time. Boundary condition is that condition in the system which causes a change in the nature of the surge wave. When a flowing liquid changes its velocity or flow rate there is a transfer of kinetic energy to pressure energy. This is the waterhammer phenomenon and this pressure energy is referred to as a surge. The waterhammer condition resulting in pressure surges in the system can be either positive or negative. a2,INTRODUCTION ON WATERHAMMER ‘The pressure surge wave travels from the source i.e. the origin of its disturbance, along the pipeline until it strikes some boundary condition and it is then reflected or refracted. The speed of the wave is dependent on certain factors, such as pipeline material and ratio of diameter to pipe wall thickness, and is in the vicinity of 1000 m per second. A full description of the theory of waterhammer will be given in Chapter 2. 13 Causes and Effects of Surges A surge is set up by a change of velocity condition, which can be brought about by the actuation of one or more of the component parts in the system. ‘The surges may be caused by: 1 ‘The closing or opening, fully or partially of one or more of the following types of valves: + Gate Valve + Float Valve Altitude Control Valve Pressure Sustaining Valve Pressure Reducing Valve 2 The starting up or shutting down of a pump. ‘The conditions which may result in the actuation of the components, and causing the surges, are: L Maloperation; ee Breakdown or malfunction of mechanical equipment} 3. Breakdown or malfunction of electrical equipment; 4. Power failures; 5. Poor layout design of the system; 6 Normal operation of the system. The magnitude of the surges which are set up depends on many factors. These will be discussed in subsequent chapters. 13.INTRODUCTION ON WATERHAMMER The effects of surges are not always apparent and some of these may bet Le Burst pipelines and blown and leaking joints. These conditions are not often attributed to surges but to other conditions such as pipe materials weaknesses, deterioration of joint materials etc., which may or may not be the case. (See Figures 1.1, 1.2,1.3 and 1.4 ) 2 Damaged equipment which may be due to violent movement of mechanical parts. These may be reflux valves, float valves, air valves and pumps. Reduced capacity of the system can result if air enters through air valves when the pressure falls below atmospheric pressure 4. Operational difficulties can occur such as with the operation of valves, pumps, air valves, pressure switches and the like. 5 Failure of pipes or equipment due to fatigue. Waterhammer should not be blamed for all troubles in installations; only a careful check on the whole system will reveal the causes. Often faulty or incorrectly designed equipment causes high surges which result in damage or operational difficulties to the system. 14 Surge Control Devices There are many different methods of surge control and each method corresponds to a well-determined case, and to a practical zone of use. It should be emphasised that no application is universal, and that the selection cannot be made without first carrying out a waterhammer analysis. The device should generally be economically justified. Types of control devices are: L Flywheel 2 Air vessel a4INTRODUCTION ON WATERHAMMER Broken pipes due to Surge pressures “15.INTRODUCTION ON WATERHAMMER. Fig. 1.4 Float valve ~ often a cause of waterhammer troublesINTRODUCTION ON WATERHAMMER a Surge tank 4 Reservoir of water 5. Suction pipe 6. Surge relief valve ib Non return valve 8. Reversal of pump % Controlled valve 10. Electric or mechanical speed variation 1 By-pass valves 1. Bursting disc With the two types of surges usually set up in a system, that is, the negative surge and the positive surge, it is sometimes necessary to incorporate two devices for efficient control. In other cases one device only will be sufficient. 1s Methods of Analysis, There are three methods whereby analyses can be carried out to determine the magnitude of the surges. These are: Analytical 2 Computer 3. Graphical ‘The analytical method of analysis was developed from the basic principles and laws developed by Joukowsky and others. The method is long and tedious and many assumptions are generally made to simplify the calculations in order to arrive at solutions to the problem. Probably the most notable development ‘in recent years in the field of waterhammer analysis (as with many other engineering fields) has been with the use of the electronic computer (Refs. 6 and 7). Its disadvantages are that almost every analysis is different and the setting up of the programme can be time consuming; also it is not possible to observe how the solution is proceeding step by step with relation to the whole problem. Once a programme has been developed more accurate and rapid analysis can be made. altva INTRODUCTION ON WATERHAMMER The graphical method of analysis is undoubtedly the easiest to carry out and follow, as no detailed knowledge of waterhammer theory is required. The method uses the principles of the analytical form and permits complex networks to be readily solved. The methods of Bergeron and Schynder developed in the 1930's give accurate and complete solutions to almost all waterhammer problems. The methods of Parmakian and others are attempts to improve the original graphical forms. There are certain assumptions made in the graphical method which for all practical purposes give reasonably accurate results. This has been proved by extensive laboratory and field tests in France and in Australia. It is important that a waterhammer analysis be made in the design stage, for all systems, because of the following reasons: i: Waterhammer occurs in all systems. o ‘The hydraulic loads must be known in order to design: fa) Structures such as pipelines; (o) Equipment such as pumps and valves, ete. 3 If a pipeline is designed using load assumptions which are excessive, then an uneconomic design will result. 4 If a pipeline is designed using load assumptions which are too low, then uneconomic design may result from costly failures. 5. Operational difficulties are often experienced due to surges, which may prove to be costly unless rectified. There is then a need for analysis, even if it only determines what surges will be encountered and which may alleviate any fears in this regard. 1.6 Fallacies Many fallacies have grown up regarding waterhammer, which have been mainly due to incoxcect and unsubstantiated statements nade in various articles. 18.INTRODUCTION ON WATERHAMMER, ‘These statements would appear to have their origin in authentic articles, but have been misinterpreted, mainly in the transposition of the applications. Care should therefore be taken when reading matter produced by unknown authors. It is proposed to deal throughout the notes with most of the known fallacies. Some of these are: 1 In order to reduce the effects of the surges, the pipeline velocity should be low. 2 ‘The pipeline must be long before dangerous surges can occur. 3. ‘The heads must be high before dangerous surges can occur- 4 Air vessels are complex and unreliable because of the need to replenish the air occasionally. 5. All surge relief valves are to be condemned because their action is not sensitive enough. This is true of many types of relief valves but not all of them. 6 ‘A surge control device must be installed experimentally as it is not possible to accurately determine the surges. This method may work on one installation but not on another. 1 Because a type of device was installed and did not function - presumably based on the remarks in (6) above ~ then all such devices are of no use. 8. Flywheel installations are costly. 9. Flywheels can only be used on pipelines of short length. (Sometimes quoted as 1,000 metres). 10. The use of surge control devices is not an economic proposition. he ‘The knock or noise often heard in systems is related to the magnitude of the surges. This is not correct as in most cases no noise whatsoever is experienced. 19.INTRODUCTION ON WATERHAMMER 12. Pump reversal results in a runaway speed which is damaging to the equipment. In a few cases, this may be correct, but not generally so. Be A stop valve should always be closed when starting and stopping pumps. This operation is beneficial only in some cases. 14. The slam of a reflux valve flap causes waterhammer. Waterhammer surges are already in existence and at the worst a slight increase in surge may occur due to the delayed closure of the flap on water reversal. 15. The so-called delayed action of reflux valve closure causes high waterhammer surges. The condition occurs very rarely and is generally due to some malfunction of the valve. 16. Air valves act as surge control devices. 17. A waterhammer allowance can be added, which is based purely on the diameter of the pipe. (Ref. 1). 18. No reliance can be placed on the surges determined from graphical diagrams. When investigating problems associated with waterhammer, it is important that one does not generalise or oversimplify because each system is different and should be treated accordingly. L? Economic Consi Generally speaking, the most economic method of design should be used in any engineering scheme. The principle applies in the case of surge control; that is, surge control devices should not be installed unless their installation can be economically justified. There are many factors in an economic analysis which cannot be readily assessed from the cost point of view. Some of these may ber 20.INTRODUCTION ON WATERHAMMER, ° Cost of repair works, standby gangs, storage or repair materials, inefficient system operation, inconvenience to users and loss of water sales. | An economic analysis should be based on the following considerations: ° In a new installation a comparison of the cost of the surge control device, added to the cost of the lower head pipeline and equipment, should be made to that of the cost of a pipeline and equipment to withstand the maximum 1 surges likely to be encountered in the system. ° In existing installations which are not being fully utilised because of operational difficulties and frequent failures, the incorporation of some type of surge control device can, in many cases, be more than economically justified. 2hINTRODUCTION ON WATERHAMMER REFERENCES Barnard, R.E. - "Design Standards for Steel Water Pipe" - Journal AWWA 40:24, Jan, 1948. Miss O. Simin - Translation of an article on Joukowsky's Experimentation of 1897 in Moscow - Proc. AWWA Vo. 24 1904. Davis, C.V. - "Handboook of Applied Hydraulics", New York, McGraw Hill (2nd Edition 1952) Section 13. Wood F.M. - "History of Waterhammer’, CE Research Report No. 65 April 1970. Department of Civil Engineering, Queens University at Kingston, Ontario. ‘The Institution of Water Engineers - "Manual of British Water Engineering Practice", Cambridge, W. Heffer & Sons Ltd. (1961). C. Dubin - "An Electronic Computer Method of Calculating Waterhammer", La Houille Blanch No. B Special 1956 (in French). Streeter & Wylie - "Hydraulic Transients" New York, McGraw Hill (1967). Webb & Gould - "Waterhammer", N.S.W. University Press (1978) 222.2a 2.2 23 24 CHAPTER 2. WATERHAMMER THEORY Steady State Condition Unsteady State or Transient Condition Surge Wave Velocity Surge Representation References 23.CHAPTER 2. WATERHAMMER THEORY ‘The theory of waterhammer is complex. However, in order to carry out a graphical analysis or to utilise computer methods, it is only necessary to have a basic understanding of the theory. The presentation of derivations of formulae and detailed descriptions of the theory is not warranted, and reference can be made to publications by Bergeron (Ref. 1), Parkmakian (Ref. 2) and others. For the sake of simplicity, the theory is explained for gravity flow, the reasoning for pumped flow is equally applicable. ‘The two conditions which are set up in a hydraulic system will be described. as these form the main basis for waterhammer. These conditions are: 1% Steady State Conditions: This condition maintains a steady state of pressure (head) and flow which is constant with time. This is the normal operating or non operating condition of a system. 2, Unsteady State or Transient Conditio: ‘The unsteady state condition occurs when there is a variation of head and flow with time due to the alteration of the setting of any component of the system. This occurs with pumps starting and stopping and valve operation. The equations for waterhammer described in this section can be represented diagrammatically by straight lines} these lines will be more fully covered in Chapter 5. In the construction of the waterhammer diagram, it is necessary to know the velocity (or speed) of the surge wave, which has been propagated and results from the unsteady state condition, and the so-called boundary conditions within the system. The determina ion of the speed of the surge wave is made from Figure 2.3. The boundary” conditions which vary with time will be described in detail in the various sections - the valve characteristics in Chapter 4 and for pumps in Chapter 3. waWATERHAMMER THEORY 2a Steady State Condition The steady state condition of flow in a pipeline, from a gravity source, or a pump, can be characterised by curves depicting flow and head as shown in Figures 2.1 and 2.2. The steady state condition is maintained when a constant pressure difference with regard to time occurs between the two ends of the system. ‘The curve AB in Figure 2.1 represents the characteristic curve of flow and head in the pipeline under gravity conditions. The point © shows the maximum flow possible (go) in this system. Every point on the curve is a possible steady state condition, but the actual operating point is dependent on the device with which the pipe system is coupled. The device may be a valve or pump and these also have characteristic curves. The pump curve in Figure 2.2 intersects the pipeline Characteristic curve A, By so that the only operating condition of head and flow for the steady state condition for this system is at 0,. If there is a change in conditions due to any circumstance, then an unsteady state condition is set up resulting in surges. 2.2 Unsteady State or Transient Condition The unsteady state condition is brought about when one or more of the components of the system changes its setting, bringing about a change of flow and head which varies with time. This variation sets up a surge wave which travels up and down the system until attenuated by friction effects. ‘The surge waves travel at speeds which are dependent on the factors in Figure 2.3 and are transmitted and reflected according to the various conditions encountered in the system. These conditions are called boundary conditions and may be formed by: L Valves 2. Pumps 3. Reservoir 4, Atmosphere 5. Pipe Junctions 6 Pipe dimension changes (including pipe material changes) 1h Water column separation 25.mo} padwng ze Os moy ANneD Lz “Big 26.WATERHAMMER THEORY ‘The fundamental waterhammer equations are derived from Newtons Second Law. This law states that: Force (or increase in pressure) = _time rate of change momentum ‘These equations which form the basis for the analytical and graphical methods of solution for waterhammer are as follows (Ref. 2): Heo ee a) V- vo = g {ft - 9 - Ft + a a where H - Ho = the pressure rise above static V- Vo = the velocity increase above normal t = time ‘The function F(t-x) represents a pressure wave which moves in the positive x-direction against the flow with a wave speed of unity. This is also called an F transmission wave. The function f(t + x) represents a pressure wave in the negative x direction, with the a direction of flow. This is called an £ reflection wave. For the purpose of carrying out the graphical analysis for waterhammer, it is sufficient to say that the fundamental waterhammer equations can be represented diagrammatic- ally as straight lines. This concept was first put into practical use by Bergeron and Schnyder. 2.3 Surge Wave Velocity The speed or velocity of the surge wave, sometimes termed celerity, travelling in a Pipeline is dependent on several factors and may be found from the following equation (Ref. 1): 20.WATERHAMMER THEORY 1 a = {paso k Ee where 2 = speed of surge wave (m/sec) P = density = 1000 kg/m3 for water D = _ inside diameter of pipe (m or mm) © = thickness of pipe (m or mm to correspond to D) K = volume modulus of water (Pa) = 2.1 x 109 Pa E = Young's modulus of pipe material (Pa) E steel = 210 x 109 pa Ecast iron = 84 to 110 x 109 Pa E asbestos cement = 27x 109 pa Feoncrete = _varfes with thickness e and the amount of reinforcement but generally: 10x 109 pa It can be seen from the above equation thal speed of the wave is proportional to the pipe dimensions D and the pipe material e as the factors P and K are constant, the ®). The surge wave is in fact a shock wave which is a rapid jump in pressure and which travels at supersonic speeds relative to t The solution to the equation can be readily Figure 2.3. This figure can also be used to Air or gas entrained in the liquid can grea! is shown in Figure 2.4. (See also Reference he normal water flow. The speeds generally vary between 900 and 1200 metres per second. graphed and values can be taken from determine the av value. 8 tly effect the speed of the surge wave 6). 