ALTERNATIVE AND ADVANCED OR EMERGING LIQUID & GAS FUELS:Several emerging alternative fuels are under development or already

developed and may be available in the United States. These fuels may increase energy security, reduce emissions, improve vehicle performance, and stimulate the U.S. economy. Some of these emerging fuels are considered alternative fuels under the Energy Policy Act of 1992 and may qualify for federal and state incentives and laws:

Biobutanol Biogas Hydrogenation-Derived Renewable Diesel Methanol P-Series Fuels xTL Fuels (Fischer-Tropsch) Additional fuels used in limited quantities may meet the criteria for alternative fuels, including but not limited to ammonia, diethylene glycol dimethlyl ether (diglyme), and dimethyl ether (DME). More research is needed to characterize the impacts of these fuels, such as necessary vehicle modifications, required fueling infrastructure, human health impacts, greenhouse gas emissions, and tailpipe emissions

DETAILS OF ABOVE FUELS 1- BIOBUTANOL:Like ethanol, biobutanol is an alcohol that can be produced through processing of domestically grown crops, such as corn and sugar beets, and other biomass, such as fast-growing grasses and agricultural waste products.

What is biobutanol?
Butanol is a 4-carbon alcohol (butyl alcohol). Biobutanol is butanol produced from biomass feedstocks. Currently, butanol's primary use is as an industrial solvent in products such as lacquers and enamels.

Biobutanol as an Alternative Fuel

A ButylFuel vehicle was driven across the United States on 100% biobutanol (Source: ButylFuel, LLC)

Like ethanol, biobutanol is a liquid alcohol fuel that can be used in today's gasoline-powered internal combustion engines. The properties of biobutanol make it highly amenable to blending with gasoline. It is also compatible with ethanol blending and can improve the blending of ethanol with gasoline. The energy content of biobutanol is 10 to 20 percent lower than that of gasoline. Under U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations, biobutanol can be blended as an oxygenate with gasoline in concentrations up to 11.5 percent by volume (i.e., the EPA considers blends of 11.5% or less biobutanol with gasoline to be "substantially similar" to pure gasoline). Blends of 85 percent or more biobutanol with gasoline are required to qualify as an EPAct alternative fuel. Biobutanol proponents claim that today's vehicles can be fueled with high concentrations of biobutanolup to 100%with minor or no vehicle modifications, although testing of this claim has been limited.

Biobutanol Production
The ability to produce butanol from biomass sources via fermentation has existed since the early 1900s. However, these older biobutanol processes are more expensive than today's petrochemical production processes. Today, butanol is produced almost entirely from petroleum. Renewed interest in butanol as a sustainable vehicle fuel has led to the development of improved biobutanol production processes. ButylFuel, LLC used a U.S. Department of Energy Small Business Technology Transfer grant to develop a process aimed at making biobutanol production economically competitive with petrochemical production processes.. ButylFuel is planning to market its biobutanol as a solvent first, and then market it as a fuel in the future. DuPont and BP are making Biobutanol market next-generation biofuels. the first product of their joint effort to develop, produce, and

Biobutanol Distribution
No infrastructure for fueling vehicles with biobutanol currently exists. However, because biobutanol does not cause the same issues with corrosion or water contamination as ethanol does, it is likely that biobutanol would be able to be distributed through the existing gasoline infrastructure, including pipeline transport.

Biobutanol Benefits
The benefits of biobutanol are similar to the benefits of ethanol. It can be produced domestically from a variety of homegrown feedstocks while creating U.S. jobs. Greenhouse gas emissions are reduced because carbon dioxide captured when the feedstock crops are grown balances carbon dioxide released when biobutanol is burned. The following are additional potential benefits of biobutanol:

It is easily blended with gasoline for use in today's gasolinepowered vehicles. Under U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulations, biobutanol can be blended as an oxygenate with gasoline in concentrations up to 11.5 percent by volume. Biobutanol proponents claim that gasoline-powered vehicles can be fueled with biobutanol as an alternative fuel (blends of 85 percent or more biobutanol with gasoline) with minor or no vehicle modifications, although testing of this claim has been limited. Its energy density is only 10 to 20% lower than gasoline's.

It is compatible with the current gasoline distribution infrastructure and would not require new or modified pipelines, blending facilities, storage tanks, or retail station pumps. It is compatible with ethanol blending and can improve the blending of ethanol with gasoline. It can be produced using existing ethanol production facilities with relatively minor modifications.

Biobutanol Research and Development

In addition to the BP/DuPont and ButylFuel efforts mentioned under Biobutanol Production, biobutanol research and development by other government and industry groups is ongoing. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service is studying biobutanol production as part of its project Cost-Effective Bioprocess Technologies for Production of Biofuels from Lignocellulosic Biomass. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are funding biobutanol research and development as part of their Small Business Innovation Research programs.

2- BIOGAS:Biogas is produced from the anaerobic digestion of organic matter such as animal manure, sewage, and municipal solid waste. After it is processed to required standards of purity, biogas becomes a renewable substitute for natural gas and can be used to fuel natural gas vehicles.

What is biogas?
Biogas is the gaseous product of the anaerobic digestion (decomposition without oxygen) of organic matter. It is typically made up of 50-80% methane, 20-50% carbon dioxide, and traces of gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen. In contrast, natural gas is typically made up of more than 70% methane, with most of the rest being other hydrocarbons (such as propane and butane) and only small amounts of carbon dioxide and other contaminants. Biogas is sometimes called swamp gas, landfill gas, or digester gas. When its composition is upgraded to a higher standard of purity, it can be called renewable natural gas. Biogas is used for many different applications worldwide. In rural communities, small-scale digesters provide biogas for single-household cooking and lighting. China alone is estimated to have 817 million of these systems. Large-scale digesters provide biogas for electricity production, heat and steam, chemical production, and vehicle fuel. In 2003, the United States consumed 147 trillion btu of energy from landfill gas, about 0.6% of total U.S. natural gas consumption.

Biogas as an Alternative Fuel

Once upgraded to the required level of purity (and compressed or liquefied), biogas can be used as an alternative vehicle fuel in the same forms as conventionally derived natural gas: compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG).