28, whichpaads ane uo sep pouienug 4019943 HZ “B14 ‘WINIO/ % — LN3LNOD S¥9 200 soo 00 00 too 0c cov 0s 008 006 0001 pasjsannous 30.WATERHAMMER THEORY 2 Surge Representation A diagrammatic representation of the occurrences of the surges as previously described can now be made. The magnitudes of the surges will be described in Chapter 5. An explanation of the F and f waves can readily be made by considering a gravity flow condition from a reservoir with a gate valve at the discharge end of the pipeline. The various cases encountered are: a The Simple Case is shown in Figure 2.5. The F wave has been propagated by @ movement of the gate valve and travels up the pipeline to the reservoir R. When the wave reaches the reservoir it is reflected and becomes an { wave which travels back towards the valve. Reservoir A F = Transmitted Wave f= Reflected Wave Velocity of Flow Gate Valve ve — G ea r= 3 A 2 = Wave Speed tx A = Cross-Sectional Area of Pipe X = Distance from A Fig, 2.5 31.WATERHAMMER THEORY (i) Varying Pipe Sections - Figure 2.6 - shows how the waves are transmitted and reflected in a system having a pipeline of varying sections. ‘The initial wave F, commenced at the gate valve due to gate movement. At the changing sec— tion CC a wave f; is reflected back towards A at the same speed as and the wave F) is transmitted or refracted at a different speed to F, to the reservoir R. ‘The wave Fy is reflected from the reservoir and becomes a in fp wave (re~ flected) at the same speed as F, Tt should be noted that the change of section, the reservoir and the valve form boundary conditions, that is, there is a change in the wave (either reflected, transmitted or both) at these locations. At pipe junctions similar conditions to cases (i) and (ii) occur. This is self-explanatory in Figure 2.7. 32,WATERHAMMER THEORY Fig. 2.7 B. Rapid Gate Closure When rapid gate closure occurs, that is, the valve fully closes before the surge wave returns to the valve, there is set up in the system the maximum surge values, except in the case of cavitation conditions which will be discussed in a later section. ‘The maximum surge from Joukowsky's equation is: aV or a(Vo- Vv) 8 eg However, it is not proposed to deal with the surge magnitude in this section, only the description of the surge occurrences. a Surge Conditions ~ Instantaneous Closure The nature of the surge pressures can be represented diagrammatically by Figures 2.8 to 2.16. The head is plotted against distance (or time because t= x) in part (a) of the figures and the velocitiy of flow is plotted against a distance (or time) in the (b) parts. 333.WATERHAMMER THEORY Control Valve J, _______., 4] Friction Neglected FIGURE 28 Steady State Condition before Movement of Control Valve Time t= 0 FIGURE 29 Ls TL [LL ». WELLL. Surge Condition at Time Alter Closure of et v=o ork EE FIGURE 2.10 hy j- Timer= 2, FIGURE 2.11 ZL Time t= SL 2a ‘The basic assumptions which are made in the development of the theory are that:- 1, Water is compressible, 2. The pipe walls are elastic Nature of Surges with Instantaneous Valve Closure 34.WATERHAMMER THEORY Control Valve je, | Friction Neglected FIGURE 2.12 Surge condition at Time After Closure of 2b >- ev, SET oe FIGURE 2.13 I FIGURE 2.14 Time t= 3b At FIGURE 2.15 ime t= 2k. ee Za FIGURE 2.16 | Time r= 46 e 4 This is the Original Condition of Fig. 2.8 Nature of Surges with Instantaneous Valve Closure 35.WATERHAMMER THEORY ‘The figures only show the conditions when instantaneous closure occurs. The conditions for other locations and other times of valve closure will be dealt with later on. When the gate valve is closed instantaneously in the system the kinetic energy of the moving fluid is transferred into pressure energy and the following conditions are then set up, as shown in Figures 2.8 to 2.16. L A pressure wave of the F type, starting at the gate, travels up the pipeline with a speed of ‘a’, the velocity of the water behind the wave front becomes zero, and, because of the increased pressure, the density of the water increases and the pipe walls, being elastic expand. Because of the expanded pipe there is an increased volume of water contained in that section. At the time of arrival of the pressure wave at the reservoir, the pressure in the pipe (hs) is greater than the static pressure (ho). Because of the pressure differential at B, between the pipe and the reservoir water flows back into the reservoir. The flow into the reservoir from the pipeline causes a change in velocity which results in a reflected wave of the f type of travel towards the gate. Behind the reflected wave the water flows into the reservoir, the pressure reduced to static and the pipe walls contract to the original condition. When the f wave reaches the gate, it is reflected and an F wave of reduced pressure travels towards the reservoir. Because of the reduced pressure, the pipe walls contract, the velocity becomes zero and the volume of water contained is reduced. 36.WATERHAMMER THEORY 9 When the pressure wave reaches the reservoir, it is at a pressure lower than the reservoir and water begins to flow back into the pipe; this change in velocity causes an f wave to be reflected towards the gate. 10. At the gate after a time of two cycles or 41 the conditions are the same as. at the commencement of the initial surge wave. ne ‘The complete cycle is now repeated indefinitely for the assumed condition of no friction losses. In practice, friction occurs and the magnitude of the wave is gradually attenuated. Figure 2.17 shows typical theoretical (no friction and actual surges plotted on a time-pressure graph. It is possible to carry out tests on systems to obtain time-pressure graphs which can show valuable information (Ref. 7). However, generally, these are not necessary as the graphical or computer analyses are accurate enough for most purposes. {a1 Theoretical of (b) Actust time t \ | | | L Fig 2.17 Pressure — Time Graph 37.WATERHAMMER THEORY (i) ‘Surges at Location along the Pipeline The conditions of pressure vary with time for different locations along the pipeline and these are shown in Figure 2.18, hb 4 \ | ; lh - | ALA ° 2 au ° 2 au ane 8 time 8 time 2-| es ALC n q a | | = Lae 2.18 Pressure — Time and Discharge — It is significant to note that when the valve is closed there is naturally no discharge at A, but a full flow occurs at B, either a positive or a negative flow, into or out of the’* reservoir B. The pressures at the valve A fluctuate from positive to negative with respect to time, but the pressure always remains constant at the reservoir. 38.WATERHAMMER THEORY At C, that is, an intermediate point, the pressures and discharges at several times remain constant with respect to time. (ii) Surges at Various Times of Valve Closure When a gate closes rapidly (i.e. in a time of less than ZL) the magnitude of the surges is 2 always the same at the valve. However, the magnitude at other locations along the pipeline depends on the actual time of closure. ‘The surges can be shown diagrammatically as in Figure 2.19. Figure 2.19 (2) represents instantaneous valve closure, which obviously can never be achieved in practice; however, it illustrates when compared with Figures 2.19 (b) and (c) that the more rapid the valve closure, the greater the head rise is further away from the control valve or source. Figure 2.19 (b) shows that, if the valve is closed in a time of L, which is one half of the a time of the full wave travel up and back along the pipeline, then the maximum surge occurs from the valve A to the mid point C. Similarly, if the time of closure were L Za the maximum surge of ths and -hs would occur up to point D. 3%WATERHAMMER THEORY static level ™ c= (a) Instantaneous Valve Closure o_o (c} Valve Closuee in Time Fig. 2.19 Surges for Rapid Valve Closure co) Perspective Representation of Surges ‘The surge pressures as functions of space and time can be readily followed by the construction of a perspective sketch (Figure 2.20). This figure which is sometimes called a stereogram shows the complete pictorial synthesis of the surges in a system. Figure 2.21 shows a discharge-length-time stereogram. 40.WATERHAMMER THEORY Fig, 2.20 Pressure — Length — Time Stereogram aacharge Fig. 2.21 Discharge — Length ~ Time Stereogram. 41.WATERHAMMER THEORY REFERENCES Bergeron, L. - "Waterhammer in Hydraulics and Wave Surge Electricity", New York, John Wiley & Sons. (1961). Parmakian, J. - "Waterhammer Analysis". New York, Prentice-Hall Inc. (1955). Glenfield and Kennedy - "Choosing Valves". Kilmarnock, Glenfield & Kennedy Ltd. (1955) Degrement Acfi- "Water Treatment Handbook". Paris (1960) Page 472. Pickford J. - "Analysis of Surges". London Macmillan (1969). Surges in Pipelines - Proc. Institute of Mechanical Engineers 1965-1966. Vol. 180 Pt. 3E. Webb and Gould - 'Waterhammer", N.S.W. University Press (1978) AR.3a 3.2 33 3.4 3.5 3.6 37 3.8 CHAPTER 3. THE PUMPED SYSTEM The System The Pumping Unit Pumps and Characteristics The System Resistance Multi-pump operation Electric Motors Moment of Inertia Operational Control References 43.CHAPTER 3. THE PUMPED SYSTEM A Pumped System may be composed of many components and the combination of the various components, with their type, size and location, as well as the general layout of the scheme has an important bearing on the magnitude of the surges and the methods used to control the surges. ‘The surge analysis in a pumped system is more complex than in a gravity system because: a) In a pumped system, the problem begins with the slowing down of the rising water column and as an electric motor is generally used to drive the pump, it is necessary to consider the instantaneous reduction of the motor couple due to power interruption. In a gravity system the hydraulic problem consists only of stopping the descending water column. ») Surge or other protective devices cannot be controlled by electrical means. ° The pipeline profile is usually irregular, with successive high and low points and variable slopes. These conditions often give rise to water column separation, causing severe surges and such separation also causes operational troubles. ‘The analysis and the selection of suitable surge control devices cannot be satisfactorily carried out unless the system is taken as a homogeneous unit and the method of operation of the system carefully determined. The most important elements in a system are pumps and valves. Valves will be described in Chapter 4. This chapter describes the types and characteristics of * centrifugal pumps and electrical motors.THE PUMPED SYSTEM Bl The System ‘The design of a pumped system may involve the consideration of alternative layouts. If the effects of surges are understood, the scheme often can be designed so that it will be relatively free from surge and operational difficulties. For example, a rising main with a high point near the pumping station can be subject to severe surges and operational difficulties. The relocation of the rising main with the reduction in height of the high point would: a) reduce the magnitude of the surges either eliminating the need for surge control devices or requiring only simple devices. vd eliminate the risk of water column separation. 2 minimise operational difficulties such as the entrainment of air which could reduce the capacity of the pipeline, and reduce the risk of damage to air valves by severe surges. Example of Typical Water Supply Scheme A typical layout of a water supply scheme is shown in Figure 3.1. Water is drawn from a Pump well at a river and pumped along a gradually rising pipeline to reservoir Ry From Ry) the water flows through a suction main to pump P. and is then pumped to a reservoir R, through a pipeline with a variable profile. An analysis of such a system would reveal the following information:~ Rising Main P, ~ Ry 45.THE PUMPED SYSTEM Due to the favourable grade, separation with its possible subsequent high surges does not occur substantially along the pipeline. The pipeline could be designed to withstand the maximum calculated surge when separation does not occur or may only require the provision of surge control device or devices adjacent to the pumping station. Separation can occur at the pump as shown which can result in damage to pump and valves. Suction Main R, - a Because of the high point at A, water columa separation could occur when pump Py starts or stops. This could cause either cavitation or air entry from air valves resulting in the following problems: a) failure of the pipeline due to high positive surges being set up when the water column rejoins with the subsequent loss of water from reservoir Ry ») inability of the pump to function satisfactorily until a hydraulic balance is obtained. If air is entrained, the pump may operate at a reduced capacity for some time, or it may not deliver any water whatsoever. Rising Main P, - Ry Water column separation could occur at points B and C due to negative surges and on the rejoining of the water columns high positive surges may be set up with the possibility of damage to the pipeline or equipment. Entry of air into the pipeline through air valves at B and C could result in reduced flow and/or high positive surging due to air surging. A better method of eliminating air entry and to reduce the surges is to provide one-way surge tanks at B and C. AleTHE PUMPED SYSTEM 3. Elements of Typical Pumped System ‘The major and minor elements of a typical pumped system are shown in Figure 3.2 Source of Supply Legend [J mio etemenss ‘Minor elements ‘Surge Control Devices ‘Accessories ‘Operational Rater also to Figure 3.3 for individual components of the elements Fig, 3.2. Elements of a Typical Pumped System e@ ‘The components of these elements and the manner in which their combination effects surges is shown in Figure 3.3. Any one or a combination of the elements. of 1 to 6 can have an effect on the magnitude of the surges in a system. ‘The magnitude of the surges and the methods of controlling such surges are dependent upon the type, size and location of the components and on the general layout of the scheme. 3.2 ‘The Pumping Unit lL Gene: A pumping unit consists basically of a prime mover, a pump and a means of coupling the prime mover to the pump. 48.we THE PUMPED SYSTEM PUMPED SYSTEM, wa 8) (c) wo Source of Supply Pumping Unit Pipeline Outlet Works River Pumping Station Asbestor Cement Reservoir Storage Pumps Steel Treatment Works Wells Electrical Equipment Cast Iron Reticulation Bores Control Equipment Plastic Ireigation. Fire Service 1 2 3 4 Characteristics of Pumping Water Levels ‘Water Levels laterial Unit Leia Outlet controt Controlling of Equipment Size Profile Length EFFECT ON SURGES 5 A 6 | Operations | Contrat Gate valves Manual Float valves Semi-automatic Altitude control valves Air valves Reflux valves Pressure sustaining valves Pressure reducing valves Fig. 3.3. Effect of Components in a System on Surges 49. AutomaticTHE PUMPED SYSTEM ‘The effect of each of the pumping unit components on surges is shown in Figure 3.4. Pumping Unit i "i Ti Pump Coupling Prime Mover Centrifugal Flexible 1.C. Engine Rotary Belt Drive Electric Motor Reciprocating Gear Drive Steam Engine Friction Drive Control Equipment ‘Normal Characteristics << Characteristics Abnormal Moment of Inertia Speed Speed Effect on > Surges es Fig. 3.4 Effects of Pumping Unit Components on Surges 2 Prime Mover eee, ‘ypes of prime movers will not be considered. Electric motors have small rotating parts im comparison with internal combustion or steam engines and consequently their inertia cffects are small. The moment of inertia of a pumping unit has an important influence on the magnitude of the surges. j -50.THE PUMPED SYSTEM 3 Couplings The couplings may be a flexible type, a belt drive, a gear drive or a friction drive and can influence the magnitude of the moment of inertia of the pumping unit. For example, large belt or gear-driven units with high moments of inertia can assist in reducing surges. On the other hand, failure of the coupling with the subsequent reduction in the moment of inertia could increase the surge effects. 4 Pumps Pumps are classified into three main classes: al centrifugal b) rotary, ed) reciprocating Each classification may be subdivided as shown below. Centrifugal pumps are commonly used in water supply systems and other types of pumps will not be considered. If an analysis is required for a system using a positive displacement type pump, reference can be made to Bergeron (Ref. 1). 33 Pumps and Characteristics L General Every pump should be designed for a particular duty, i.e. to deliver a specified quantity of water against a particular head. In order to carry out a waterhammer analysis, it is necessary to know the characteristics of the pump. In some instances, it is necessary to know these characteristics in both the normal and abnormal ranges and centrifugal pumps and their characteristics will be considered in some detail. + 51.inc rUMFED SYSTEM A general classification of pumps (Ref. 2) is as follows:~ CLAss Centrifugal Centrifugal TYPE Volute Diffuser Mixed-flow Axial-flow Turbine DESCRIPTION The majority of centrifugal pumps built are available as horizontal or vertical pumps, single or multi-stage for wide flow ranges. Diffuser-type centrifugals find many uses as multi-stage high-pressure units. Originally more efficient than volute type pumps, efficiency of both types is about equal. Mixed-flow centrifugal pumps are ideal for low-head large-capaicty applications. Usually vertical, they have a single-inlet impeller. Some horizontal and inclined units are built. Axial-flow units, often called propeller pumps, develop most of their head by lifting action of vanes, are usually vertical, and best suited for low head, large capacities can also be horizontal or inclined. For clear liquids, turbine pumps, either horizontal or vertical, fill 2 need between other centrifugal and usual rotary designs. They are low-to-medium-capacity, high head. Borehole pumps are an example. “52.THE PUMPED SYSTEM CLASS Rotary Rotary Reciprocating Reciprocating TYPE Gear Vane Cam-and-piston Screw Direct-acting Power Crank-flywheel DESCRIPTION Gear Pumps consists of two or more gears (spur, single or double-helical teeth), while vane pumps have a series of vanes, blades or buckets turned by a single rotor. This rotary class also includes lobe or shuttle-block designs. Cam-and-piston rotaries, like most types in this class, are positive-displacement units, giving steady discharge flow. Along with screw-type pumps and related designs, they handle a wide range of non-abrasive viscous liquids. Old standbys for years, direct-acting steam pumps were available in many designs for handling cold or hot water, oil, and a wide range of industrial liquids of many types. Power pumps are driven from outside through a crank-shaft or other devices. Capacities range from very low to medium flows. Crank and flywheel pumps are one form of reciprocating power pump so designated to distinguish them from power pumps using, for example, an eccentric as drive mechanism. 2 Description of Centrifugal Pumps Centrifugal pumps comprise a wide class of pumps, including axial flow and mixed flow, pumping of liquids is effected by a rotary motion of one or several impellers. 53.‘THE PUMPED SYSTEM A centrifugal pump consists of two principal parts; an impeller which forces the liquid into a rotary motion by impelling action, and the pump casing, which leads it away under a higher pressure. Centrifugal pumps may be horizontal or vertical, single or multi-stage; single or double suction or submersible. Each type has its own hydraulic characteristics. 3. Pump Characteristics a) The volume of liquid pumped is referred to as capacity and is usually measured in litres per second or cubic metres per hour. ‘The height to which liquid can be raised is called head and is measured in metres. >) Total The total head is defined as the suction head plus the discharge head. The following terms are defined and illustrated in Figure 3.5. Total nesd ccc Frctonnaed "1% pe ms site ae x, vei Ete Sait] cou = 1B os sie teat ee) Sere | Sicharoe sinarge | eae Centratine Hi Fst pum 1 i | | 1 dy 1 co Stee vetion it statie_ | Eee sevontife A 8 c D E Fig. 3.5THE PUMPED SYSTEM a ) (ii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) Static Suction Lift - Static Suction Head - Discharge Head - Total Static Head ~ Friction Head - Suction Lift ~ Suction Head - Discharge Head - The vertical distance from the supply level to the pump shaft centreline, in the case of a horizontal pump or in the case of a vertical Pump. It is sometimes called a negative suction head because the pump is above the supply level. (See Figure 3.54). The same as static suction lift, but the pump is below the supply level. It is sometimes called positive suction head because the pump is below the supply level. (See Figure 3.5B). The vertical distance from the pump centreline to the point of free delivery in the case of @ horizontal pump or the distance for the centreline of the dishcharge elbow to the Point of free delivery in the case of a vertical pump. ‘The vertical distance from the supply level to the discharge level. The head required to overcome resistance of pipe and fittings. The static suction head plus the suction friction head and velocity head. The static suction head minus the suction friction head and velocity head. The static discharge head plus discharge friction head and velocity head. 55.THE PUMPED SYSTEM The total head may therefore be the sum of the suction lift and the discharge head of the difference between the discharge head and suction head and can be expressesd as follows: Total head = _—Suction lift or Suction head + Discharge head Hoo = FH HY (Hye Hey where Hj) = static suction lift (positive) or static suction head (negative) H2 = friction head in suction line H j 7 5 veloctiy head (head loss) in suction line = ys! 28 = static discharge head Hy = friction head in discharge line 2 Hg = velocity head (head loss) in discharge line = Vd_ 2g Vs, = velocity in suction line Vag = velocity in discharge line (2) Efficiency The degree of hydraulic and mechanical perfection of a pump is judged by its efficiency. This is defined as the ratio of pump energy output to the energy input applied to the pump shaft is the same as the prime movers output. Efficiency(%) = Pump output x 100 = 0.98 xQxH Power P @ Performance Curves ‘The variations of head with capacities at a constant speed is called the pump characteristic. Pump characteristic, efficiency and power curves for a particular pump are shown in Figure 3.6. 56.THE PUMPED SYSTEM 100 90 Efficiency — % eee cee 10 It should be noted that the curves in Figure 3.6 are for a pump at one speed only and in the range of normal pump operations. Head and capacity vary with speed in such a way 60. 50 40 30 fad-me 20 10 Fig. 3.6 Characteristic Curves for a given Impeller Size and Design Show Head, kW, Capacity, Efficiency that the performance curves retain their characteristic features. e) The relationship between head, capacity and power with speed, for both the normal and abnormal ranges of operation, follows definite rules known as affinity laws. These laws which apply to every point on the head-capacity curves state that when the Affinity Laws speed is changed: a) ‘The capacity varies directly as the speed “57. Hog : 8 2 bos S teo = 7-0. -b30 tis ° Cr a eT) Power ~ kWTHE PUMPED SYSTEM b) ‘The head varies directly as the square of the speed ) ‘The power varies directly as the cube of the speed. ‘The affinity laws are expressed by the following equations: I 4 Specific Speed ‘The means of comparison of centrifugal pumps is b capacity speed head Power speed ratio specific speed is defined as (See Ref. 2). Ng where N. s N Q H gun (3/4 specific speed speed of pump (r.p.m.) capacity (litres/sec) head (m) 58. ¥ @ term called "specific speed". TheTHE PUMPED SYSTEM Specific speed is a criterion of similarity for centrifugal pumps in the manner that Reynolds number is criterion for pipe flow. The physical meaning of specific speed, which has no practical vaiue, is revolutions per minutre to produce one m3 cubic metre/sec at one metre head with an impeller similar to the one under consideration, but reduced in size. The specific speed is a "type" number and is constant for all similar pumps and does not change with the speed for the same pump. 5. Range of Pump Opera: Centrifugal pumps may be considered to have two ranges of operation, viz., a) Normal Range b) Abnormal Range Operation in both ranges must be considered when carrying out a complete waterhammer analysis. a) Normal Range of Pump Operation The normal range of pump operation may be considered to be the case when head, capacity are assumed as positive. The characteristic curves are then confined to one quadrant. Pump manufacturers can readily supply the characteristic curves within this range. It may be necessary to consider the relationship between head, capacity and speed more accurately than the information provided by the manufacturer and the relationship can then be determined from the affinity laws. Figure 3.8 shows H - Q curves for varying speeds m,n, and n,. The curved lines joining the points from the affinity laws are square Parabolas and each point on one such curve has the same efficiency and specific speed. Figure 3.7 illustrates characteristic curves for different types of pumps. The curve forms are important in waterhammer analyses, and it should be noted that pumps with high specific speeds (e.g. axial flow pumps) have steeply rising curves, whilst pumps with low specific speeds have flat curves. 59THE PUMPED SYSTEM ‘The theorectical H-Q curve is a parabola. However, such a curve is only approached with low specific speed pumps and it will be seen that when operation is near the apex, there is an unstable zone with wide fluctuations of flow. ‘These variations in flow can esult in surges of high intensity being set up in the system. b) Abnormal Range The abnormal range of pump operation is when the flow and for head conditions are in the negative quadrants. Information on these complete characteristics is not readily available from manufacturers and reference should be made to several excellent articles on the subject. (Refs. 3, 4 and 5). 34 The System Resistance discharge a certain quantity. It is made up of: static head; q Pipeline friction; resistance of valves and other devices. w with the system resistance curve. This operating polut is shown as A in 3.9. Figure 3.9 shows various conditions of a typical Pumped system. The levels of the suction and reservoir can vary and it is only a matter of adjusting the lines on the H- Q Giagram to suit as shown in Figure 3.10. Tt should also be noted that capacity of the sys~ tem also varies (q), 42) under these circumstances. -60.THE PUMPED SYSTEM HEAD & POWER zg ‘\ ‘ MULTI — STAGE TURBINE UNSTABLE OVERLOADING RATE OF FLOW SINGLE ~ STAGE VoLUTE Pe See eae gO" STABLE NON-OVERLOADING HEAD & POWER RATE OF FLOW HEAD & POWER MIXED — FLOW AXIAL HIGH SHUT-OFF HEAD FLAT POWER CURVE RATE OF FLOW PROPELLER, HEAD & POWER. HIGH SHUT-OFF HEAD. HIGH SHUT-OFF POWER. RATE OF FLOW Fi 1. 3.7 Four Typical Pump Characteristics 61.62.THE PUMPED SYSTEM When the total static head changes from 1 to 2 (Figure 3.10), there is an increase in flow and a reduction in head. The operating point must remain at the intersection of the Pump curve and the system resistance curve and moves from A to A). It is important to note that these points are for steady state conditions of flow and whilst the change in level is occurring, surges due to velocity variations are also set up in the system. Total Head Static Head 2 Static Head Fig. 3.10 3.5. Multi Pump Operation 1 General Many pumping schemes are designed for multi-pump operation, that is, the pumps may operate in series or in parallel as well as singly. 63.THE PUMPED SYSTEM In’ order to determine the surges set up in such a system, the combined operating characteristics must be known. It is possible, in some circumstances, to incorrectly combine pumps, so that no additional capacity results or to operate them so that damaging surges are set up. 2. Series Operation Series operation of pumps is frequently used for boosting the supply to provide increased capacity. The booster pump is generally situated some distance away from the main pump, as shown in Figure 3.11. It is often difficult to obtain a hydraulic balance in this layout due to the surge condi- tions, and it is advisable to install a balance tank before pump P,. In a gravity boosted system a by-pass with a reflux valve around pump P, should always be installed. Reservoir Booster Pump Pa Pam | Fig, 3.11 The series connection of pumps adjacent to one another, as shown in the layout of Figure 3.12 and in Figure 3.16, is sometimes used. Consideration should be given to the high shut-off head developed by the second pump. The surges induced when starting the two pumps simultaneously can be high (see Chapter 7) and is usually more common and beneficial in this instance to combine the pumps in parallel. =It PUMPED SYSTEM Delivery Pump ?, Pump P, Inet Fig. 3.12 Pumps in Series Fig. 3.13 Pumps in Parallel 3 Parallel Operation Parallel operation is frequently used to increase the capacity of the system. Figure 3.13 shows a diagramatic layout of two pumps in parallel. It is important to ensure that the correct types of pumps are used in parallel operation, as it is possible that no increase in flow will result, as shown for pumps No. 1 and No. 4 in Figure 3.14. Figure 3.14 shows the characteristic curves for three different pumps in a typical Pumping station and the effects of operating such pumps in parallel. Figure 3.15 shows the effects on capacity, head, efficiency and power of paralleling two pumps of the same size. The results of series and parallel operation of two pumps with two different system curves are shown in Figure 3.16. It is interesting to note that with the system curve (a) series operation increases flow from q,to 9,, whereas with parallel operation, the flow is increased to a higher value qg With system curve (b) parallel operation results only in an increase in flow from a, toq., whilst with series operation, the flow is increased to dy (see Table I). A corresponding variation also occurs in the heads. 265.oe uonesado duing jaiesed ple “614 002 01 5 uno oLusRBLOVEVHO JNNe NOLLVadO aWne TaTIWuvd oz senaw —H +66.Shuto head ata=0 Head for two equal pumps |_ Efficiency of _ oath, 2d, a Head for Static head fale pam aa Eticiney of two equal pumps single pump Ey E, at (Q, Mticieney, E =| Operating head, He Power input for ‘wo equal pumps 104) 2P, at (0, Power, P —e | Power input for single pump ! ae jperating characteristics Q Sine ump 20,) Pyaca, ‘1 ' @ two nunps Rate of discharge, Q ——e— Performance characteristics of single and'twin centrifugal pumps operating at constant speed Fig. 3.15 Parallel Pump Operation Pumps 1 & 2 (Series) Pumps 1 & 2 (Parallel) Pumps 1 oF 2 ne) oe a Fig. 3.16 Series and Parallel Pump Operation 61. oeTHE PUMPED SYSTEM TABLE 1 Series and Parallel Pump Operation (Refer to Fig. 3.16) System | Operating Pump Flow Curve Point Operation (a) Ay 1 or 2 = Singly B Ag yc beres 95, Ag 1c Parallel 6 (o) By cay i Ba 1 Peallel a B3 1+ 2 = Series as 3.6 Electric Motors 1 General ‘The size and type of electric motor used in a pumping unit determines the magnitude of its moment of inertia. This moment of inertia must be known in order to carry out waterhammer analyses. It is therefore, important to have some basic knowledge of electric motors. 2 Voltage ‘The three phase 415 volt AC motor is the one most commonly used for small and ‘medium size, although for very small installations, single phase motors are used when this is the only supply available. Voltages of 3.3 kV and 6.6 kV are sometimes used with motors over about 150 KW. 68., ‘THE PUMPED SYSTEM Synchronous Speed ‘The synchronous speeds of motors (50 cycles) are: 750rpm = - ~—«8 poles 1000rpm - 6 poles 1500rpm - 4 poles 3000 rpm - 2 poles Full load speed equals synchronous speed minus slip. Types of Motors The various types of motors commonly used are: a) ») oe) a e) 3 a) v) a) e) Squirrel cage High Torque Slip Ring Synchronous Multi-speed The Squirrel Cage Motor is of simple construction and is generally used. It has a fixed speed and a low starting torque, which suits most pumping installations. High Torque Motors are used when a high starting torque is required, such as with axial flow pumps. The Slip Ring Motor is sometimes used when slight speed reductions with subsequent flow variations are required. ‘The Synchronous Motor is sometimes used in large installations requiring constant speed at high efficiency. Multi-speed Motors of the squirrel cage type can be used when step speed variation is required. 69.THE PUMPED SYSTEM 37 Moment of Inerti: 1 General When the power supply to a pumping unit is interrupted, whether by design or accident, surges are set up and the magnitude of these surges is dependent upon the rate of deceleration of the rotating equipment. This rate of deceleration is governed by the moment of inertia of the rotating parts. Chapter 8 describes how the moment of inertia of a pumping unit can be increased by attaching a flywheel to the coupling Pump impellers and shafts have low moments of inertia and for all practical purposes, can be ignored; however, the moment of inertia of the electric motor stator and the coupling (or pulleys) must be considered, in order to carry out a waterhammer analysis. 2 Formula for Moment of Inertia 7 Mak.2 where I moment of inertia M masses of rotating parts (kgs) k = radius of gyration 3. Moments of Inertia of Electric Motors Moments of inertia of electric motors vary considerably in size, type and make. Manufacturers are able to provide this information which is generally expressed in MK, 4. Moments of Inertia of Couplings Moments of inertia of couplings are obtainable from manufacturers or calculated from physical dimensions. -70.Moment of Inertia of Pumping Units ‘The total moment of inertia of the pumping unit can be determined from: I total = I motor + I coupling As mentioned in paragraph I of this section, the moments of inertia of the pump impeller and the shafts are small and can usually be neglected. 6 Inertia Equation It is necessary to be able to determine the speed of the pump at any time interval after power interruption. ‘This can be calculated from the inertia equation which states: n = |( atx Pox103) ek (1 x wd where n = _ speed ratio At = _ time interval (sec) i power input (kW) total moment of inertia of rotating parts (kg m2) fo © =~ angular speed (rad. sec ~}) ‘The speed ratio n is defined in Section 3.3 paragraph 3 (e). ‘The time interval At is some proportion of 2L/a. The power input P, of the electric motor to the pump at the initial steady state condition (time 0) i: 7 180 x Qo Ho No where H, = — head at time 0 (metres) a Q flow at time 0 (I/sec) Tlo = Pump efficiency % fo Inlet Power kW No = speed at time 0 (r. TeTHE PUMPED SYSTEM The value of P , strictly varies for each interval of 4 t. However, the error in neglecting this variation is generally insignificant. (Ref. 1, pp. 118). ‘The angular speed w is determined from: Having calculated and tabulated the values of the speed ratios the pump characteristic curves at the various speeds can be drawn from the information obtained from the affinity laws. 3.8 Operational Control LR General It is important in the design of an hydraulic system to carefully consider the effects of the operational control on the system. The control equipment may itself induce surges requiring surge control devices to be installed or the system designed to withstand the high heads. Operational control of any system may be considered to be one or more of the following: a) automatic ») semi-automatic od manual The selection of the method of operation may depend upon the complexity of the scheme, the remoteness of the installation and the capital cost, compared to labour costs with a semi-automatic or manual method of operation. The following equipment can change the hydraulic functioning of a system: (a) Pressure switches 3) Float valves (c) Float switches TR.