A 2007 report estimated that 12,000 vehicles are being fueled with upgraded biogas worldwide, with 70,000 biogas-fueled vehicles predicted by 2010. Europe has most of these vehicles. Sweden alone reports that more than half of the gas used in its 11,500 natural gas vehicles is biogas. Germany and Austria have established targets of 20% biogas in natural gas vehicle fuel. In the United States, biogas vehicle activities have been on a smaller scale. Examples include a landfill in Whittier, California, that fuels vehicles with CNG derived from the landfill and an Orange County, California, landfill that produces LNG for use in transit buses. Several DOE-sponsored projects also have developed biogas vehicle technologies

PRODUCTION:Biogas Production
Biogas is produced from the anaerobic digestion of diverse organic waste sources using various methods. The International Energy Agency describes the following in its publication Biogas Production and Utilisation : Sources

Anaerobic Digestion Methods

Sewage sludge Agricultural wastes Industrial wastes Animal by-products Municipal solid wastes

Dry continuous digestion of source separated waste Farm-scale biogas production Large-scale centralized co-digestion

Landfills are a large source of biogas.

In a landfill, anaerobic digestion of wastes occurs naturally. Gas collection is practical for landfills that are at least 40 feet deep and contain at least 1 million tons of waste. The Oregon Department of Renewable Resources provides an overview of biogas production technologies. After biogas is produced and extracted, it must be upgraded for pipeline distribution or use as a vehicle fuel. This means increasing the proportion of methane and decreasing the proportion of carbon dioxide and contaminants. This is accomplished using processes such as absorption, adsorption, membrane separation, and cryogenic separation. For information on upgrading biogas, see Biogas Upgrading to Vehicle Fuel Standards and Grid Injection . The International Energy Agency estimates that, in 2005, 185 anaerobic digestion plants had the capacity to process 5 million metric tons of municipal solid and organic industrial waste to generate 600 MW of electricity. The potential for biogas production is much larger. A report by the CIVITAS Initiative estimates that European biogas production could satisfy 12-20% of European natural gas consumption. Natural Gas Vehicles for America cites a 1998 study estimating that the biogas potential from landfills, animal waste, and sewage is equivalent to 6% of U.S. natural gas consumption or 10 billion gasoline gallon equivalents of transportation fuel (about 7% of year 2006 U.S. gasoline consumption)

Biogas Distribution
Biogas is typically consumed at the point of production, such as with household-sized cooking and lighting systems, or distributed via pipeline. Different end uses require different levels of gas quality. Boilers, for example, can use relatively low-quality biogas, whereas biogas must be upgraded to a high standard for vehicle fuel and injection into the natural gas grid. Once biogas has been upgraded to the required quality standard, it could be distributed via the same routes as conventional natural gas. Because the required technologies are not yet fully developed and tested, distributing upgraded biogas via the pipeline grid is not a common practice today

BENEFITS Biogas Benefits

The benefits of biogas are similar to the benefits of natural gas: increasing energy security, paving the way for fuel cell vehicles, and improving public health and the environment through reduced vehicle emissions. The following are additional potential benefits of biogas:

It is a domestic, renewable resource; using it offsets the use of non-renewable resources such as coal, oil, and fossil fuel-derived natural gas, with corresponding emission reduction and energy security benefits. It directly reduces greenhouse gas emissions by preventing methane release into the atmosphere (methane is 21-times stronger as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide). Its production creates jobs and benefits the local economy. For landfills, it reduces the cost of complying with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency landfill gas combustion requirements.

Anaerobic digestion systems (non-landfill) treat waste naturally, require less land area than aerobic composting, reduce the amount of material that must be landfilled, reduce waste odors, and produce sanitized compost and nutrient-rich liquid fertilizer.

BIOGAS RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Research and development are reducing the costs of biogas production and purification, producing higher-quality natural gas from biogas, and evaluating the performance of biogasfueled vehicles.

3- HYDROGENATION-DERIVED RENEWABLE DIESEL

Hydrogenation-derived renewable diesel (HDRD) is the product of fats or vegetable oilsalone or blended with petroleumthat have been refined in an oil refinery. To learn about HDRD, choose from the links below.

What is hydrogenation-derived renewable diesel?

Hydrogenation-derived renewable diesel (HDRD) is the product of fats or vegetable oilsalone or blended with petroleumthat have been refined in an oil refinery. HDRD produced in this manner is sometimes called a "second-generation biodiesel."

HDRD as an Alternative Fuel

Although largely unproven, it is expected that HDRD will substitute directly for or blend in any proportion with petroleum-based diesel, without modification to vehicle engines or fueling infrastructure. HDRD's ultra-low sulfur content and high cetane number (a measure of the combustion quality of diesel fuel) likely will provide vehicle performance and emissions benefits. HDRD is not widely available at present, but it is likely to become fully commercialized in the near future. A number of producers have commercial trials underway. Gasoline can be produced using a similar refining process, but this process is in an earlier stage of development.

PRODUCTION Hydrogenation-Derived Renewable Diesel Production

Hydrogenation-derived renewable diesel (HDRD) is produced by refining fats or vegetable oilsalone or blended with petroleumin an oil refinery. This typically involves hydrogenation of triglycerides using existing refinery infrastructure. Gasoline can be produced using a similar refining process, but this process is in an earlier stage of development. A number of manufacturers around the world are developing HDRD refining processes and testing them in commercial trials. Following are brief descriptions of some of the projects.

ConocoPhillips (United States, Ireland)

ConocoPhillips is producing HDRD at its Whitegate refinery in Cork, Ireland. The primary renewable feedstock is soybean oil, but other vegetable oils and animal fats and oils could be used as well. The

HDRD is being produced using existing refinery equipment and is blended and transported with petroleum-based diesel. Initial production is 1,000 barrels per day. ConocoPhillips is also partnering with Tyson Foods to produce HDRD using animal fat, beginning in 2007 and ramping up to as much as 11,000 barrels per day by 2009.

Neste Oil (Finland)

Neste Oil is producing HDRD using its NExBTL process, beginning in 2007. A second plant is scheduled to come online in 2008, for a total production capacity of 340,000 metric tons per year.

Petrobras (Brazil)
Brazilian oil company Petrobras developed the H-BIO process, which produces HDRD using hydrotreating units in existing oil refineries. Petrobras is planning to use the H-BIO process in three of its refineries by 2007 and two more by 2008, with a total vegetable oil consumption of more than 7,000 barrels per day.

Syntroleum (United States)

Syntroleum formed a joint venture with Tyson Foods to produce HDRD and jet fuel using its Biofining process. Production from its first plant was scheduled to come online in 2010 at a rate of about 5,000 barrels of synthetic fuel per day.

UOP-Eni (United States, Italy)

The first "Ecofining" facility developed by UOP and Italian oil and gas company Eni was scheduled to come online in 2009, processing 6,500 barrels per day of vegetable oils into green diesel. The U.S. Department of Energy has supported UOP's Renewable Energy and Chemicals unit in developing HDRD production technologies.

Hydrogenation-Derived Renewable Diesel Distribution

One major benefit of hydrogenation-derived renewable diesel (HDRD) is its compatibility with currently existing fuel distribution systems. It could be transported through the existing infrastructure, including pipeline transport, and dispensed at existing fueling stations.

BENEFITS Hydrogenation-Derived Renewable Diesel Benefits

Like other biomass-derived fuels, hydrogenation-derived renewable diesel (HDRD) can be produced domestically from a variety of homegrown feedstocks while creating U.S. jobs, and greenhouse gas emissions are reduced because carbon dioxide captured when the feedstock crops are grown balances carbon dioxide released when the fuel is burned. The following are additional potential benefits of HDRD:

It should be able to be used directly in today's diesel-powered vehicles. It should be compatible with the current diesel distribution infrastructure and not require new or modified pipelines, storage tanks, or retail station pumps.

It can be produced using existing oil refinery capacity and does not require extensive new production facilities. Its fuel properties, especially its high cetane number, suggest it will provide similar or better vehicle performance than conventional diesel. Its ultra-low sulfur content should enable use of advanced emission control devices.

Hydrogenation-Derived Renewable Diesel Research and Development

Hydrogenation-derived renewable diesel (HDRD) is close to full commercialization, and much of the ongoing research and development is being performed by manufacturers. See a list of manufacturers and projects on the Production page. The U.S. Department of Energy has supported research and development efforts, including the work of UOP's Renewable Energy and Chemicals unit in developing HDRD production technologies.

4-METHANOL
Also known as wood alcohol, methanol can be used as an alternative fuel. The use of methanol has dramatically declined since the early 1990s, and auto makers are no longer manufacturing vehicles that run on it. This page serves as a table of contents for the Methanol section. Choose from the links below to learn more about this alternative fuel.

METHANOL BASICS
Methanol (CH3OH), also known as wood alcohol, is considered an alternative fuel under the Energy Policy Act of 1992. Today, most of the world's methanol is produced by a process using natural gas as a feedstock. Methanol can be used to make methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE), an oxygenate that is blended with gasoline to enhance octane and create cleaner burning fuel. MTBE production and use has declined in recent years because it has been found to contaminate ground water. As an engine fuel, methanol has similar chemical and physical characteristics as ethanol. For more information, see the Fuel Properties section.

METHANOL PRODUCTION
Methanol is methane with one hydrogen molecule replaced by a hydroxyl radical (OH). It is predominantly produced by steam reforming natural gas to create a synthesis gas, which is then fed into a reactor vessel in the presence of a catalyst. This process then produces methanol and water vapor. Although a variety of feedstocks can be used to create methanol, today's economics favor the use of natural gas.

METHANOL BENEFITS
Methanol's physical and chemical characteristics offer several advantages as an alternative fuel. Benefits include relatively low production cost and a lower risk of flammability compared to gasoline. In addition, methanol can be manufactured from a variety of carbon-based feedstocks, such as coal. Its use could also help reduce U.S. dependence on imported petroleum. In addition, methanol can be made into hydrogen. Researchers are currently looking at ways to overcome the barriers to using methanol as a hydrogen fuel source for future fuel cell vehicles.

5- P-SERIES
P-Series fuel is a blend of natural gas liquids (pentanes plus), ethanol, and the biomass-derived cosolvent methyltetrahydrofuran (MeTHF). P-Series fuels are clear, colorless, 89-93 octane, liquid blends that are formulated to be used in flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs). P-Series fuel can be used alone or freely mixed with gasoline in any proportion inside an FFV fuel tank. Currently, P-Series is not being produced in large quantities and is not widely used. P-Series is the only fuel to be added to the list of authorized alternative fuels under the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct). It was added to the list through the EPAct petitions provision in 1999.

6-xTL FUELS
Synthetic liquid transportation fuels, collectively known as xTL fuels, are produced through specialized conversion processes. These production methods, including the Fischer-Tropsch process, produce fuels from carbon-based feedstocks, such as biomass, coal, or natural gas, and can yield many useful fuels, including gasoline, diesel, ethanol, and methanol.

LIQUID FUELS FROM COAL AND NATURAL GAS

Liquid fuels from coal and natural gas are produced primarily through the Fischer-Tropsch process described below. Producing liquid fuels from coal and natural gas can result in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, but carbon sequestration can mitigate this disadvantage. In addition, coal can be converted directly into liquids through liquefaction. The Bergius hydrogenation process is a primary method that involves reacting low-grade coal with hydrogen at a high temperature and pressure to produce liquids that can be refined into synthetic fuels. China, India, and the Philippines are studying and deploying direct liquefaction technologies. Fischer-Tropsch Process The Fisher-Tropsch process produces liquid transportation fuels by converting syngasa mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen produced from biomass or fossil fuels, such as natural gas and coalinto Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) diesel. F-T diesel can substitute for conventional petroleum diesel to fuel diesel vehicles without modifying the engine or fueling infrastructure. In 1923, Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch studied converting coal-derived syngas into useful compounds, such as diesel. The key to F-T synthesis is the catalystssubstances that facilitate chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction. The process includes three steps that occur in the presence of catalysts:

1.

Syngas Formation Old Hydrocarbon + Oxygen Syngas

2.

Fischer-Tropsch Reaction Syngas New Hydrocarbon + Water

3.

Refining New Hydrocarbon Fuels, Chemicals, etc.

The F-T process is beneficial because it converts relatively inflexible energy sourcessuch as coal or biomass indicated as "Old Hydrocarbon" in the first stepinto useful transportation fuels. Because petroleum-based fuels are in high demand, F-T diesel is a valuable substitute.

LIQUID FUELS FROM BIOMASS

Liquid fuels converted from biomass feedstocks are produced primarily through two processes:

Gasificationheating biomass by partial oxidation to produce synthesis gas (syngas) Biomass is converted to gas by heating it in the presence of about one third of the oxygen needed for combustion. The resulting syngas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen that can be burned to produce electricity or converted into hydrocarbons (such as gasoline and diesel), alcohols, ethers, or chemical products. The petroleum and petrochemical industries have developed commercial processes for converting syngas into fuels and chemicals.

Pyrolysisheating biomass in the absence of oxygen to produce liquid oil Sometimes called bio-oil, pyrolysis oil can be burned like fuel oil or refined into chemicals and fuels. Upgrading pyrolysis oil to highquality hydrocarbon fuels has been demonstrated at a noncommercial scale. Both processes use heat and chemical reactions to convert biomass into fuels, chemicals, and power. The products are cleaner and more efficient than the original biomass. These processes can also convert biomass, such as wood and agricultural residues, that is difficult to handle with other biofuel production processes.

Liquid fuels from biomass differ from fuels produced through fermentation and other processes that use only part of a biomass feedstock, such as those that produce ethanol, biobutanol, and biodiesel.