‘THE PUMPED SYSTEM (a) Flow switches (e) Altitude control valves 7) Level probes ) Pressure reducing valves (a) Time switches ‘The effects of the various control equipment on surges will be described in subsequent sections. A system which can cause considerable problems is a pumped one with an altitude control valve or float valve at the end of the pipeline as shown in Figure 5.30. The surges with valve closure can place con: lerably greater head than the shut off head of the pump over the whole length of pipeline. The magnitude of the surges dependent on the time of valve closure - if the time of closure is less than 2L it can result in a head of av abovelthe|operating head. Hunting can also occur with dire results. g The float valve shown in Figure 1.4 can close rapidly if there is sticking of the valve ~ particularly in small diameter reservoirs ~ and/or combined with wave action. Instances of pipe failure have been observed due to these factors. “73.THE PUMPED SYSTEM (ay 2 (3) (a) (5) (6) a) REFERENCES Bergeron I - "Waterhammer in Hydraulics and Wave Surges in Electricity". New York, John Wiley & Sons (1961) p. 160. The Institution of Water Engineers, "Manual of British Water Engineering Practice". Cambridge, W. Heffer & Sons Ltd. (1961) Chapter IL Stepanoff A. J. - "Centrifugal and Axial Flow" Pumps Knapp R. T. - "Complete Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps and their use in the Prediction of Transient Behaviour". A.S.LE. Transactions (1937). "The Calculation of Waterhammer in Pumping Plant". Sulzer Technical Review No. 1 (1955). Bergeron P - "Complexite des Phenomenes de Coups de Belier sur les Installations de Pompage et Essai de Classification des Soluti¢ns Generales pour y Remedier. J. Mouille Blanche, Numero special B (1949). Faire & Guyer ~ “Water Supply & Waste Water Disposal”. TA.41 4.2 43 CHAPTER 4. THE GRAVITY SYSTEM ‘The System ‘Types & Characteristics of Valves Operational Control References 115.CHAPTER 4, THE GRAVITY SYSTEM ‘The gravity system is usually composed of an elevated source of supply such as a dam or reservoir which feeds by gravity through a pipeline or channel to a lower location. ‘As with the pumped system the gravity system may be composed of many different components, which might also include booster pumping. The surging in the system is a function of all of the components, size, location and type. ‘The analysis for surges in a gravity system is not as complex as the pumped system, usually the main variable component, which is the controlling clement is the valve. A knowledge of valve types and characteristics is essential and these are described in this chapter. 4a ‘The System A simple system is shown in Figure 4.1 where the only variable and influencing component is the valve at the end of the pipeline. omypositivel SU Reservoir Static level Reservoir Mio. NegativelSurge 4.1. Surges due to Valve Closure in a Gravity System 76.THE GHAVITY SYSTEM The initial surge on valve closure is positive and a subsequent negative surge is set up. The effect of the positive surge on the pipeline is one of hydraulic loading only and can be readily controlled by a Neyrpic valve or a positively controlled time element in the valve such as a electrically actuated motorised valve. Hydraulically operated valves, such as altitude control valves cannot be controlled in their functioning and their installation can often lead to failure of the pipeline. ‘The subsequent negative surge has the same effect on the system as with pumped flow, that is, it can cause separation conditions, cavitation and air entry with its inherent problems. Figure 4.2 shows a system with a pressure reducing valve (PRV) which is used to permit the installion of less costly lower head pipes. The system can often cause troubles if the PRV malfunctions. Reservoir Static lav PAV setting level Reservoir ed Nevesic Soe Fig. 4.2. Typical Gravity System with Controlling Elements Another common type of gravity system incorporates a booster pump which is.operated at peak demand and with normal conditions operates as a gravity system. aTTHE GRAVITY SYSTEM Pump shut off hese Walve closed) hata’ Static level Booster Pump Reservoir By pass with reflux valve Fig. 4.3 Typical Boosted Gravity System The operational control for these simple systems is described in Section 4.3. More complicated systems with branch lines, valves, pumps reticulation and reservoirs are merely built up from the three systems described - however the waterhammer analysis often becomes rather complex. 42 Types & Characteristics of Valves Valves form boundary conditions for surges and it is necessary to know the valve characteristics at various times in order to analyse the system. The characteristics for each type of valve are different. Figure 4.4 shows the relationship between the area of valve opening and the valve travel of several common types of valves. 78. 7THE GRAVITY SYSTEM % Valve Opening (Areal Open 100, Standard Sluice Valve 80 + Standard Sq, Penstack or Plain Dise Valve ee pie pi Spectacle Eye Valve or Rotary Valve 80 70 Butterfly Valve 60 AS 50 40 30 = 20 10 - 9 "10203040 50—<60_—-70~80 80 100 Shut % Gate Travel (Stroke} Fig. 4.4 Relation between Area of Valve Opening and Stroke of Valve for Various Standard Types of Valve A characteristic valve curve can be drawn by determining the head losses at various rates of flow for a particular valve opening. These head losses are Oh dh found fro! head loss across valve in metres a discharge coefficient which varies with the type of valve and opening - see Tables J, I Hl, IV and adjacent figures. mean velocity of valve in m per second = acceleration due to gravity - = pipeline diameter = angle of valve opening “79.THE GRAVITY SYSTEM TABLE | BUTTERFLY VALVES [6 [to | 20° [30° [aoe] 50° | 60° | 70° [x [os2[isefaor[ 03] 127] s26 [aie] 751 TABLE II GATE VALVES Be ae esl ese D of} a4{e|z7}]ela z | K for] ors | o26[os[ 20sfssefi7 | a] F De : re | = valve stroke or travel LL D = diameter of valve 4 TABLE II! ROTARY VALVES 8 5 [10 | 20° [ aoe] aoe] ase | soe [ae] a > « [029 | 1.56 | 5.47] 173] 312] 526 | 206] «86 TABLE IV REFLUX VALVES 8 [ase | 20° [25° [302 [250 [ 40> [ase] 50° | co] 700 « [90 | 62 [a2 | a0 | 20 | 4 | os] ce] a2] i7 . > 80.ka THE GRAVITY SYSTEM ‘An example of how the closure of different valves can effect the heads is shown in Figure 4.5. A closure time of 360 seconds has been taken. It is interesting to note that the needle valve gives the largest rise and the butterfly valve the least. The effects of the closure of an 450 mm diameter butterfly valve in various times is shown in Figure 4.6. It should be noted that a negative pressure starts to occur in the pipeline at chainages 4300 m and 7200 m at a closure time of slightly less than 720 seconds. 43 Operational Control The operation of valves, whether operated by hand or by some means of automatic control can be a potential source of trouble. It is therefore important that correct selection of valve type and determination of closure times be used for automatically controlled valves and care should be exercised by the operator in the case of manually operated valves. These factors should obviously be related to the system characteristics. Automatically controlled valves, which do not have a positive controlling element, such as pressure reducing valves, altitude control valves and float valves can readily malfunction and unless some protection is made, can cause failures in the pipeline. A valve which sticks and then suddenly releases can result in alarmingly high pressures - for example if in a pipeline, with a velocity of 3.0 m per second and a length of 3660 metres, the valve snaps shut in a time of less than 8 seconds then the pressure rise can be up to 300 metres. (See Figure 1.4). Automatically controlled valves including float valves (see Figure 4.8) are also prone to hunting; and if the valve movement enters into phase with uneven multiples of the pipe- line period 2L, resonance can occur which can result in much higher surge pressure than a could normally occur with rapid valve closure. Positively controlled automatic valves such as by electric motor cannot malfunction adversely, and provided the time of closure is satisfactory, will not result in high surge pressures. “81.THE GRAVITY SYSTEM oor sanjen areg pue Ayjioring ‘apaany 40 ‘81nS0|D 404 asIY PAH Jo BI2Y Jo UOsLIedWIOD Gp “614 spuoo9g ~ SLL 00€ osz, 002. ost oot os 001 ose T — T T Jj os- 7337 OLWIS BATWA A1dU3LLNB BATWA BLVD BAIA 37033N $038 09€ = S3A7VA JO 3¥NSOID 40 SWIL 3LON 4008 senew — aW3H ost J o0z 82.0082 0002 sanew — 39¥NIVHO 000! bee os- az 5 sou ano nen e104 — F anen atinoy sbang enneban Sy s2u0z uonesedog x sown aansopo anien [onien 21d24ay) aig 63s anoge %S) 25 Bn1eA, B1GHAaN 73A37 luis T ag anna OW bsez 08e bsuz oo1- sensu Ov3H 83.THE GRAVITY SYSTEM In the systems shown in Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 protection can be given to the pipeline against excessive pressures due to either rapid valve closure or valve malfunction by installing a surge relief valve of the "Neyrpic” type (Refer to Chapter 9). In the case where a PRV is installed in addition to a Neyrpic valve a pressure relief valve is required on the downstream side to prevent a gradual build-up of pressure if valve leakage occurs at no flow. ‘The system in Figure 4.3 can give rise to high surge pressures in the section between the pump and valve if the valve starts to close whilst the pump is running. The surge can be much greater than the shut off head of the pump and occurs over the full length of this section of the pipeline.REFERENCES 1 Degrement - "Water Treatment Handbook". Glenfield & Kennedy - "Choosing Valves". 85.5a 52 5.3 54 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 CHAPTER 5. WATERHAMMER DIAGRAMS Wave Propagation Boundary Conditions Notation for Diagrams Basics for Diagram Construction Surge Waves Construction of Waterhammer Diagram Watercolumn Separation Classical Waterhammer Diagrams. 86.CHAPTER 5. | WATERHAMMER DIAGRAMS A waterhammer analysis can readily be carried out by means of the graphical method and this section shows how the diagrams can be drawn by following the Bergeron method. Another approach is the Schnyder diagram which is very similar to the Bergeron method, the main differences being the assumed location for applying the hydraulic losses. In order to understand the theory and application of waterhammer, the various phases which occur in a pumped system and a gravity system are shown in Figures 5.1 and 5.2. ‘The graphical method follows the waterhammer phenomenon step by step as it tells a complete story of the hydraulic happenings in an installation. Once the diagram has been constructed, the solution to the problem of overcoming any dangerous surges usually becomes apparent immediately. The solution to analysis by computer methods is not always apparent. The graphical diagram shows the pressure-flow relationship at a particular time and location. The diagram may be considered four dimensional because the relationship between these four variables in the unsteady state condition can be readily determined. ‘The main variable components in a system are pumps and valves, which have been previously described. This chapter shows how the boundary conditions brought about by these components affect the diagram. There are also fixed boundary conditions which will be described. Water column separation is one of the most troublesome occurrences in a hydraulic system, however, its effects can be predicted with reasonable accuracy even though the phenomenon is extremely complex and defies complete analysis. 87.(No flow Reservoir Steady state condition {il Starting Transient condition (iil Normal operation Steady state condition (iv) Stopping ~ Phase (a) Negative surge. Transient condition (¥) Stopping ~ Phase (b) Positive surge, Transient condition (ui) No flow Steady state condition NoTES 1. Conditions (i) (i) & (vi represent steady state conditions and shaded areas are static hydraulic loads>~ 2. Conditions (ii) (iv) & (v) represent Unsteady or transient conditions and shaded areas are dynamic hydraulic loads which vary with time, Fig. 5.1 Waterhammer Phases of a Pumped System 88.static level 1 No flow Reservoir Steady state condition Stop Valve set Ia Float Valve a F 2 Valve opening ~ Phase {a} Negative surge. Transient condition 3 Valve opening — Phase (b) Positive surge. Transient condition Normal operation Steady state condition HL 5 Valve closure — Phase (a) Positive Surge. Transient condition 6 Valve closure — Phase (b) Negative surge. Transient condition 7 No flow Steady state condition NOTES 1. Conditions 14 & 7 represent steady state conditions and shaded ateas are static hydraulic loads 2 Conditions 2.35 & 6 represent Unsteady or transient conditions and shaded areas are dynamic hydraulic, loads which vary with time, Fig. 5.2 Waterhammer Phases of a Gravity System 89.‘The classical waterhammer diagrams given at the end of this section will form a guide to the analysis; however, as previously emphasised, it is unwise to generalise or oversimplify, and the diagrams should only be used as a guide. The only correct method of analysis is to solve each case separately by means of constructing a diagram. 5.1 Wave Propagation When a variation in flow occurs in a system, the surges set up can be represented by straight lines constructed at a certain slope or slopes on a graphical diagram. In order to clarify the waterhammer phenomenon, and to construct the diagram, Bergeron and Schnyder assume that a waterborne observer travels along the pipeline at the same speed as the surge wave. (See Figure 5.3). This observer cannot overtake or be overtaken by any other wave, since all the waves are travelling at the one speed. Any changes in head and flow which the observer sees can only be caused by the waves which he meets. A waterhammer diagram is then a representation of what the waterborne observer, or observers see in their travels up and down the pipeline. Reservoir © Surge Wave Observer — goes — Reflux Pump A Valve Initia Direction of Fluid Flow (+0, +V) Fig. 5.3 Pumped System 90.3 was shown in Chapter 2 that two general waterhammer equations exist and a diagrammatic solution with the four variables H, V, F and f is difficult; however, if we 1 Figure 5.3, when a pump is shut down, a surge wave is Propagated at the pump and Commences to travel towards the reservoir. This is also the initial direction of the fluid flow. (+Q). In this case, a reduced pressure and flow occurs at the pump because the Pump immediately commences to slow down when it is shut off; Figure 5.4 represents @ head (pressure) versus flow (velocity) diageam and M is considered to be the initial steady state condition at the pump, and it would be expected that the straight line, NePresenting the surge wave, or variation in pressure-flow would be in the direction MN. Fig. 5.4 Pumped System — Waterhammer Lines Jn the case of gravity flow, a surge wave is propagated at the valve and commences to fravel to the reservoir, as shown in Figure 5.5 and described in Chapter 2. Figure 5.6 is the waterhammer diagram; the waterhammer line would have a negative slope because the pressure is rising with reduced flow. ~ 91.Reservoir Fig. 5.5 Gravity System Observer Surge Wave — <_— Dd — Valve A Initial Direction of Fluid Flow N “ ho Lo : a -H Fig. 5.6 Gravity System — Waterhammer Lines Slope of Waterhammer Lines ‘The slope of the waterhaimmer lines is given by the following: If the observer is travelling against the original positive flow direction of the fluid, then the slope is positive. L 2. Hf the observer is travelling with the original positive flow direction of the fluid, then the slope is negative. 92.Cor a ER EN A RT eS EP SE SCI SEATP WATERHAMMER DIAGRAMS The slope of the line MN in Figure 5.4 is positive and in Figure 5.5 is negative. In solving the waterhammer equations by eliminating the unknowns (i.e. by the observer method) we get: ee v- Vv 2 o OH ee SQ Beeeaae: tan] 9 ae en where 8 angle (degrees) a speed of surge wave (m/sec) A Area of pipeline (m2) g acceleration due to gravity (m/sec?) A convenient method of determining the slope is to construct an intercept on the head ordinate axis equal in magnitude to aV g where V = change in velocity (m/sec) (See Figure 5.4). 5.2 Boundary Conditions The knowledge of the various boundary conditions is essential in the construction of the diagram. Some of the elements, such as valves and pumps, vary with time, whereas the others remain fixed with time. The surge waves are reflected and transmitted according to the boundary conditions as shown in Figure 5.7. ‘Types of boundary conditions are: a) Pumps » Valves 3 Reservoir a Atmosphere ° Cavitation = ) Pipe diameter variations 93.(a) Pump, Pump curve at Speed Ny. (0) Valve (i) Valve Opening (ii) Valve Closing Valve characteristic curve at closure V,. Valve characteristic curve at ‘opening V, {ec} Reservoir Reservoir Level (4) Reflux Valve — Reflux Valve Closed (e} Atmosphere or Cavitation Atmosphere or Cavitation Reflected Wave {f) Pipe Diameter Transmitted Wave Variations Rofracted Wave Fig. 5.7 Waterhammer Lines ~ Boundary Conditions 4.5.3 Notations for Diagrams Any point on a line on the waterhammer diagram is representative of head, flow, time and location. It is, however, necessary to annote the points to Permit construction of the diagram and to read it after completion. The head and flow are readily obtainable from the relevant ordinates, and the time and location are determined by the observer who leaves a known Point, at a known time, which may be the initial or steady state condition (e.g. Point M in Figure 5.4) or at any other point, which may be fixed relative to time. ‘The notations may be represented in the following way: Om, In, 3p, etc. where the 0, 1 and 3 etc. are the times and the suffixes m,n and p, etc. are the locations. as follows: 1 The physical characteristics of the system such ast (a) Pipeline lengths; (b) Pipe diameters; () Pipe materials; @ Static heads. a _—_—~—=—,_=—===____- sz (@) Flows and heads at the likely steady state conditions. These may be at normal pump operations for say one, two or more pumps operating. +95.WATERHAMMER DIAGRAMS. 5. (b) Flows and heads at the unlikely steady state conditions. These may be for operations as in (a) but with valves throttled or some Permanent or semi-permanent obstruction or any variation to normal conditions. If the unlikely steady state condition cannot occur, then the values of the normal operating conditions should be used. C) The system friction curves should be drawn as shown in Chapter 3. ‘The pump characteristics as described in Chapter 3. ‘The valve characteristics as described in Chapter 4 ‘The speed of the surge wave in the appropriate sections of the system. (Refer to Chapter 2). The times (t) of the surge waves to go to the relevant boundary conditions and return to their sources: 7 2k where L = _ length of pipeline section (m) a = speed of wave (m/sec) The slope of the waterhammer lines. This can be determined from the intercept aV. 8 Items 3 and 4 are the variables in the system and full consideration must be given to their characteristics. 