BENEFITS OF XTL FUELS

Liquid fuels produced from carbon-based feedstocks are viable alternatives to conventional transportation fuels. The benefits of xTL fuels include:

Technological CompatibilityxTL fuels are compatible with current diesel- and gasoline-powered vehicles and fuel distribution infrastructure. xTL fuels do not require new or modified pipelines, storage tanks, or retail station pumps.

Increased Energy SecurityUsing the United State's vast coal reserves and natural gas to produce transportation fuels would reduce U.S. reliance on imported petroleum and increase energy security. xTL fuels produced domestically can also create jobs in the United States.

Improved Vehicle PerformanceLiquid fuels from natural gas and F-T diesel can provide similar or better vehicle performance than conventional fuels.

Reduced Exhaust EmissionsWith F-T diesel, emission-control catalysts can reduce nitrogen oxide emissions, little or no particulate emissions exist because it has low sulfur and aromatic content, and there are fewer hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions.

Fewer GHG EmissionsFuels converted from stranded natural gas reserves, which are otherwise not economical to recover, require no gas flaring and produce fewer GHG emissions. Fuels from biomass can produce fewer GHG emissions because carbon dioxide captured during feedstock growth offsets carbon dioxide emissions from burning fuel.

RESEARCHING AND DEVELOPING XTL FUELS

Gas-to-liquid and coal-to-liquid production processes are in relatively advanced stages of development and in commercial production. Biomass-to-liquid processes are less mature. For all three processes, research and development efforts are improving the efficiency and economics of production as well as quantifying costs and benefits of production and use in vehicles. Companies involved in xTL fuel production include Sasol, Shell, Syntroleum, and Rentech. Since the late 1990s, most major oil companies have announced plans to investigate producing diesel through gas-toliquid processes. The U.S. Department of Energy and several national laboratories support xTL fuel production research and development.

BIODIESEL
Biodiesel is a renewable alternative fuel produced from a wide range of vegetable oils and animal fats. Pure biodiesel or biodiesel blended with petroleum diesel can be used to fuel diesel vehicles, providing energy security and emissions and safety benefits.

Basics What is biodiesel?

B20 and B100 Production Statistics Distribution Benefits

What is biodiesel?
Biodiesel is a liquid fuel made up of fatty acid alkyl esters, fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), or long-chain mono alkyl esters. It is produced from renewable sources such as new and used vegetable oils and animal fats and is a cleaner-burning replacement for petroleum-based diesel fuel. It is nontoxic and biodegradable. Biodiesel has physical properties similar to those of petroleum diesel:
Biodiesel's Physical Characteristics Specific gravity Kinematic viscosity at 40C Cetane number Higher heating value, Btu/gal Lower heating value, Btu/gal Density, lb/gal at 15.5C Carbon, wt% Hydrogen, wt% 0.88 4.0 to 6.0 48 to 65 127,042 118,170 7.3 77 12

Oxygen, by dif. wt% Boiling point, C Flash point, C Sulfur, wt% Cloud point, C Pour point, C

11 315-350 100-170 0.0 to 0.0024 -3 to 15 -5 to 10

Like petroleum diesel, biodiesel is used to fuel compression-ignition (diesel) engines. Low-level blends of biodiesel with petroleum diesel also provide benefits.

B20 AND B100: ALTERNATIVE FUELS

The interest in biodiesel as an alternative transportation fuel stems mainly from its renewable, domestic production; its safe, clean-burning properties; and its compatibility with existing diesel engines. Biodiesel can be legally blended with petroleum diesel in any percentage. The percentages are designated as B20 for a blend containing 20% biodiesel and 80% petroleum diesel, B100 for 100% biodiesel, and so forth. B100 and blends of B20 or higher qualify for alternative fuel credits under the Energy Policy Act of 1992.

B20
Twenty percent biodiesel and 80% petroleum dieselB20is the most common biodiesel blend in the United States. Using B20 provides substantial benefits but avoids many of the coldweather performance and material compatibility concerns associated with B100. B20 can be used in nearly all diesel equipment and is compatible with most storage and distribution equipment. B20 and lower-level blends generally do not require engine modifications. Not all diesel engine manufacturers cover biodiesel use in their warranties, however. See the National Biodiesel Board's Standards and Warranties page to learn more about engine warranties. Because diesel engines are expensive, users should consult their vehicle and engine warranty statements before using biodiesel. Biodiesel blends between B6-B20 must meet prescribed quality standardsASTM D7467 (summary of requirements). Biodiesel contains about 8% less energy per gallon than petroleum diesel. For B20, this could mean a 1 to 2% difference, but most B20 users report no noticeable difference in performance or fuel economy. Greenhouse gas and air-quality benefits of biodiesel are roughly commensurate with the blend; B20 use provides about 20% of the benefit of B100 use and so forth. Low-level biodiesel blends also provide benefits.

B100
B100 or other high-level biodiesel blends can be used in some engines built since 1994 with biodiesel-compatible material for parts such as hoses and gaskets. However, as biodiesel blend levels increase significantly beyond B20, a number of concerns come into play. Users must be aware of lower energy content per gallon and potential issues with impact on engine warranties, low-temperature gelling, solvency/cleaning effect if regular diesel was previously used, and microbial contamination. To avoid engine operational problems, pure biodiesel (B100) must meet the requirements of ASTM D6751-09, Standard Specification for Biodiesel Fuel (B100) Blend Stock for Distillate Fuels (summary of requirements). B100 use could also increase nitrogen oxides emissions, although it greatly reduces other toxic emissions. All these issues can be handled, but currently B100 use might be best for professional fleets with maintenance departments prepared to deal with this fuel.

BIODIESEL PRODUCTION
Biodiesel can be made from new or used vegetable oils and animal fats, which are nontoxic, biodegradable, and renewable. Fats and oils are chemically reacted with an alcohol (methanol is most commonly used in the United States) to produce chemical compounds known as fatty acid methyl esters. Biodiesel is the name given to these esters when they are intended for use as fuel. Glycerin (used in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, among other markets) is produced as a co-product. Biodiesel can be produced using a variety of esterification technologies. The oils and fats are filtered and preprocessed to remove water and contaminants. If free fatty acids are present, they can be removed or transformed into biodiesel using special pretreatment technologies. The pretreated oils and fats are then mixed with an alcohol (usually methanol) and a catalyst (usually sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide). The oil molecules (triglycerides) are broken apart and reformed into methyl esters and glycerin, which are then separated from each other and purified. Roughly speaking, 100 pounds of oil or fat are reacted with 10 pounds of a short-chain alcohol (usually methanol) with a catalyst to form 100 pounds of biodiesel and 10 pounds of glycerin. Although the process is relatively simple, homemade biodiesel is not recommended. Diesel engines are expensive, and it is not worth risking damage or even minor operational problems from fuel that does not meet rigorous ASTM D6751 specifications. Section 3.1 of the Biodiesel Handling and Use Guidelines provides a summary of this standard. The full standard can be purchased from ASTM International. Do not use raw vegetable oil in a diesel engine. Fats and oils (triglycerides) are much more viscous than biodiesel, and low-level vegetable oil blends can cause long-term engine deposits, ring sticking, lube oil gelling, and other maintenance problems that can reduce engine life. Much of the original biodiesel production capacity comes from companies already making products from vegetable oil or animal fat in the detergent industry among others. More than half the biodiesel industry can use any fat or oil feedstock, including recycled cooking grease. The other half of the industry is limited to vegetable oils; soy oil is the most common source in the United States today. The soy industry has been the driving force behind biodiesel commercialization because of excess production capacity, product surpluses, and declining prices. Similar issues apply to the recycled grease and animal fats industry, even though these

feedstocks are less expensive than soy oils. A possibly limiting factor for biodiesel industry growth is potential saturation of the market for glycerin

SCHEMATIC OF BIODIESEL PRODUCTION PATH

BIODIESEL STATISTICS
Today, biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils, yellow grease, and tallow. Domestic production increased dramatically over the past decade, however, consumption has not increased at the same rate. Exports increased, mostly to Europe, due to favorable U.S. pricing and currency rates as well as European biodiesel use requirements. European and domestic policy changes may impact U.S. biodiesel exports in the near term. Current research is focused on developing algae as a potential biodiesel feedstock because it is expected to produce high yields from a smaller area of land than vegetable oils.

BIODIESEL DISTRIBUTION
Biodiesel is distributed from the point of production via truck, train, or barge. Pipeline distribution of biodiesel, which would be the most economical option, is still in the experimental phase. Distributors are available from the National Biodiesel Board's locations page. Biodiesel is distributed to retail fueling stations and directly to end users such as large vehicle fleets. Most biodiesel distributors will deliver pure or preblended (with petroleum diesel) biodiesel depending on the customer's preference.

BIODIESEL BENEFITS
Biodiesel is a domestically produced, clean-burning, renewable substitute for petroleum diesel. Using biodiesel as a vehicle fuel increases energy security, improves public health and the environment, and provides safety benefits. For more information, see the National Biodiesel Board's Benefits of Biodiesel .

Increasing Energy Security

The United States imports more than 60% of its petroleum, two-thirds of which is used to fuel vehicles in the form of gasoline and diesel. The demand for petroleum imports is increasing. With much of the worldwide petroleum reserves located in politically volatile countries, the United States is vulnerable to supply disruptions. Biodiesel can be produced domestically and used in conventional diesel engines, directly substituting for or extending supplies of traditional petroleum diesel. (Remember to consult with your auto manufacturer and engine warranty statement before using biodiesel in your vehicle.) It also has an excellent energy balance: biodiesel contains 3.2 times the amount of energy it takes to produce it.

Protecting Public Health and the Environment

Compared with using petroleum diesel, using biodiesel in a conventional diesel engine substantially reduces emissions of unburned hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfates, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and particulate matter (PM). The reductions increase as the amount of biodiesel blended into diesel fuel increases. B100 provides the best emission reductions, but lower-level blends also provide benefits. B20 has been shown to reduce PM emissions 10%, CO 11%, and unburned HC 21% (see graph). Learn more about Biodiesel Emissions.

Source: EPA 2002

Using biodiesel also reduces greenhouse gas emissions because carbon dioxide released from biodiesel combustion is offset by the carbon dioxide sequestered while growing the soybeans or

other feedstock. B100 use reduces carbon dioxide emissions by more than 75% compared with petroleum diesel. Using B20 reduces carbon dioxide emissions by 15%.

Biodiesel Improves Engine Operation

Biodiesel improves fuel lubricity and raises the cetane number of the fuel. Diesel engines depend on the lubricity of the fuel to keep moving parts from wearing prematurely. Federal regulations reduced sulfur in diesel fuel to 15 ppm a few years ago, which resulted in reduced lubricity of petroleum diesel. Diesel specification ASTM D975 was modified to require lubricity; biodiesel provides adequate lubricity to meet this requirement at blends as low as 1%.

Providing Safety Benefits

Biodiesel is nontoxic, so it causes far less damage than petroleum diesel if spilled or otherwise released to the environment. It is also safer than petroleum diesel because it is less combustible. The flashpoint for biodiesel is higher than 150C, compared with about 52C for petroleum diesel. Biodiesel is safe to handle, store, and transport.

ETHANOL
This Ethanol subsite represents a joint effort of the U.S. Department of Energy's Biomass and Vehicle Technologies Programs and covers the entire production cycle of ethanol, from the field to the fuel tank. For information on other biofuels, go to the Fuels section

Ethanol Basics
Ethanol is a renewable fuel made from various plant materials, which collectively are called "biomass." Ethanol contains the same chemical compound (C2H5OH) found in alcoholic beverages. Nearly half of U.S. gasoline contains ethanol in a low-level blend to oxygenate the fuel and reduce air pollution. Ethanol is also increasingly available in E85, an alternative fuel that can be used in flexible fuel vehicles. Studies have estimated that ethanol and other biofuels could replace 30% or more of U.S. gasoline demand by 2030. Several steps are required to make ethanol available as a vehicle fuelsee the supply chain diagram below. Biomass feedstocks are grown, then various logistical systems are used to collect and transport them to ethanol production facilities. After ethanol is produced at the facilities, a distribution network supplies ethanol-gasoline blends to fueling stations for use by drivers. This page lists basic ethanol topics. To learn more, select one of the following links or select a step in the ethanol supply chain diagram.

What is ethanol?
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH; also known as ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, and EtOH) is a clear, colorless liquid. Its molecules contain a hydroxyl group (-OH) bonded to a carbon atom. To learn more, see the fuel properties table on the E85 Specifications page. Ethanol is made of the same chemical compoundand it is the same renewable biofuelwhether it is produced from starchand sugar-based feedstocks such as corn grain (as it primarily is in the United States) and sugar cane (as it primarily is in Brazil) or from cellulosic feedstocks. Making ethanol from cellulosic feedstockssuch as grass, wood, crop residues, or old newspapersis more challenging than using starch or sugars. These materials must first be broken down into their component sugars for subsequent fermentation to ethanol in a process called biochemical conversion. Cellulosic feedstocks also can be converted into ethanol using heat and chemicals in a process called thermochemical conversion. Cellulosic ethanol conversion processes are a major focus of U.S. Department of Energy research. Ethanol works well in internal combustion engines. In fact, Henry Ford and other early automakers thought ethanol would be the world's primary fuel before gasoline became so readily available. A gallon of pure ethanol (E100) contains 34% less energy than a gallon of gasoline. Ethanol is a high-octane fuel. Octane helps prevent engine knocking and is extremely important in engines designed to operate at a higher compression ratio, so they generate more power. These engines tend to be found in high-performance vehicles. Low-level blends of ethanol, such as E10 (10% ethanol, 90% gasoline), generally have a higher octane rating than unleaded gasoline. Low-octane gasoline can be blended with 10% ethanol to attain the standard 87 octane requirement. Ethanol is the main component in E85, a high-level blend of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline.