55 Surge Waves An understanding of the nature of pressure waves and surges in a system is essential for the construction of a waterhammer diagram. . +96.WATERHAMMER DIAGRAMS. Pressure Waves Pressure waves are set up when the flow velocity changes. These waves tend to become complex; however, they may be added algebraically and the net pressures are called surges. When these surges are seen by a waterborne observer in his travels along the Pipeline, we have what is called a surge wave. ‘The surge waves can be represented on a graphical diagram which is called a waterhammer diagram. A Positive Pressure Wave is when the pressure is increasing in magnitude. A Negative Pressure Wave is when the pressure is decreasing in magnitude. Basic Pressure and Surge Diagrams The nature of pressure and surge waves can be represented simply on diagrams as shown for a pumped system in Figure 5.8. This follows on from the basic theory given in Chapter 2. Ja the drawing of the diagrams, the following considerations and assumptions are made: i) The pipeline is horizontal; ii) Friction is neglected; iti) The steady state conditions apply, ive. h, and q 4 apply up to time 0. iv) The actual time of power interruption is time 0. vd) ‘The pump slows down and stops (after power interruption) in a time — vi) The time t for a wave to travel from A to Bis one (1) unit. . 97a 3 ¢ TIMEO : : TIME 6 fue : . tye 2 Reservoir a) OA 6A 6c a) ‘1 % Reflux Valve Flow a, Pump P —+ Velocity Vo a oo a 8 € TIME t TIME 7 ae nl A 8 c 1 © ic 7 » 1A oe TIME 2 TIME 8 aap a 5 A 8 c 88 e i ac cc) 4 7 ve Time 3 Time 9 | 92 a A cs e| “8 30 i ec Teas =ve y A B Ess TIME 4 Tue 10 i A 8 c 108 ac ka 100 oc 4s Te 48 es ay A a c TIMES a 8 c TIME 11 9 se o ea 5B Fig. 5.8 Pressure Waves — Time/Pressure/Location Relationship for a Pumped System 38.vii) ‘The surges, or the algebraic sum of the pressures, at the various times and locations, are represented by heavy full lines. The magnitude of the surges is ‘easured from the base line ABC and are shown as 3A, 4B, 5C ete. fa) Time 0 ‘The conditions in the system at time 0 are as shown in Figure 5.8 (a). That is, the pres~ Sires at A, Band C are zero. In fact, the line ABC is at pressure h, the condition of the waves with respect to ABC, i.e. positive and negative, are required to be known. (b) I i) The front of the ‘negative pressure wave which left A at time 0, has : arrived at location B. ey ee : iii) ‘The magnitude of the pressure at Bis 1B, which is the same pressure as 0A and 1c. i” iv) ‘The pump has slowed down to speed N. *) The flow has decreased accordingly. (c) Time 2 a The front of the negative pressure wave has reached ic: i The pump has slowed down to speed Np, ii) ‘The pressure continues to decrease at A and has a magnitude of 2A. iv) The flow continues to decrease. +99.& WAL ENMAMIMEH DIAGHAMS @ fe) (f) Time 3 i) ii) iti) iv) Time 4 i) ii) ii) iv) Time 5 i) ii) iii) The negative pressure wave reaches the reservoir and because of the conditions applying in the system (see Chapter 2), the wave is reflected with a positive sign. ‘The negative and positive pressure waves are added algebraically and result in surges 3A, 3B and 3C. The pump slows down to N. 3. The flow continues to decrease. ‘The front of the initial pressure wave which left A at time 0, has arrived back at A. ‘The pump has stopped. The flow has stopped. ‘The reflux valve has closed. The positive wave, on reaching the pump, is reflected with the same sign (see Chapter 2). Because the pump has stopped, no further reduction in pressure occurs at Aj; however, the negative wave continues to be transmitted along the line. The algebraic sum of the pressure waves, results in the surges 5A, 5B and 5C. -100.WATERHAMMER DIAGRAMS ® Times 6 to 11 ‘The pressures and resulting surges continue in a similar manner as before described. It can be seen that the pressure waves due to the various reflections are becoming more complex. Pressure-Time Relationship Points of interest in Figure 5.8 are as follows: a ‘The net pressure or surges at C remain constant at zero. ii) The surges at B remain constant at times 3, 4 and 5 and 7, 8 and 9. iii) ‘The pressure at A varies with respect to time. ‘These conditions can be represented graphically as shown in Figure 5.9. It should be noted that similar graphs to Figure 5.9 are taken in the actual surge testing of systems. (Ref. 5). 5.6 Construction of Waterhammer Diagrams: The construction of the waterhammer diagram follows on from the description of surge waves. The simplest form of diagrams are shown initially for the sake of clarity, the more complex arrangement can then be readily analysed. a) Basic Diagram ‘The axes of the diagram are: head - shown vertically flow - shown horizontally The static level is shown as LM. 101.PRESSURE ee Pressure J ™ a ~~ A Pressure Fig. 5.9 Pressure/Time — Flow/Time Relationship +102.‘The construction of the waterhammer diagram Figure 5.10 for pumped flow and Figure 5.11 for gravity flow commences at point M, which is the steady state condition of flow Qo and head h, and the point is designated as OA. As the time taken for the wave to travel from A to B is one unit, then for all times before and up to time 1, steady state conditions also exist at B, therefore 0A and 1B are shown at the same point. Similarly, location C at time 2 (2C) will be at the steady state condition. (b) Pumped Flow ‘The power to the pump is interrupted at time 0 (see Figure 5.10) so that after this time, @ negative pressure wave commences to travel along the pipeline and an observer who leaves C, sees surges at various locations. What the observer sees on his travels are called surge waves and are represented on the H - Q graph by waterhammer lines. The slope of the initial waterhammer line is aV, which is negative because the observer is 8 travelling against the original flow direction. If an observer leaves C at time -2 or earlier, or B at time -1 or earlier, he will arrive at A.at time 0, to find the original steady state condition (ie. 0), If an observer leaves C at time -1 or B at time 0, he will arrive at A at time 1 and find the boundary conditions at the pump at this time, which is the characteristic pump curve Nj - The same conditions apply at B at time 2. This point can then be annoted by 1A, 2B. Similarly, points 2A, 3A and 4A are found on the diagram by the intersections of the waterhammer line MN, with the pump curves N),N, and N4- When the observer meets the boundary conditions N,N,N, and Nat 1A, 2A, 3A and 4A, the surge waves are reflected. These reflected waves or waterhammer lines are drawn with a negative slope because the observer is travelling with the direction of the original flow. The observer continues up the pipeline until meeting other boundary conditions, in this case, the reservoir at location C. This location is always at constant Pressure and is represented by a straight line LM. As the time taken to travel from A to C is 2 units, the respective points on the graph at C are 3C, 4C, 5C and 6C. +103.WATERHAMMER DIAGRAMS ‘The description of the basic diagram has given the head and flow at the locations at each end of the system, and it is now required to find the values for intermediate locations along the pipeline. To locate other positions in the pipeline on the diagram, we must consider two observers who have to leave their respective locations in order to meet at the required location at the same time. For example, to determine the magnitude of the surge at location B at time 4, one observer must leave A at time 3 and the other must leave C at time 3. On the diagram, one line has a negative slope and the other a positive slope: the intersection point of the two waterhammer lines is then designated as 4B. The same type of construction is followed to determine the other points on the diagram which can continue indefinitely when friction considerations have been neglected. (o) Gravity Flow The valve at location A in Figure 5.11(b) is closed at time 0, and a positive pressure wave commences to travel along the pipeline to the reservoir, and an observer who leaves C sees the surges at the various locations. The slope of the initial waterhammer is positive because the wave is travelling in the original direction of flow. The diagram then continues in a similar manner as for pumped flow. @ Pipe Dimension Variations Pipe dimension changes cause a variation in the speed of the surge wave, due to different physical dimensions (ie. diameter and wall thickness) or different materials of construction (i.e. steel, asbestos cement, etc.) of the pipe. The speed of the surge wave can be calculated from the formula or the graph in Chapter 2, The waterhammer lines, can then be drawn with slopes of tan-]_a_for each section BA. of the pipeline where the variations of dimensions occur or by using the av intercept. 8 Figure 5.12 represents a layout of a simple system with a change of pipe diameter at the midpoint. The unit of time of 1 is taken for the surge wave to travel from A to B or B to C, etc. The waterhammer diagram can be constructed as shown in Figure 5.13. -106.Reservoir R, : * —— a Aa NG V2 uno . : 2A a 24 aA, 38 4A LEGEND 18 ~The Observer leaves B at time 1. TA] ~ Point required to be found. ) The release of air from water at temperature and pressure variations. Co) On draining the line. a At normal system shut down, some sections of the line may drain. e Negative surges due to waterhammer effects. Air should be prevented from entering the pipeline in the first instance to reduce operational difficulties. It is not always possible to do this, and when air does enter, then measures should be taken to expel the air. A description of the problems and their solutions for the above cases of air entry is now given. a) Intake Air can be prevented from entering the system at the intake by correct design features and by providing low water level pump cut-outs. +143.SURGE CONTROL METHODS ») Air Release Air released in the pipeline due to normal pressure and temperature variations cannot be prevented. Air is initially entrained in the water at the intake. ‘The quantities of air involved in this case are not large and provision for the exhausting can be made by means of air valves. Suitable valves are the small orifice air valve and the exhauster valve. Air purging by means of high velocity as described in (d) may also be considered. Abnormal conditions of pressure variation are discussed in (e) - Negative surges. ° Draining the Pipeline Jn the draining of a pipeline for maintenance purposes, it is essential that air is permitted to enter. The problem is to expel the large quantities in the line when the system is being charged, and this can generally be satisfactorily achieved by providing large orifice air valves, exhaust pipes at suitable locations or vacuum breakers (Reference 2). a) Normal System Shut Down Some sections of a pipeline may drain when normal pump shut down occurs, and the problem of expelling the air at start-up can become a serious problem. A layout of a typical scheme is shown in Figure 6.19 where open standpipes can be satisfactorily used for air entry and exhaust. PUMPING ; HEAD RESERVOIR Fig. 6.19 Static Condition of a System 144.SURGE CONTROL METHODS It is important that air does not become locked in the pipe and reduce the flow capacity. This is shown in Figure 6.20. Richards (Reference 1) states that the best way to eliminate this condition is to keep the water velocity high enough to sweep the air along the pipe, both during the initial start-up and during operations. Velocities of up to 3 metres per second are quoted as being required to purge air out of an enclosed system. AIR VALVE AIR STATIONARY, DUE TO BALANCED FORCES AVAILABLE EFFECTIVE CROSS SECTION Fig, 6.20 In the case shown in Figure 6.19, if normal air valves are used and were located at the high spots only, i.e. B and D then the condition of air locking could readily occur. e) Negative Surges When the negative surges due to waterhammer fall below the pipeline profile at any location, sub-atmospheric pressures occur in the pipe. This condition which is known as water-column separation has been previously described in detail in Chapter 5. There are two possibilities to consider when water column separation occurs and these are: i) To prevent the entry of air : i) ‘To allow the entry of air. “145.SURGE CONTROL METHODS Even if air is prevented from entry at the point of sub-atmospheric pressures, air which is entrained in the water is released, due to the reduction in pressure. This air does not go back into solution immediately when normal pressures are restored, but accumulates and can cause operational difficulties. ‘When air is allowed to enter the pipe through air valves or vents, the problem again is to expel the air. Generally, large volumes are involved and satisfactory exhausting is difficult. The solutions to the air problems associated with water column separation is to prevent its occurrence either by relocating the pipeline or by providing some means of surge control. It should be emphasised that although the installation of some types of air valve is generally necessary in a system, they cannot in themselves overcome all the problems associated with air in pipelines and careful design, such as eliminating unnecessary pipeline peaks, and preventing initial air entry is essential. Air valves cannot act as surge control devices because of their design and function. Waterhammer conditions which allow water-column separation, and where rapidly fluctuating positive and negative surges occur, can cause heavy loadings on most types of air valves. ‘These conditions can result in damage and high maintenance costs to the equipment. If difficulties are being experienced with air valves in existing installations, a check should be made for waterhammer effects. 146.SURGE CONTROL METHODS REFERENCES L Richards, R. T. - "Air Binding in Water Pipelines" - AWWA Journal, June 1962. 2 Glenfield & Kennedy ~ "Choosing Valves" - G. & K. Kilmarnock 1955. 3. Maclellan, D. - "Ventilation of Pipeline Systems and the Selection and Application of Air Valves (1) and (11)" - Pipes and Pipelines International, May and June, 1965. “147.71 12 73 1A 1S CHAPTER 7. STARTING SURGES IN PUMPED SYSTEMS Surge Diagrams Starting Times Surges along Pipeline Controlling Surges Field Tests References 2148.CHAPTER 7. STARTING SURGES IN PUMPED SYSTEMS. Surges set up by pump start up can be the most damaging of all, particularly in long Pipelines, and should not be overlooked in the analysis of systems. ‘The maximum surge, which is promulgated at the pump is transmitted along the line, and its distance is dependent on the start up time as compared to 2L. ‘The surge diagrams can be readily drawn and controlling devices readily applied. Td Surge Diagrams In order to determine the maximum surge at the pump a Bergeron H-Q diagram can be drawn. The factors which are required to draw the diagram are as follows: Pump characteristic curve; Static level; Pipeline characteristic curve; + Slope of waterhammer lines. A typical H-Q diagram is shown in Figure 7.1. The slope of the waterhammer lines for starting are the same as for lines for stopping and one can use the av intercept or a 8 slope of tan -I a. eA ‘The construction of the diagram follows along the principles given in Chapter 5. The points M, N, P and Q being the surges at the pump and points T and U at the reservoir where there is no variation in pressure. It can be readily seen from Figure 7.1 that if the pump curve is flat or the slope of the waterhammer line is flat then the magnitude of the surge would be less than that drawn. “149.STARTING SURGES IN PUMPED SYSTEMS The effect of friction on the reduction of the maximum surge is usually not very great because it occurs in the low flow region. However, subsequent surges are very rapidly damped out by friction. f max surge Static level Fig. 7.1 Starting Surge Diagram The maximum starting surge can never exceed the values as determined from the diagram unless adverse factors occur such as air in the pipeline. In the cases where starting times are greater than 2L,, the points M, N, P etc. are determined by the conditions at the pump at 2L intervals. 22 Starting Times In the determination of the distance that the maximum surge wave, which is set up at the pump, travels along the pipeline, it is necessary to calculate the time of start up. -150.STARTING SURGES IN PUMPED SYSTEMS, Pe . \ —-= to) Static evel u u a L ° a 7 + Fig. 7.4 Starting Surges along Pipeline Curves in Figure 7.4: (a) 7 . (o) Tt 2 cc) Tq =r a @ T, Sas, ta (e) a - 4 It can be seen from Figure 7.4 that for long pipelines and rapidly starting pumps, the surges near the end can be of proportionally high magnitude and experience has shown that when improper design has been carried out disregarding these factors, failures have often occurred in this region. -153.STARTING SURGES IN PUMPED SYSTEMS. 14 Controlling Starting Surges ‘The controlling of starting surges is much easier than for stopping surges, because only the positive surges have to be considered. Some types of control devices which can be used and bave been covered in detail in other chapters are: Flywheel + Air Vessel Surge relief valve Controlled valve + Electric motor drive Hydraulic coupling It is often possible to utilise the same type of controlling element in a system for both starting and stopping. 15 Field Tests Field testing has shown the validity of the method shown to determine the magnitude and for the controlling of the surges at the start up. Methods of field testing have been fully covered in the book "Waterhammer” by Webb and Gould.STARTING SURGES IN PUMPED SYSTEMS, REFERENCES ae Bergeron, P. ~ Discussions with author. 