Printable Version

Ethanol Benefits
Ethanol is a renewable, largely domestic transportation fuel. Whether used in low-level blends, such as E10 (10% ethanol, 90% gasoline), or in E85 (85% ethanol, 15% gasoline), ethanol helps reduce imported oil and greenhouse gas emissions. Its use also supports the U.S. agricultural sector. This page describes the benefits of ethanol. For additional details, visit the U.S. Department of Energy Biomass Program's Benefits page.

Increasing Energy Security

About two-thirds of U.S. petroleum demand is in the transportation sector. Sixty percent of U.S. petroleum is currently imported. Depending heavily on foreign petroleum supplies puts the United States at risk for trade deficits, supply disruption, and price changes. Ethanol, on the other hand, is almost entirely produced from domestic crops today. Its use, and that of other alternative fuels, can displace a significant amount of imported petroleum.

Fueling the Economy

Ethanol production is a new industry that is creating jobs in rural areas where employment opportunities are needed. The Renewable Fuels Association's 2011 Ethanol Industry Outlook report calculated that in 2010 the ethanol industry replaced the gasoline produced from more than 445 million barrels of imported oil. In addition, ethanol production supported more than 400,000 jobs across the country. A recent report (Economic Contribution of the Partial Exemption for Ethanol From the Federal Excise Tax on Motor Fuel ) claims there is an economic return on investment of nearly five to one for each dollar spent in the form of the federal tax incentive for ethanol use

Ethanol Energy Balance

Ethanol - The Complete Energy Lifecycle Picture

Ethanol in the United States is mainly produced from the starch in corn grain. Some studies have suggested that corn-based ethanol has a negative energy balance. However, a preponderance of recent studies using updated data about corn production methods demonstrates a positive energy balance for corn ethanol. In addition, once the technology to produce cellulosic ethanol becomes widely available, the energy lifecycle balance of ethanol will improve. That's because it will be produced using less fossil fuel and more energy-efficient feedstocks, such as fast-growing trees, corn stover, grain straw, switchgrass, forest product residues, and municipal waste. Cellulosic ethanol also produces lower levels of greenhouse gas emissions.

Ethanol Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Using ethanol as a vehicle fuel provides local and global benefitsreducing emissions of harmful pollutants and greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary greenhouse gas implicated in global warming (others include methane and nitrous oxide). CO2 is produced when carbon that had been stored on or within the Earth is released into the atmospheresuch as when fossil fuels are burned. CO2 can also be removed from the atmosphere, primarily by the action of plants, which consume it during photosynthesis. The CO2 released when ethanol is burned as a vehicle fuel is offset by the CO2 captured when crops used to make the ethanol are grown. As a result, ethanol-powered vehicles produce less net CO2 than gasoline-powered vehicles per mile traveled. To get a picture of the true greenhouse gas reduction, life-cycle analyses are used to calculate CO2 emissions and uptake at each step of the ethanol and gasoline production and use processes. For ethanol, these steps include growing of the feedstock crops, transporting the feedstock to the production plant, producing the ethanol, distributing it, and burning it in vehicles. For gasoline, crude oil must be extracted from the ground, transported to an oil refinery, refined, distributed, and burned in vehicles. Studies have shown that, when these entire fuel cycles are considered, using corn-based ethanol instead of gasoline reduces greenhouse gas emissions by 19% to 52%, depending on the source of energy used during ethanol production (see graph below). Using cellulosic ethanol provides an even greater benefitreducing greenhouse gas emissions by up to 86%. Recent studies have shown the importance of incorporating assumptions about future crop production rates and land use into life-cycle analyses; these factors can affect net greenhouse gas emission calculations substantially.

Source: Life-Cycle Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emission Impacts of Different Corn Ethanol Plant Types Biomass Program

; DOE

Ethanol Production
Today, U.S. ethanol is primarily produced from starch-based crops by dry-mill or wet-mill processing. Cellulosic ethanol has been produced commercially in very small volumes. Several commercial cellulosic ethanol production plants are under construction, and intensive research and development is rapidly advancing the state of cellulosic ethanol technology.

*Trade includes small changes in stock Source: Energy Information Agency (EIA) (Graph Data )

Source: Renewable Fuels Association, 2009 (Graph Data

HYDROGEN
Hydrogen has the potential to revolutionize transportation and, possibly, our entire energy system. The simplest and most abundant element in the universe, hydrogen can be produced from fossil fuels and biomass and even by electrolyzing water. Producing hydrogen with renewable energy and using it in fuel cell vehicles holds the promise of virtually pollution-free transportation and independence from imported petroleum.

BASICS :What is hydrogen?

Hydrogen is the simplest and most abundant element in the universeit is number 1 on the periodic table of elements (this link takes you to Los Alamos National Laboratory's site). At Earth surface temperatures and pressures, it is a colorless, odorless gas (H2). However, hydrogen is rarely found alone in nature. It is usually bonded with other elements. See the AFDC Fuel Properties database for more details. Very little hydrogen gas is present in Earth's atmosphere. Hydrogen is locked up in enormous quantities in water (H2O), hydrocarbons (such as methane, CH4), and other organic matter. Efficiently producing hydrogen from these compounds is one of the challenges of using hydrogen as a fuel. Currently, steam reforming of methane (natural gas) accounts for about 95% of the hydrogen produced in the United States. Almost all of the approximately 9 million tons of hydrogen produced here each year are used for refining petroleum, treating metals, producing fertilizer, and processing foods. Hydrogen has been used for space flight since the 1950s; learn more on the NASA website. Hydrogen also can be used to fuel internal combustion engines and fuel cells, both of which can power low- or zero-emissions vehicles such as fuel cell vehicles. Major research and development efforts are aimed at making hydrogen vehicles practical for widespread use.