2 Parmakian - Chapter 5. 3. Munier et Vivot - "Les Electro Pumps" ~ Eyrolles, Pans (1962) 155,CHAPTER 8. FLYWHEELS 8.1 Description Considerations for Selection Analysis Calculation for Flywheel Size References -156.CHAPTER 8. FLYWHEELS When the power to a pumping unit is interrupted, there is usually insufficient inertia or reserve of energy within the unit to prevent very rapid slowing down and stopping. This condition often results in water column separation and gives rise to high positive surges. An increase in inertia which can subsequently reduce the surges can be achieved by fitting a flywheel. The flywheel is a simple and effective device which can be installed at a low cost. Bu Description ‘The flywheel is usually attached to the flexible coupling between the pump and electric motor, as shown in Figure 8.1(a)- The flywheel may also be attached to an extended spindle of the electric motor with support bearings and couplings, as shown on Figure 8.1(b), when the flywheel becomes large. The device can be installed in either the horizontal or vertical position. Figures 8.2 and 8.3 show photographs of typical flywheel installations, details of a horizontal flywheel are shown in Figures 8.4. The material can either be rolled steel, cast steel or cast iron, which should be machined all over and dynamically balanced. 8.2 Considerations for Selection The selection of any surge control device is based on definite considerations and those for the flywheel are: : -157.FLYWHEELS Flywheel i Electric Motor U Pump, Flexible Coupling Fig. 8.1 (a) Pumping Unit with Flywheel cig] arm ____ herith. aL: get He BIA Flywheel Fig. 8.1 (b) Arrangement with Bearing Pedestals 158.FLYWHEELS. Get Fig. 8.2 Vertical Flywheel Installation Fig. 8.3 Horizontal Flywheel Installation 159,FLYWHEELS Fig. 8.4 Surge Control Device — Flywheel — Horizontal Pumps (Typical) -160.FLYWHEELS, (a) (b) () (a) fe) (f) ‘The practical limit of length of pipeline is usually about 1,000 metres. For lengths greater than this, the physical dimensions generally become too great and the increase in inertia is so small as to be of no practical advantage. It is possible to install a flywheel (in conjunction with other surge control devices) for lengths greater than 1,000 metres). In this case, the flywheel would protect the pipeline against separation at the critical section and the additional device would reduce the positive surge to an acceptable value. The additional loads placed on the bearings and shafts of the pump and electric motor should be considered. (It is always advisable to consult the pump and electric motor manufacturer.) Sometimes additional couplings and bearings are required as shown in Figure 8.1 (b)- The additional load on the electrical equipment on starting must be considered. The selection and installation of the flywheel, or any other device, is usually based on economic considerations. The maximum flywheel diameter is related to the speed of rotation and the type of material used. The following table gives a guide to the maximum diameters which can be used: 161.FLYWHEELS Dismeter RS CS Cl RS CS Cl ne ce ca 200mm 763 603 210 337 «266 «= 9283 65 25. 300mm 339.268 93150 «118d. 57 29 10 400mm 191 151 53 8467 23 a 16 500 mm = 122 96 (34 5443. 15 13 10 600 mm 85 67 25 37 50 700mm 62 49 ag ce 22 NOT TO BE 800mm = 4838. 15 21 7 USED IN 900 mm 58 30 10 7 13 THIS AREA NOTES: Figures shown are factors of safety. Table is based on a Yield Strength 524 MPa for Rolled Steel (R.S.) 413 MPa for Cast Steel (C.S.) 131 MPa for Cast Iron (C.L) 162.FLYWHEELS. 8.3 ‘Analysis In the waterhammer analysis for the flywheel, it is necessary to firstly obtain the necessary basic information. (Refer also to Chapter 5.) ‘The waterhammer diagrams can then be drawn and the size of the flywheel determined. (a) i) (ia) (iii) (iv) (v) (b) Basic Information Required A longitudinal section of the pipeline. This will indicate the location of the high points were separation is likely to occur. However, separation can occur without any prominent high spots. ‘The pump characteristics. ‘The operating or steady state conditions. ‘The physical characteristics of the system (Pipe diameters, material, etc.) ‘The moment of inertia of the electric motor. (Refer to Chapter 3.) It is advisable to obtain accurate information from the manufacturers. Diagrams A system layout as shown in Figure 8.5, is described to illustrate the application of the flywheel as a method of surge control. @ Without Flywheel (No Separation) The waterhammer diagram (Figure 8.6) without the flywheel can be constructed from the information given in previous chapters. 163.FLYWHEELS HEAD — metres { 200 180 ) MAXIM ) MARINO Som RESULTANT SURGES, MAXIMUM SURGES 2) WITHOUT SEPARATION b) WITH SEPARATION ©) WITH FLYWHEEL 4} STARTING Ses Sn *4y, Figs. 86,8.7, 88 Eg, ta Ton staph STARTING sup, ATA 158 216 125 122 are 140 186 108 122 eter also to Waterhammer diagrams, into ¢ i) Lyws 100 MEE, — RESERVOIR STATIC LEVEL ee a ey wiNintum SURGE_WITH FLYWHEEL sol <= eh 4 i tS 20 wo Sane os sy NE aR as aon Se oO oe ons A 250 500 - sho LENGTH ~ metres 8.5 Configuration Diagrams 164.NOTE: 1) MAX SUR B= 158m, 2) MAX SURI 72 143m 3) NO SEPAI 4) FRICTION NEGLECTED 158] da RESERVOIR LE GE AT A AT TIME GE AT 8 AT TIME RATION OCCURING Fig. 8.6 Waterhammer Diagram — No Sej 165. Q = BO itres/see L = 1000:m D = 200mm ACtD) a= 110 5 2L- 2secs ae 08 VEL RL 914m 0A 18 2c VA 28 FLOW — titres/sec—— arationFLYWHEELS. Gi) Ga) (iv) ‘The configuration diagram for this condition can then be drawn, showing the maximum positive and negative surges on the longitudinal section of the pipe~ line (Figure 8.5, lines a, anda»). This will determine the extent of separ ation, if it is occurring. Separation may not occur if the profile is satisfactory. However, the maximum positive surges in this case may be of such magnitude that it i necessary to reduce them and this can be done by means of a flywheel or by other means, such as a Neypric Valve. Without Flywheel (With Separation) If the configuration diagram shows that separation is occurring (that is, if the negative surge falls below the pipeline profile at any location), the waterhammer diagram can be drawn for simple cases to determine the magnitude of the surges. In more difficult or complex cases, where it is obvious that separation is occurring then it is usual to select a control device without a pure analysis. Figure 8.7 shows the maximum surge at A (when separation occurs at B) to be 216 metres, which is considerably in excess of 158 metres maximum if no separation had occurred. (Figure 8.6). With Flywheel, ‘The analysis for the selection of a flywheel (Figure 8.8) is based on the assumption that no separation should occur at location B; that is, for the layout given, in Figure 8.5, the minimum surge at B at any time should not be less than RL60. Starting Surges The starting surge is determined by constructing the waterhammer lines which commence at point 0, in Figures 8.6 and 8.7 and proceed to the pump curve which it intersects at point X. 166.9c toc 881 LOCATIONS 6811 481 7811 B81 NOTE: 1) MAX SURGE AT A= 216m (TIME 11) 2) MAX SURGE AT 8 = 189m (TIME 11) 3) WATER COLUMNS REJOIN AT 8 AT TIME 9 4) AIR IS ASSUMED TO ENTER THE PIPELINE AAT LOCATION 8 5) FRICTION NEGLECTED LO PUMP LEVEL 4 —30 2 20-15-10 5 Fig, 8.7 Waterhammer column rejoin 216 Ny (t= 1.0) e . 5 10 15 20 iagram — With Separation at B 167. Q = 80tivesisee L= 1000m D = 200mm AC CLASS D. fae ALat Bi 1 RLO A 8 c a= 110 q at= 05sec X(122m) et N, (t=0.5) FLOW — litres/see— 25 «30FLYWHEELS wot 8 z 6 i 8 g RL 1.4 3 : | ALO @ = soiree = 000m nara D = 200mm me tie 2 oa'te2c NOTE: 1) MAX SURGE AT A= 125m 2) MIN. SURGE AT 8 = 61m 3) NO SEPARATION 4) FLYWHEEL SIZE 660mm DIA, x 25mm THICK 5) FRICTION NEGLECTED t -20 0 =15 10 FLOW ~fitres/see ee ‘ ? 5 10 15 20 25 30 Fig. 8.8 Waterhammer Diagram — With Flywheel -168.FLYWHEELS. 84 fa) i) i) iii) iw) The head at point X is the normal maximum starting surge on the system. ‘The extent of this surge along the pipeline is seen on Figure 8.5, which is related to the time of start of the pump. (Refer to Chapter 7) Starting surges considerably in excess of that indicated above can result if air is trapped in the pipeline. This air can enter the system through the air valves if separation conditions occur and after pipeline draining. Because of the complex nature of air surging, no analysis for this can be carried out. It is known however, that from a considerable number of installations tested, air in pipelines can be the cause of pipeline failures on starting (as well as stopping). Calculations for Flywheel Size - Worked Example Data Longitudinal section as shown in Figure 8.5. ‘The pump characteristic curve at full speed as shown in Figure 8.7. The operating conditions as determined by the requirements of the system a) Speed (N.) b) Flow (Q,) 1480 r-p.m. 29.7 litres/sec ©) Head (H,) = Wn a) Friction Head 5m ©) Power a STe 1) Efficiency aaa, as the friction head is small compared with the static head, its effects will be neglected. Pipeline: Diameter (d) = 200 mm Length 1000 m First assumption for the pipe is Class D asbestos cement. 169.FLYWHEELS. v) vi) vii) ») i) ii) iii) iv) v) Moment of Inertia of Motor: T= 2.54 kg.m2 Moment of Inertia of Coupling: T= 0.17 kgem2 Surge Wave Velocity: a 1000 m/sec (from graph in Chapter 2) Calculations Angular Speed: w o= 20N = 2x7 x1480 = 153 radians/sec. 60 60 w= 23x104 > Velocity in Pipe: v= 9 = 11 m/sec. A Factor: aV = 1000x111 g 9.82, = 110. metres Time of surge wave: te ck = 2x 1000 a 1000 Power P,; = 0.98 Q x H (Formula in chapter 3) 7 0.98 x 91 x 29.7 84 4 31.5aw -170.FLYWHEELS, vi) The speed ratio to confine surge at B to 61 m will be selected as n = 1.15. ‘This is determined from a series of trial sketches See Figure 8.8 page 169. vii) The required inertia (I) is now determined from the inertia equation (Section 3). n-1 = Ate Pox 103 Iw,” 0.15 = 0.5% 31.5 x 109 Tx 23000 I = 56 ‘Now I of motor and coupling is I im te 2.54 + 0.17 = 2m So extra inertia Ip. required from flywheel is ip = 456-271 = 1.85 kg.m? 2 x Px Dt x vil) Sue of Fywheel Ip = MD, Tx Padi xt 8 32 For a steel 600 m diameter by 20 mm thick flywheel ly = 1x 7650 x 0.64 x 0.02 = 1.94 kgm? 32 ix) A check should be made as to the loading on bearings and electrical equipment. 2 The waterhammer diagram (Figure 8.8) can now be drawn, to see if all the requirements have been fulfilled. If not, then another selection should be made. The diagram will also give the maximum surges at the various locations. TL.FLYWHEELS xi) Pump speed ratios at various time intervals (use inertia equation). Location t 1) a 1A 0.5 0.15 1.15 2A 0.5 0.30 1.30 3A 0.5 0.45 1.45 4a 0.5 0.60 1.60 5A 0.5 0.75 1.75 6a 0.5 0.90 1.90 7A 0.5 1.05 215 8A 0.5 1.20 2.20 From the speed ratios found in the table, the pump curves can be drawn using the affinity laws. Pump manufacturers’ curves may also be used if they are available. ‘The resultant surges for the system layout given are as follows: Maximum Surges (metres) ALA AUB la) Without Separation 158 140 fe) With separation 216 186 Ic) With Flywheel 125, 108 ld) Starting 122, 122, A flywheel of 650 m diameter, 25 mm thick would satisfactorily eliminate separation and reduce the maximum positive surge to an acceptable value of 125 m at location A. 172.FLYWHEELS. Even if the pipeline profile was such that no separation was occurring, then the installation of the flywheel would reduce the maximum surges from 158 m to 125 m. If it is considered that this positive surge is too great, then an additional device, such as a surge relief valve, (Neyrpic type) could be installed. ‘The example given is perhaps the maximum practical flywheel size which could be installed. If the length was increased to say 3000 metres, the flywheel would need to have an inertia three (3) times as great. Once all the surges have been determined and the size of the flywheel and accessories selected, an economic analysis should be made. This economic analysis is made on the relative basis of the cost of providing a surge control device to the cost of installing pipes to withstand the surges without a device. Where separation is evident however, an operational evaluation is of prime importance and should always outweigh the economical comparison. 173.FLYWHEELS. REFERENCES, 1 Bergeron, P. ~ Discussions with author. 2 Bergeron, P. - "Waterhammer in Hydraulics etc." 174,9.1 9.2 9.3 94 95 CHAPTER 9. SURGE RELIEF VALVES Surges to be Controlled Description of "Neyrpic" Valve Operation Selection and Example Installation References 175.CHAPTER 9. SURGE RELIEF VALVES ‘The purpose of a surge relief valve is to reduce the excessive positive surge pressure in a system to an acceptable value. ‘The usual setting for the valve is 10% greater than the maximum operating head in pumped systems and 5% above the static head in gravity systems. ‘There are many different types of surge relief valves and surge suppressors. However, most of them are complex in construction and operation and should not be generally used, becuase they require careful analysis and a high degree of maintenance. ‘The "Neyrpic" type surge relief valve is a simple and effective device which can be used with confidence and is fully described in this chapter. See photographs in Figures 9.1 and 9.2. ‘The device has no effect on negative surges and cannot prevent separation for pumped systems. It controls the positive surges only. However the control of the initial positive surge in a gravity system subsequently reduces the negative surge. 91 Surges to be Controlled a) Pumped Systems ‘The waterhammer diagram for the system must initially be drawn in order to determine the surges. If separation is occurring then this condition should be eliminated to prevent operational problems and to reduce the resultant positive surges when the water columns rejoin. In this case, the positive surges can still be excessive and it requires an additional device, such as a surge relief valve, to reduce the magnitude to an acceptable value. -176.SURGE RELIEF VALVES Fig. 9.1 Neyrpic Valve Installation without Cover Fig. 9.2 Neyrpic Valve Cover, Motorised Valve and Neyrpic Valve Pit 72.SURGE RELIEF VALVES. In the other case, i.e., when no separation occurs, and the positive surges are excessive, the surge relief valve can again be used. Figure 9.3 shows a typical waterhammer diagram and the maximum surges to be controlled in a pumped system. hhy® Operating head {Point Mt) hy = Max. surge on starting (Point R) hg = Max. surge on stopping (Point N} Fig. 9.3. Surges to be controlled in a Pumped System With the "Neyrpic" type valve, the surges H and H can be reduced to any value above Hj, consistent, of course, with the limiting values of the valve. Any setting which is below H, would obviously cause continual discharge. Care should be taken in setting the valve to 10% above the working head, so that with ageing of the pipeline, the operating pressure will not exceed the setting value. Also, future augmentations should be considered. “178.SURGE RELIEF VALVES b) ‘These considerations, even though important, should not deter the designer from selecting the correct valve at the present time and at some later date, installing a larger valve. This is made possible because of the relatively low cost of the "Neyrpic” valve. It should be emphasised that the Neyrpic valve should not be used in pumped systems where separation conditions are likely to occur. An example which indicates the inadvisability of this was when a Neyrpic valve was being field tested in a system which was to have a one way surge tower constructed to prevent separation. Because of previous operational difficulties including broken pipes, it was decided without the designer's knowledge to place the Neyrpic valve into operation without the tower so as to maintain supply as soon as possible. The result was that every time the pumps were stopped, breaks in the pipeline occurred. Gravity Systems The Neyrpic valve is an ideal type of surge control device for a gravity system, because on valve closure it functions immediately the sealing pressure is exceeded. The initial surge is always positive for a gravity system. The reduction in the initial positive surge subsequently reduces the negative surge. Sometimes this negative surge can cause separation unless the positive surge is controlled. Figure 94 shows a typical gravity system waterhammer diagram and the surges to be controlled. It should be noted that a separation condition is shown and once this occurs the subsequent maximum surge can be much greater than the H, indicated. As has been previously indicated, the theoret~ ical analysis is not valid when separation conditions occur. 179.ei SURGE RELIEF VALVES 9.2. Static level —-0 § so M hy © Static head hh = Maximum surge on valve closure Fig. 9.4 Surges to be controlled in a Gravity System An example of the effectiveness of the Neyrpic valve was shown in a large gravity scheme during the commissioning of a Neyrpic valve and a motorised butterfly valve. The motorised valve was inadvertently shut several times without the Neyrpic valve being in operation; in each case broken pipes resulted, when the Neyrpic valve was made operational no further troubles occurred. Figure 4.7 shows a gravity system, with surges shown for various valve closure times and the effects on the system when a "Neyrpic" valve is installed. Description of Neyrpic Valve The construction of the Neyrpic valve is simple. (See Figure 9.5) and consists only of: -180.SURGE RELIEF VALVES (a) Fixed nozzle (b) Disc valve (Spring (a) Deflector hood (e) Miscellaneous fittings ‘The advantages of the valve are: ‘There are no sliding parts, glands or guides. 2 ‘There is no possibility of jamming. 3. There is very little inertia. 4. ‘The device is hydraulically balanced. Locking pla Spring upper cup Deflector Hood (d) — Upper plate > Bevel washer Fixed rod —__ Hood washer Spring (c) Annular plate Spring lower cup Valve cise (b) Bearing tlange Counter-tlange Nozzle (a) 0" ring gaskets Fig. 9.5 Section through Neyrpic Valve 9.3 Operation The principle of the operation of the valve is that when a positive surge (in excess of the sealing pressure) occurs, the valve opens and discharges water. ‘The low inertia of the moving parts and the absence of frictional effects ensures that the valve can act virtually instantaneously. This is the necessary feature of this type of device. 181.SURGE RELIEF VALVES The valve continues to open as the surge pressure increases and a corresponding increase in flow results. This operation occurs almost instantaneously, because of the characteristics of the valve. In the selection of the valve, it is important that the correct size be obtained, which will be capable of discharging a given quantity of water at a corresponding pressure. Figures 9. 6 and 9.7 show simplified waterhammer diagrams, in which the maximum posi- tive surge pressures (H and H,) are considered to be excessive. It should be noted that the heads H,, and H, are not the same values; also the discharges Q) and Q, are not the same. At stopping, when the valve has opened fully at point N, the discharge diminishes back to zero. The waterhammer lines are drawn as shown in Figure 9.6, that is, they are drawn for the surge waves which reflect from the reservoir level and the characteristics of the valve. ‘The total discharge from the valve can be readily computed by taking average flows for the known time intervals. For example, if the diagram is as shown in Figure 9.6: the total discharge for a 2L of 3 seconds ist Qr = [so p00 x 3 + (4+ x s| litres At starting the reverse conditions apply to that at stopping in this particular case. -182.Pump Curve R Pipetine Curve M Valve Curve =——-0 pee +0 Operating head {Point Mt) Max. surge on starting (Point FR) Max. surge on stopping {Point N) Sealing head setting of valve (Point P) = Hy + 5% (Max. surge with valve installed (Point Ny} Discharge from valve at head Mg Fig. 9.6 Waterhammer Diagram for Stopping Surges = with Neyrpic Type Surge Relief Valve af Valve Curve Pump Curve a Ny M, Pipeline Curve H 2 TE soe Operating head (Point M) Max, surge on starting (Point &) Sealing head setting of valve (Point P) = Hy + 5% Hg = Max, surge with valve installed (Point Ny) Qg = Discharge from valve at head Hg Fig. 9.7 Waterhammer Diagram for Starting Surges Neyrpic Type Surge Relief Valve 183.Max, Valve Characteristics 1 t + |—~——-o R190) Reservoir Level OPERATING POINT — Mm Hy = 146m 45 litces/see Pump level FLOW ~ livres/see -50 0-40-3020 10 ey 40 50 —-0 40 {a} Waterhammer Diagram Fig. 9.8 Waterhammer Diagram for Neyrpic Surge Relief Valve “184,SURGE RELIEF VALVES Figure 9.9 shows the time-pressure graphs of a laboratory installation and the relationship of the surges with and without a "Neyrpic" valve. The surges were created by a rapid closing valve at the end of a pumped system. Pressure in metes of water as 20 “The valve is not etective in vaeuury conditions, Zur it does provide on absolute means of damping fut the peaks of postive shock waves propagated Song the dct on wich iis tapped. 1 forms a Complete salsguard between the origin of 2 pres faa | ‘See rise and the length of pipe to be proveeed vaith no possibility ot alae ‘The NEYAPIC pressure relief valve can therefore Le used in oll cater where the paint of onnin of ich shock waves is clearly defined, thus. sim Ditying the tase of water supply system cevgners 204 Sno operators ws vwithovt 4 Dynamic Pressure Cathode tube orcilograph pressure recording of a Sarge on sudden closure of shutoff vale atthe End of» pine. with and without 9 pressure roiet ‘ave . Ly Static Pressure ° > 0 Clore 2 Time - seconds| Fig. 9.9 Effect of Neyrpic Pressure Reducing Valve in reducing waterhammer During the field setting of a valve in a gravity system, it was found that any attempt to attain a setting below the 5% resulted in fluctuation of the valve disc with variable flow and pressure resulting in considerable mechanical vibration. It would appear below the 5% value, a critical condition can be set up and therefore should be avoided. 185.| SURGE RELIEF VALVES i Figures 9.10 and 9.11show the field test results of a pumping installation both with and without a Neyrpic valve in operation. (Ref. 4) It should be noted that the maximum heads for starting and stopping were reduced from 190 m and 208 m to 180 m. Much greater reductions in heads are often obtainable (refer to Section 9. Example). 94 ion and Example ‘The requirements for the valve are first determined from Section 9.3. The manufacturers’ tables and graphs can then be consulted and a valve selected. Table I shows the characteristics for the Neyrpic surge relief valve, and Figure 9.12 | shows the characteristic operating graph. In a pumped system, always ensure firstly that separation conditions are either not evident or are controlled by some other means. The selection is then made to reduce the subsequent positive surge. In the selection of Neyrpic surge valve for a gravity system, the control is on the basis of either reducing the positive surges to reduce overpressure or to reduce the initial Positive surge to a satisfactory value which subsequently reduces the negative surge so that any separation conditions do not occur. A practical approximation for the selection of a valve is to select a valve from Table I using the maximum flow in the system with the required setting. Example Select a Neyrpic type valve, for a pumped system which has a working Pressure of 146 m at 45 L/sec. The waterhammer diagram is shown in Figure 9.8. 18honion o1dsdony rnoypiny — 2s04 duind O1'6 “Bl DNIddOLS (4) os o and Lv T wi9st_OVaH ONILVH3EO xew B02 ONLY WAS (2) ov of 4 L o Wd Lv ee xew 061 187.Onjep 1duAON YIM — IAL dung L1°6 “By DNiddOLs (9) 05 or oc oz t t t t Tvw'oe xew og ONLLUWAS (2) oz on wigst_avaH ONILvHadO Wingy Xow OBL SULWAS wer 188.TABLE! ‘50mm VALVE 0 mm VALVE 125mm VALVE 200 mm VAL oe cle A = 3 er sfleis jzel3, ge £1 & $ #2/88/3 |*5/2 : \8f = si [15 | 6 [10/11 | 133] 7 | 6 71/6 I : a i7 Ea 8 26 | 8 | 12| 17 [160] 24 [7 26 | 8 = 14 | 24 | 187] 33 | 9 Era) | 28 | 32 | 38 | 10 | 10] a1 | a8 | 41 | 10 | 16] 33 | zr] 29 | 10 | “a [70 [ : 18 | 40 [234] 51 | 1 apn a | 54 | 43| 67 | 13 | 12| 44 [100] 56 | 12 | 20 | 55 | 266] 67 | 12 7 | 12 | 14 67 [9] 0 67 [200] e [14 asa 10 | 9 | 53 | 105] 16 | 16 | a9 [136 105 334 | 104 | 15 105 | 16 16 | 108 | 149 | 126 364 | 125 [17 2 [124 20 | 144/170 | 163, wa[inf 20} || 14 [183 22 |176| 187| 198 a0 216] 22 cal [| [24s 25 | 231 | 213 [256 | 25. 535 | 288 | 25 29a | 93 | 322| 28 | 28 | 277/232] 304 | 27 Hin vee 8 ; 7 ss a ope wap }-———— Fig. 9.12 ae === = Characteristic Pressure/Discharge (H/Q) Graph 2S for Neyrpic Surge Relief Valve um In region 1 the sptale of the toring sre touching In raion IN he valve hae exceeded ite Region IIs fr valve with salle sring. Sexing shove oe max. sealing resure (region 1V} nadia fy ly Co) Do Tr 3a AB Qin tites/secs ‘As a good approximation, the (H/Q) relationship of the NEVRPIC valve is linear and can be derived for each type from the data indicated in the table: Max, sealing pressure — point A Max. pressure with valve wide open — point B_ Max. discharge ~ point C ‘The graph is drawn for the 125/32 valve, The sealing pressure of this valve can be set at our works between 151 metres and 108 metres (max. sealing pressure for 125/28 valve). So the graph can be moved between AC and AC’ . += ae V8 TB 371 Vs 1) AB'=AB=20 metres 2) BrC'= BCV OB = 2a 128-3711 (Points C and C’ ate located on a parabola, i.e, orifice law of the valve at maximum opening, lift of the dise being 0.35 x nozzle diameter) As an example, a yis the graph for the 125/32 valve set to a sealing pressure of 118 mewres, If the discharge to be released amounts to only 270 littes/sec for instance, 270 the corresponding pressure rise is 20 x 220 = 14 metres sponding pr 20x 229 = 14 Hence the pressure (valve partly open} is 118 + 14 32 metres. 189.SURGE RELIEF VALVES It is assumed that no separation occurs in the system. The maximum surge values are: la) At start = 190 metres () Atstop = _—=—«-256 metres SOLUTION: a) Required sealing pressure of valve: = operating head + 5% (Normally 10% used except in special cases.) 14647 = 153 metres ra From Table I, a 50 mm valve with a wire diameter of 14 mm (50/14) valve is selected. This valve is the only one which can be set to the required sealing pressure and permit a discharge of the required value. 3. From Table I, the maximum valve characteristics i.e. 75 L/sec at 205 metres, and a sealing pressure of 183 metres can be represented on a separate diagram - Figure 9.8 (b). The required valve characteristic is then drawn parallel to this line with a sealing pres~ sure of 154 metres and the required discharge Q, from the valve will be 34 L/sec, at a pressure of 170 metres. 4 ‘The installation of a Neyrpic type valve in this system would reduce the starting surge from 190 metres to 170 metres and the stopping surge from 256 metres to 170 metres. The maximum reduction of surge was 86 metres (256 - 170). 95 Installation ‘The Neyrpic valve should be installed strictly in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations. -190.SURGE RELIEF VALVES ‘A typical arrangement is shown in Figure 9.13. The connection between the pipeline and the valve should be by a converging pipe to reduce hydraulic losses. tf te" ore rita oa Vsottina 1 wotertane Compartnent ‘Sofficigne clearance for inaalation and Fig, 9.13 Neyrpic Surge Relief Valve A shut-off valve should be installed to isolate the surge relief valve if necessary. Remote control is essential in order to permit operation with full discharge from the surge relief valve. A pressure gauge or pressure gauge tapping should be installed to permit checking of the pressure. A discharge drain should be provided. This should be large enough to adequately cope with the discharge from the valve. Sufficient access and clearance should be provided around the valve to permit installation and maintenance. 191.SURGE RELIEF VALVES. The valve should always be installed with the disc in the horizontal position. The valve should always be installed as close to the pumps as practical. 2192.SURGE RELIEF VALVES REFERENCES L S.0.G.R-E.A.H. Laboratories; Grenoble, Discussions. 2 Neyrpic - "Soupage de Decharge" and other publications, Grenoble. 3. Bergeron, P. ~ Discussions. Webb & Gould - "Waterhammer", N.S.W. University Press (1978) 2193.CHAPTER 10. SURGE TOWERS 10.1 Surge Towers 10.2 One Way Surge Tower 10.3 Operation Analysis 194.CHAPTER 10. SURGE TOWERS. Surge towers can be used in both gravity and pumped systems to control the positive and negative surging. Surge towers for gravity systems such as hydro-electric have been given extensive treatment in many books and will not be described in detail. The use of towers for pumped system is usually to limit the negative surging where there is risk of separation conditions. One way surge towers are particularly applicable where the hydraulic-grade line is high. In cases where the pipeline peak is near the hydraulic grade line, an open surge tower can be used. Figure 10.1 shows applications of two types of towers in a pumped system. Static evel One way open. surge tank surge tank Pump Fig. 10.1 Typical Surge Tower Installations 195.SURGE TOWERS, The height and diameter of the tower should be such that on the negative or downsurge there is sufficient volume of water left to prevent air from getting into the pipeline. 10.1 Surge Tower This type of surge tower consists of a tower open to the atmosphere with an unrestricted flow into the pipeline and usually with a restricted backflow into the tower from the pipeline. The restriction in the reverse flow direction is to dampen down occillations in the system and also reduces the positive surging. ‘The height of the tower should be adequate to either contain the maximum surging or allowed to have a controlled overflow. See Chapter 6 for further description and photographs. 10.2 One Way Surge Tower The one way surge tower is simple and effective where the ordinary tower cannot be used and usually falls into its particular place as a surge control device. Figure 10.2 shows a typical one way surge tower installation. -196.SURGE TOWERS HG, Reservoir hy © filling head Reflux valve One wa surge tank Pump, Fig. 10.2 Typical One Way Surge Tower Installation As with the surge tower, there is unrestricted flow into the pipeline, which limits the negative surge to the water level remaining in the tower, but complete restriction on the backflow is achieved by means of a reflux valve. This reflux valve nullifies any effect that this type of tower would have on the positive and starting surging. ‘The one way surge tower installation is simple in construction (see Figure 6.7) and consists of: L Tower 2 Reflux Valve a Stop Valve 4 Intake Pipe 5. Overflow Pipe 6. Float Valve ca Refill Pipe 2197.SURGE TOWERS ‘The device should be installed as close as feasible to the pipeline and at the h point of the location selected. A pipe for refilling the tower should be provided. This should come from the pipeline re should be sufficient head available to ensure that the tower can fill as quickly as possible. A ball float valve ensures a constant level is maintained. Figure 10.1 shows a diagrammatic layout of an installation where separation would have occurred and the types of surge towers which could be installed to eliminate separation and to keep surges to acceptable values.. In the installation of a one way surge tower in sewerage schemes in order to prevent septic conditions from occurring in the tower, make up water should be supplied from the water supply and not from the sewerage pipeline. Fig. 10.3. Enclosed One Way Surge Tower 198.SURGE TOWERS 10.3 Operation of One Way Surge Tower When the negative surge pressure falls below atmospheric at a prominent point in the Pipeline, either cavitation occurs (if no air valve is installed and the pressure falls to more than 10 metres below atmosphere) or separation occurs. As these conditions are undesirable, it is necessary that they be eliminated; and this can be achieved by a one way surge tower. ‘The device functions by providing a reserve of water, which is injected into the pipeline when the pressure falls below the level of the water in the tower (plus losses). The reflux valve opens and allows water to flow from the higher to the lower pressure and hence fills up the volume which would have contained air had no tower been installed. This condition is maintained, i.e. a flow from the tower until such time as the pressure in the pipeline exceeds that of the tower and the reflux valve then closes. The conditions may be such that the valve can open and close several times before a final balance is reached. The volume of water drawn from the tower can be accurately determined from the waterhammer diagram. It is however, good practice to have sufficient capacity to allow for several system shut-downs. The volume of water is usually small and a factor o£ 5 to 10 can generally be readily achieved for little extra cost. If the available static head for refilling is low, this safety margin of volume permits adequate time for refilling from the static head. The outlet pipe from the tower should have a diameter of not less than 3/4 of the main pipeline diameter. This will reduce hydraulic losses to a minimum. At starting up of a system, as all the surge pressures are above the static head and the reflux valve is closed, the device can have no effect on these surges. The same conditions apply for the positive surges on shut-down. A device which can achieve some suppression of positive surges is shown in Figures 10.3 and 10.4. The main functioning is, however, to provide a reserve of water to prevent separation. This function is achieved more readily because the enclosed tower has water and air under full operating head pressure and feeds water into the pipeline when this pressure is reduced. This device is more complex and requires more careful design. 199.SURGE TOWERS Fig, 10.4 Enclosed One Way Surge Tower Fig, 10.5 Special Air Valve for installation in Figs. 10.3 and 10.4 200.SURGE TOWERS which allows the gure 10.5 shows one of the air val ry of air when the pressure falls below atmospheric in the tower. igures 10.6 and 6.6 show photographs of one way surge towers. Fig. 10.6 One Way Surge Tower 10.4 Analysis ‘The waterhammer diagram is constructed initially in the same manner as for separation and is shown in Figure 10.7. The conditions are as for Figure 8.7 (Chapter 8). The only difference is that instead of the waterhammer lines reflecting from the separation (air or cavitation void) they reflect from the water level in the tank (ie. when the reflux valve is open). ‘The time at which the reflux valve closes is when the pressure rises above the tower level and is shown on the water column separation diagram (Figures 10.7 and 10.8). In this case, just before time 6. 