Hydrogen Production
Hydrogen is an energy carrier, not an energy source. Energy is required to separate it from other compounds. Once produced, hydrogen stores energy until it is delivered in a usable form, such as hydrogen gas delivered into a fuel cell. Hydrogen can be produced from diverse, domestic resources including fossil fuels, nuclear energy, biomass, and other renewable energy technologies. The environmental impact and energy efficiency of hydrogen depends greatly on how it is produced. The following are some ways to produce hydrogen. Many are in the early stages of development. For more information, see Hydrogen Production

Natural gas reforming"synthesis gas" is created by reacting natural gas with high-temperature steam or by partial oxidation. The synthesis gas is then reacted with water to produce hydrogen Renewable electrolysisan electric current generated by renewable energy technologies, such as wind or solar, splits water into hydrogen and oxygen GasificationCoal or biomass is converted into gaseous components and then into synthesis gas, which is reacted with steam to produce hydrogen Renewable liquid reformingrenewable liquid fuels such as ethanol are reacted with high-temperature steam to produce hydrogen near the point of end-use Nuclear high-temperature electrolysisheat from a nuclear reactor is used to improve the efficiency of water electrolysis to produce hydrogen High-temperature thermochemical water-splittinghigh temperatures generated by solar concentrators or nuclear reactors drive chemical reactions that split water to produce hydrogen Photobiologicalmicrobes such as green algae consume water in the presence of sunlight, producing hydrogen as a byproduct Photoelectrochemicalphotoelectrochemical systems produce hydrogen from water using special semiconductors and energy from sunlight

DOE-sponsored research is investigating the ability of green algae to produce hydrogen directly from water and sunlight.

Natural gas reforming using steam accounts for about 95% of the approximately 9 million tons of hydrogen produced in the United States annually. This level of hydrogen production could fuel more than 34 million cars. The major hydrogen-producing states are California, Louisiana, and Texas. Almost all of the hydrogen produced in the United States is used for refining petroleum, treating metals, producing fertilizer, and processing foods. The primary challenge for hydrogen production is reducing the cost of production technologies to make the resulting hydrogen cost competitive with conventional transportation fuels. Government and industry research and development projects are reducing the cost as well as the environmental impacts of hydrogen production technologies. Learn more from the U.S. Department of Energy Hydrogen, Fuel Cells & Infrastructure Technologies Program and National Renewable Energy Laboratory Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Research websites.

Hydrogen Benefits
Hydrogen can be produced from diverse domestic resources, with the potential for near-zero greenhouse gas emissions. Once produced, it generates power without exhaust emissions in fuel cells. It holds promise for economic growth in both the stationary and transportation energy sectors.

Increasing Energy Security

The United States imports more than 60% of its petroleum, two-thirds of which is used to fuel vehicles in the form of gasoline and diesel. The demand for petroleum imports is increasing. With much of the worldwide petroleum reserves located in politically volatile countries, the United States is vulnerable to supply disruptions. No matter how efficient conventional vehicles become, some of the gasoline and diesel needed to fuel them will need to be imported. Hydrogen can be produced domestically from resources such as natural gas, coal, solar energy, wind, biomass, and nuclear energy. Used to power highly efficient fuel cell vehicles, hydrogen holds the promise of an end to the nation's "addiction to oil."

Protecting Public Health and the Environment

About half of the U.S. population lives in areas where air pollution levels are high enough to negatively impact public health or the environment. Emissions from gasoline and diesel vehiclessuch as nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and particulate matterare a major source of this pollution. Hydrogen-powered fuel cell vehicles emit none of these harmful substances. Their only emission is H2Owater. The environmental and health benefits are even greater when hydrogen is produced from low- or zero-emission sources such as solar, wind, and nuclear energy and fossil fuels with advanced emission controls and carbon sequestration. Because the transportation sector accounts for about one third of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions, which contribute to climate change, using these sources to produce hydrogen for transportation can slash greenhouse gas emissions. Learn more about Hydrogen Emissions.

Fueling the Economy

The potential market for hydrogen vehicles is enormous, but the opportunities don't stop there. Hydrogen and fuel cells can power stationary applications such as backup generators, and grid electricity production. They can also compensate for the intermittency of renewable energy production. For example, wind generators can produce hydrogen when winds are high and electricity demand is low (learn more by going to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory's

Wind to Hydrogen page). When the wind slackens or electricity demand peaks, fuel cells consume the stored hydrogen to provide grid electricity. The United States stands to profit from hydrogen technologies. A recent study projected global annual demand for stationary and transportation fuel cell products to reach $46 billion by 2011 and more than $2.5 trillion by 2021. Government and industry investment in hydrogen and fuel cell technologies has positioned the United States as a leader in this rapidly growing market.

Natural Gas
Natural gas is a domestically produced alternative fuel and is readily available to end users through the utility infrastructure. It can produce significantly fewer harmful emissions than gasoline or diesel when used in natural gas vehicles.

Basics

What is natural gas?

Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbons, predominantly methane (CH4). As delivered through the pipeline system, it also contains hydrocarbons such as ethane and propane and other gases such as nitrogen, helium, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and water vapor. See the AFDC Fuel Properties database for more details. Natural gas has a high octane rating and excellent properties for spark-ignited internal combustion engines. It is non-toxic, non-corrosive, and non-carcinogenic. It presents no threat to soil, surface water, or groundwater. Most natural gas is extracted from gas and oil wells. Much smaller amounts are derived from supplemental sources such as synthetic gas, landfill gas and other biogas resources, and coalderived gas. Natural gas accounts for approximately one quarter of the energy used in the United States. Of this, about one third goes to residential and commercial uses, one third to industrial uses, and one third to electric power production. Only about one tenth of one percent is currently used for transportation fuel.

CNG and LNG: Alternative Fuels

The interest in natural gas as an alternative transportation fuel stems mainly from its cleanburning qualities, its domestic resource base, and its commercial availability. Because of the gaseous nature of this fuel, it must be stored onboard a vehicle in either a compressed gaseous (compressed natural gas, CNG) or liquefied (liquefied natural gas, LNG) state. CNG and LNG are considered alternative fuels under the Energy Policy Act of 1992.

Compressed Natural Gas

To provide adequate driving range, CNG must be stored onboard a vehicle in tanks at high pressureup to 3,600 pounds per square inch. A CNG-powered vehicle gets about the same fuel economy as a conventional gasoline vehicle on a gasoline gallon equivalent (GGE) basis. A GGE is the amount of alternative fuel that contains the same amount of energy as a gallon of gasoline. A GGE equals about 5.7 lb (2.6 kg) of CNG.

Liquefied Natural Gas

To store more energy onboard a vehicle in a smaller volume, natural gas can be liquefied. To produce LNG, natural gas is purified and condensed into liquid by cooling to -260F (-162C). At atmospheric pressure, LNG occupies only 1/600 the volume of natural gas in vapor form. A GGE equals about 1.5 gallons of LNG. Because it must be kept at such cold temperatures, LNG is stored in double-wall, vacuum-insulated pressure vessels. LNG fuel systems typically are only used with heavy-duty vehicles.