201.SURGE TOWERS ‘The total volume of water injected into the pipeline up to time 6 is that shown under the curve (b) ive. 168 litres. An approximate method of determining the volume required is given by the following: Volk = 0.01 QL. where Vol. volume from tower in cu. metres Q = initial pipeline flow in cu. metres/sec. L length of pipeline in metres ‘The diagram (Figure 10.7) shows that the surge tower reduces the maximum surge at A to 134 metres. This value is considerably less than the 216 metres which results from separation. If it is found necessary to reduce the positive surge to a lower value, a Neyrpic valve could be installed in addition to the one way surge tank. 202.Reservoir 1 NOTES 1) Max, Surge at & = 134 m (Time 10) 2) Max. Surge at 8 = 116m (Time 9) 3) Reflux flap at surge tank (8) closes at time 6 4) Friction neglected 108, STATIC LEVEL om Be 0A, 1B, 26 6B — Retlux flap at Surge Tank closed SURGE TANK _ 61m 4a", sa 28%, 38" LEVEL Q ~ lites/see PUMP LEVEL Om — Ft tt tt -2 -18 ~10 15) 20250 Fig. 10.7 Waterhammer Diagram for One Way Surge Tower 203.SURGE TOWERS SEPARATION commences : Upper WATER COLUMN i S| LOWER WATER COLUMN en Ae time wrenvats ° arog secs aaaes “10 -20 covuny REDOING (a) WATER COLUMN FLOWS cal 3 3 2 |. seeanarion cotunty 3 | commences REJOIN E (6) SEPARATION VoLUME g —> rime wwrenvars i] arses sees i: iz 3 4 5 6 a 8 9 oe Fig. 10.8 Water Column Separation — Determination of Volumes 204.na 1.2 13 na 115 CHAPTER 11. AIR VESSELS Description Operation Selection Charts Example Field Tests References 205.CHAPTER 11. AIR VESSELS. The air vessel is usually the most effective and also one of the most costly means of controlling surges in systems. The analysis for this device should be carefully made and then compared with other means before final selection. Refer also to Chapter 6. It is usual to consider the air vessel only after it has been determined that more simple devices such as flywheels and one way surge tanks are not feasible. ‘The air vessel is only limited by its practical size. It can generally be used for systems oft a) Long length with low flows. >) Shorter lengths with larger flows. M1 Description Air vessels used for the control of surges consist of the one or several pressure vessels which contain air and water, and auxiliary equipment such as compressors, valves, gauge glass and a special reflux valve. Typical vertical and horizontal layouts are shown in Figures 11.1 and 11.2. Figure 11.3 shows an air vessel installation with a single air compressor. An installation in a city water supply scheme in New South Wales with two vertical air vessels and two compressors is shown in Figures 11.4 and 11.5: Figure 11.6 also shows the pumps pipework and reflux valves for this installation. Standby compressors can be used in large and important installations or where infrequent inspections are carried out. It is also possible in small air vessel installations to use compressed air from a portable air cylinder instead of a compressor to replenish any air lost in the absorption of air into the water in the air vessel. (See Figures 6.10, 6.11 and 6.12). -206.OOOO G Pump lock out y i sor start Nominal water level Compressor stop Pump lock out 2 ll © ~ Air Tank — ‘bend hy © Lével ~ Compressor Starts = Special valve ~ Level indicator hy = Level — Compressor Stops — Pressure gauge = Isolating valve ~ Safety valves = Non-return valve = Valve 10 ~ Compressor Fig. 11.1 Diagrammatic Layout of Vertical Air Vessel 207.AIR VESSELS anon Slasse any [elUozO} Jo inode ONPUUELBEIG Z"LL “Bly -208.AIR VESSELS. Fig. 11.3 Small Air Vessel Installation 209.Fig. 11.4 Vertical Air Vessels Fig. 11.5 Air Compressors 210.Fig. 11.6 Vertical Air Vessel Installation showing Pump, Valve and Pipework 2a.AIR VESSELS In order to maintain the adequate air-water ratio in the air vessel for the necessary functioning of the vessel, limits are set as shown in Figure 11.1. The operation of the compressor can be either manual or automatic between these limits. Air absorption into water is a function of water surface area, pressure, temperature and the air saturation condition of the water. No specific rules can be laid down and it is often necessary in the initial start up period to check the water level from the gauge glass at least every few days. ‘The special reflux valve which is shown in Figure 11.1 (Item 3) should be provided with a hole in the flap. The size is calculated from the formula in the selection charts as shown later on in this chapter. In the functioning of the air vessel it is necessary to have unimpeded flow from the vessel and restricted flow back into the vessel; and this is achieved by means of the reflux valve with a hole in the flap. Other methods which can be used and which are not considered as satisfactory are: a small bypass around the reflux valve a differential orifice An isolating valve is usually provided between the rising main and the air vessel so that any maintenance can be cafried out. It is important that the valve be left open at all times of pump operation otherwise there is no surge control for the system. In important installations interlocking limit switches as shown in Figure 11.7 which Prevents the pumps from starting unless the valve is fully open - the special reflux valve of the tilting disc type is also shown in this Figure. 212.AIR V Fig. 11.7 Valve from Air Vessels — Special Tilting Disc Valve and Butterfly Valve with Limit Switches 112 Operation In order to prevent separation from occurring in the pipeline, a supply of water is injected into the system by the air vessel. This will prevent the pressure from falling at any location along the pipeline to a critical value. ‘Two methods of achieving this have been previously described - the flywheel in Chapter 8 and the one way surge tank in Chapter 10. However, these devices have their limitations and only by means of the air vessel can complete protection be achieved ie. both the elimination of separation and the suppression of the positive surges to an acceptable value, which can be below the normal operating head. 213.AIR VESSELS ‘The principle of operation is that at normal operating conditions the vessel contains water and air, the air being compressed to the operating pressure. When the pump is shut down, water at the higher pressure in the vessel, is injected into the pipeline which is at the lower pressure. The subsequent increase in surge pressure in the pipeline forces a backflow into the air vessel where the air dampens out this positive surge pressure. The air vessel must be of sufficient size to ensure that there is still a reserve supply of water when full expansion of the air is complete. Figure 11.8 indicates the pressure-volume conditions in an air vessel at the various conditions of operation. It has been experienced in several installations that slamming of the reflux valves at the pumps can occur under some conditions of operation. Methods to overcome this have been to utilise counterweights on the reflux valves as shown in Figure 6.15 and to throttle the isolating valve from the air vessel. 13 Selection Charts ‘The basis of selection of an air vessel is an extension of the Bergeron graphical method. ‘The charts, as drawn by Dubin and Guenaeu in an article in La Houille Blanche, December 1955, gives an accurate solution. The following procedure should be adopted: 1 Draw the pipeline profile to the same horizontal and vertical scales as the selection charts ~ Figures 11.9, 11.10, 11-11 and 11.12. Figures 11.10, 11.11 and 11.12 are the selection charts which should be used when separation over part of the line occurs. Figure 11.9 is the selection chart which should be used when separation over the whole length of the line occurs. Figure 11.13 illustrates these two conditions. 2d.AIR VESSELS A Static Condition B c Normal Stopping Operating Condition Condition (Maximum Negative Surge) P= pressure under static head P, = pressure at normal operating head P= minimum surge pressure 25 maximum Py = maximum surge pressure (usually Py) initial volume of aie at pressure P Vy = volume of air at Py V2. = maximum volume of air at Pz (expanded volume) Vp = maximum volume of air at Py (expanded volume) Vg. = volume of air at Pa Fig. 11.8 Pressure/Volume Conditions in the Air Vessel -215, Starting and Stopping (Maximum Positive SurgeAIR VESSELS. Calculate A from the formula: A = aVo gHo where a = _ speed of surge wave (m/sec) vee initial velocity of flow (m/sec) & = acceleration due to gravity (m/sec?) Hy = static head (m) (absolute) Select one of Figures 11.9, 11.10, 11.11 and 11.12 for the calculated A value. Superimpose the appropriate figure over the pipeline profile and select the B curve which is above the pipeline profile. This represents the negative surge line after the air vessel is installed. Calculate the value of ve from the formula: B= Veuve Ho.wo Neleadad a = initial volume of air (cu.m.) under pressure of Hy (in air vessel) a = volume in the pipeline (cu.m.) Calculate v_ from the formula: vee Le 0, 2 F a total length of pipeline (m) Q cross sectional area of pipeline (m2) Determine v,, from Items 5 and 6. From the chart selected, a value of Hz at the pumping station can be lo obtained and hence the minimum surge pressure H, calculated. 216.a9 os 07 ener os 05) o4 oF 38 08 minirvm cegative surge aici oe ee ho Um Fig. 11.9 See test for explanation ‘ . ae a 2 4 i. +0) [2:02 | +08 sos > L = length of pipeline Fig. 11.10 217.AIR VESSELS ‘ au 0 7 x 1 - ha Be os 5-08 a 1 os = oat = = L = lenath of pipeline Fig. 11.11 4 a au 7 4 2 4 a9 p-ot be 98) 202 he 8 07 prod 06 9-08 08 oa > _L= lenath of pipetine Fig. 11.12 218.AIR VESSELS Positive surge (a) Static level Pipeline Profile neg. surae ©) hg = static head hy = min. negative head hy = max. positive head Curve (a} = partial separation Curve (b} = complete separation Curve (c} = negative surge with air vessel — no separation (d) = positive surge with air vessel cu ' Fig. 11.13 t <. = ratio of maximum positive surge hy tw static head 1.20 1.05 1.00 o 1 2 394 5 6 7 8 9 0 11:12 13 14 15 elie 219,AIR VESSELS 10. lL. ‘The total volume can be obtained from the formula: coer oc iderhe Po = Ho = static head (absolute) Xo = initial volume of air (cuum.) P2 = minimum head (absolute) os expanded volume (cu.m.) 1 (usually) (can vary from 1 to 1.4) A 20% margin should be allowed on volume V. The maximum positive surge can be obtained from Figure 11.14. The substituting of the A and B values, values of H3 are obtained and Hy knowing H, the maximum positive surge at the pump H, can be evaluated. The positive surges along the line are proportioned from the negative surge line, as shown in Figure 11.17 ie. Hy - HH -H A reflux valve with a hole in the flap should be provided. This diameter is calculated from the formula: where: diameter of pipeline (mm) diameter of hole (mm) This method of selection for the size of the air vessel has been proven in practice and gives very good results. 220.AIR VESSELS 14 Example ‘The same profile and system conditions are taken as for the example in Chapter 8. a The profile is as drawn in Figure 8.7, Chapter 8. rm A = aVo gHo where: Vo = 110 m/sec Ho am a 1015 m/sec L = 1015m a= Class 'D' AC 200 mm Q 29.7 L/sec a Select Figure 11.11. 4. On superimposing Figure 11-11 over the pipeline profile, the next B curve above is B = 0.4 as illustrated in Figure 11.15. B= V.vc gio vo o4 = 21_x ve 998x951 vo Therefore: ve = 300 vo vo = ve 300 6 wc ao = 1015 x 1x 200 x 200 ‘4 1000 1000 = 32 cumetres iE vera sg 300 = 0.11 cumetres 221.AIR VESSELS 8 From Figure 11-11: 0.58 0.58 x 91 = 53 metres 9. = (91+ 9.98) 0.11 (3 + 9.98) = 0.18 cu. metres Total volume of air vessel required (vy) %, = v2 + 20% margin = 0.20 cu. metres (say) 10. From Figure 11.14 and using: fea B= Oa 1.07 Therefore Hz = 1.07 x91 = 97 metres. ae The hole diameter in the flap should be: 4 a = 12/1033 = 6.6 metres > T a = 200 = 30mm 6.8 6.6 Summarising the results: a) The size of the air vessel would have a volume of 0.2 cu-metres. (v,) ») The maximum surge at stopping and starting would be 97 metres. (H3) °) ‘The minimum surge would be 53 metres. (H,) a The flap hole diameter would be 30 mm. (b) ) Figure 11.15 illustrates the distribution of the resulting positive and negative surges over the pipeline. 222.AIR VESSELS 10 100 Positive surge Static level air vessel Fig. 11.15 Air Vessel — Example (seeText) 223.AIR VESSELS. 115 Field Tests Field tests on a 450 mm dia. water supply pipeline, 490 metres long were carried out for one and two pumps, with and without the air vessels in operation. Figure 11.16 gives a summary of the results of the tests and Figures 11-17 and 11.18 give the pressure - time graphs for two pump operation for both starting and stopping of the pumps, with and without air vessels... It can be clearly seen that there are considerable beneficial effects by providing air vessels in the system. In thecase of two pump operation, the maximum surge at the pumping station is reduced from 145 m to 75 m and also separation is prevented. This installation will ultimately have three pumps operating and the surge control air vessels have been designed accordingly. The relationship between the operating head and the maximum surge without the air vessels is interesting. If the pipeline had been designed on the incorrect basis of adding a waterhammer allowance of anything less than 200% and no surge controls then failure would most likely have occurred. Photographs of this installation which has two vertical air vessels are shown in Figures 11-4, 11.5, 11.6, and 11.7. Reference should also be made to the chapter on field testing in the book on "Waterhammer" by Webb and Gould. 224,225,2880.1 MSO) Pld LULL “Bla de buns ‘ayy wi gz este Th Te ones 226,jossen any noun Gunso play BLL “Bla, 005} 01 osson sje snouniat — Surddors sawing “2 801 os t Spt Zar Tu ounessdo, Jprran ne ynoua — Sunaeas sdung LH, (1005) our oc oz. oO ° T T T i T fee eg Te absns*eW 06 222.AIR VESSELS. L REFERENCES Bergeron, L ~ Waterhammer analysis. Dubin and Gueneau - "Determination des dimensions caracteristiques d'un reservoir d'air sur une installation elevatoire", La Houille Blanche No. 6, December 1955. Degrement - "Water Treatment Handbook" 228.12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 CHAPTER 12, CONCLUSION Defining the Problem Effecting a Solution Comparison of Surge Control Devices Fatigue Factors of Safety References -229,CHAPTER 12, CONCLUSION ‘These notes on waterhammer and methods of surge control should only be considered as introductory — the full knowledge of the phenomena and determination of the best solution will only come after considerable experience combining theoretical and field observations. ‘The most important factors are: L Do not generalise. 2. Do not over-simplify. 3. Analyse all systems. 12.1 Defining the Problem The definition to the waterhammer problem is simple; that is ~ Waterhammer exists in all systems and the surges of hydraulic loads caused by the phenomena can usually be readily determined. As there is no other way to predict these loads, a waterhammer analysis should be made at the design stage. 12.2 Effecting a Solution ‘The solutions to the problem are numerous; however, they usually fall into a well defined pattern. The golden rule in finding a solution is to be flexible — the two very similar systems may require two entirely dissimilar solutions. In order to determine the most economical solution, several methods of control should be considered and these should then be related to the various classes of pipe. Consideration should be given to the fact that the most economical solut always the best. Factors such as the following should be taken into account: 230.CONCLUSION 1 Operational functioning 2 Future augmentation 3. Fatigue 12.3 Comparison of Surge Control Devices ‘A comparison of the most common surge control devices is best made by summarising the examples from the previous sections. Two typical systems are considered — one in which no separation occurs (Type 1) and the other where separation does occur (Type 2). Figures 12.1 and 12.2 show overlays of various types of controls on basic diagrams. This enables a comparative picture to be readily seen. Table I tabulates the magnitudes of the maximum surges. Economic comparisons can be made of the total cost of the pipeline and various control devices. Referring to Table I, it is seen that the most effective device is the air vessel. This, however, is usually the most costly and often is not economically justified. The most common surge control devices have been dealt with. There are, however, many more methods which can be employed. The considerations for selection are: 1 Are they functional? z Are they simple? 3. Are they economically justified? 231.700 600 520 500 Goo - 200 100. 400 =100 ry 100200 300) 400 (b) Waterhammer Diagram (no controls) 700 Stopping Surge 600 Starting Surge (a) Configuration Diagram Fig. 12.1 TYPE 1—NO SEPARATION 232.om =400 =300——200 =100 a 100 200 300 400 (b) Waterharmmer Diagram (no controls) Stopping Surge 700 Starting Surge ON Stopping Surge (2) Configuration Diagram Fig. 12.2 TYPE 2— SEPARATION 233.CONCLUSION TABLE 1 - Summary of Surges Type Type of No | Flywheel | Neyrpic | One Way | Air Surge | Controls Valve | Surge | Vessel | ‘Tank Type 1 INo Separation | a Starting | 122 12 107 - 98 Stopping | 158 125 107 - 98 Type 2 | | Separation | c Starting| 122 122. = 122 98 @ Stopping] 216 125 - 134 98 124 Fatigue Fatigue of pipe materials can often be a significant factor for failure if no means of surge control are employed. ‘Tests on thick wall cylinders (Reference 2) show interesting patterns for failure. The levelling out of the curve, as seen in Figure 14.3, occurs at a number of cycles to failure which could readily occur due to waterhammer surges after several years of operation, if no controls are installed. Fluctuating loads particularly from positive to negative as can often occur in waterhammer considerably lowers the fatigue limit. 234.CONCLUSION MAXIMUM cYcLic a varies from about PRESSURES 0.25 for PVC. 10 0.75 for AC 10108 NUMBER OF CYCLES TO FAILURE Fig. 12.3 Fatigue Curve — typical only ‘The relationship of a to b in Figure 12.3 depends on the type of material. 12.5 Factors of Safety ‘A factor of safety is usually applied in design to cover uncertainties of loadings, conditions of operation and type of pipe material. It is considered that if more accurate hydraulic loadings can be determined in a system, such as by the carrying out-of a waterhammer analysis, in many cases, the factors of safety can be reduced accordingly. This will lead to more economic pipeline designs. ‘The importance of waterhammer, the need for analysis and for surge controls have been emphasised in this book. These should enable the reader to obtain a realistic approach to the subject. 235,CONCLUSION REFERENCES 1 Webb, T. H. - "Surge Control Devices" - Australian Civil Engineering and Construction, 5 November 1963. Austin & Crossland - "Low Endurance Fatigue Strength of Thick Walled Cylinders" - The Institution of Mechanical Engineers Proc. 1965-66, Vol. 180, Part 1, No. 2. -236.(a) FLYWHEEL, Overlay to Figs. 12.1 and 12.2320 (b) AIR VESSEL Overlay to Figs. 12.1 and 12.2440 One Way Surge Tank. (c] ONE WAY SURGE TANK Overlay to Fig. 12.2mm TT