Natural Gas Production

Most natural gas consumed in the United States is domestically produced, with significant importation from Canada and a small but rapidly growing contribution from overseas imports in the form of liquefied natural gas (LNG). The vast majority of natural gas is a fossil fuel, formed over millions of years by the action of heat and pressure on organic material (ancient plants and animals). It is derived in much smaller amounts from renewable sources such as landfill gas and water/sewage treatment; for an example of this, see the report Franklin County Sanitary Landfill - Landfill Gas (LFG) to Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Project . Other supplemental sources include synthetic gas and coal-derived gas. See the Energy Information Administration natural gas production page for more information. Gas trapped in sub-surface porous rock reservoirs is extracted via drilling. Gas streams produced from oil and gas reservoirs contain natural gas, liquids, and other materials. Processing is required to separate the gas from petroleum liquids and to remove contaminants. First, the gas is separated from free liquids such as crude oil, hydrocarbon condensate, water, and entrained solids. The separated gas is further processed to meet specified requirements. For example, natural gas for transmission companies must generally meet certain pipeline quality specifications with respect to water content, hydrocarbon dewpoint, heating value, and hydrogen-sulfide content. A dehydration plant controls water content, a gas processing plant removes certain hydrocarbon components to hydrocarbon dewpoint specifications, and a gas sweetening plant removes hydrogen sulfide and other sulfur compounds (when present).

Natural Gas Benefits

Natural gas is a domestically available, inherently clean-burning fuel. Using compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG) as vehicle fuels increases energy security, paves the way for fuel cell vehicles, and improves public health and the environment. Using renewable natural gas provides even more benefits.

Increasing Energy Security

The United States imports more than 60% of its petroleum, two thirds of which is used to fuel vehicles in the form of gasoline and diesel. The demand for petroleum imports is increasing. With much of the worldwide petroleum reserves located in politically volatile countries, the United States is vulnerable to supply disruptions. Natural gas vehicles are an immediate solution to the nation's energy security needs. Most of the natural gas consumed in the United States is produced domestically or by politically stable countries, and an extensive natural gas infrastructure exists. Using natural gas vehicles instead of conventionally fueled vehicles reduces U.S. dependence on foreign oil and increases energy security.

Paving the Way for Fuel Cell Vehicles

Fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen might be the future of transportation. Natural gas vehicle and infrastructure development can facilitate the transition to this technology. With the highest hydrogen-to-carbon ratio of any energy source, natural gas is an efficient source of hydrogenin fact, it is the number one source of commercial hydrogen used in the United States. The vast U.S. network of natural gas transmission lines offers the potential for convenient transportation of natural gas to future refueling stations that reform hydrogen from the gas. Because natural gas and hydrogen are both gaseous fuels, lessons learned from developing natural gas technologies might aid the transition away from conventional liquid fuels to gaseous hydrogen fuel. Issues shared by natural gas and hydrogen include:

Fuel storage Fueling Station siting Training Facilities Public acceptability Vehicles fueled with hydrogen-natural gas blends (HCNG) are a first step toward a hydrogenbased transportation network. Fueling vehicles with HCNG can help build demand for a hydrogen infrastructure while providing enhanced emission reductions.

Protecting Public Health and the Environment

Compared with vehicles fueled by conventional diesel and gasoline, natural gas vehicles can produce significantly lower amounts of harmful emissions such as nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and toxic and carcinogenic pollutants as well as the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has called the natural gas Honda Civic GX the cleanest internal-combustion vehicle on Earth. Visit the U.S. Department of Energy/U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Fuel Economy Guide to compare the Civic GX with other cars for environmental impact and petroleum savings. Learn more about Natural Gas Emissions.

Propane
Propane, also known as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is used by many fleets. It has a high energy density, giving propane vehicles good driving range, and propane fueling infrastructure is widespread.

Basics

What is propane?
Propane, also known as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG or LP-gas), or autogas in Europe, is a three-carbon alkane gas (C3H8). Stored under pressure inside a tank, propane turns into a colorless, odorless liquid. As pressure is released, the liquid propane vaporizes and turns into gas that is used for combustion. An odorant, ethyl mercaptan, is added for leak detection. See the AFDC fuel properties table for more details. Propane has a high octane rating and excellent properties for spark-ignited internal combustion engines. It is non-toxic and presents no threat to soil, surface water, or groundwater. Propane is produced as a by-product of natural gas processing and crude oil refining. It accounts for about 2% of the energy used in the United States. Uses include home and water heating, cooking and refrigerating food, clothes drying, powering farm and industrial equipment, and drying corn. Rural areas that do not have natural gas service commonly rely on propane. The chemical industry uses propane as a raw material for making plastics and other compounds. Less than 2% of U.S. propane consumption is used for transportation fuel

Propane Production
Most propane (also known as liquefied petroleum gas or LPG) consumed in the United States is domestically produced. It is a by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining, with approximately equal amounts of production derived from each of these sources. The natural gas liquid components recovered during processing include ethane, methane, propane, and butane, as well as heavier hydrocarbons. Propane and butane, along with other gases, are also produced during crude oil refining. Because propane boils at -44F and ethane boils at -127F, propane is separated from methane by increasing pressure and decreasing temperature.

Propane Benefits
Propane (also known as liquefied petroleum gas or LPG) is a well-established, domestically available, clean-burning fuel. Using propane as a vehicle fuel would increase energy security, provide convenience and performance benefits, and improve public health and the environment.

Increasing Energy Security

The United States imports more than 60% of its petroleum, two thirds of which is used to fuel vehicles in the form of gasoline and diesel. The demand for petroleum imports is increasing. With much of the worldwide petroleum reserves located in politically volatile countries, the United States is vulnerable to supply disruptions. Fueling vehicles with propane would be one way to diversify U.S. transportation fuels. Most of the propane consumed in the United States is produced domestically and distributed via an established infrastructure. Using propane vehicles instead of conventionally fueled vehicles would reduce U.S. dependence on foreign oil and increase energy security.

Providing Convenience, Performance, and Safety

Propane is one of the world's most common engine fuels. Propane vehicle technology is well established, and propane fueling stations are widely available. Propane has one of the highest energy densities of all alternative fuels, so propane vehicles go farther on a tank of fuel. It is also an exceptionally safe fuel: propane tanks are 20 times more puncture resistant than gasoline tanks, and propane has the lowest flammability range of all alternative fuels.

Protecting Public Health and the Environment

Compared with vehicles fueled by conventional diesel and gasoline, propane vehicles can produce significantly lower amounts of some harmful emissions and the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide.