ELECTRONIC IMAGING DEVICES

The only way we can understand the Universe is capturing and measuring the light
that emit stars, galaxies, gas and dust. Physical and chemical phenomena occurring
at different temperature, pressure and density, emit photons at some specific
wavelength, covering the full electromagnetic spectrum. Measuring the light emitted
by those phenomena, require the development of detectors based on materials
sensitive to each wavelength, instruments capable to focus that light and specific
computer processing routines.
Roberto Bartali In this work, we will describe main characteristics of Charge Coupled Device and Photomultiplier Tube
technologies developed to capture visible, ultraviolet and infrared light. Their performance, strongly depend on
the working temperature, so a section is devoted to cooling systems technologies. Obtaining an image, as close
as possible to the celestial object of interest, is not as simple as point the telescope to the object, open the
camera shutter, wait for exposure time ends and send data to a computer display, but require a series of
calibration images and processing software. A section is devoted to the detailed description of calibration
frames and how to avoid problems during imaging capture and CCD operation.

CHARGE COUPLED DEVICE (CCD) PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBE MICROCHANNEL PLATE COOLING SYSTEMS
Semiconductor sensor based on the photoelectric effect, it absorb photons and release Vacuum tube with one electrode (cathode) SiPMT Image sensors, for astronomical observations, must be cooled to avoid thermally produced
electrons which are stored in each pixel well. The number of photo-electrons generated sensitive to light that release electrons dark currents; especially when exposure times are long or during the detection of infrared
Semiconductor version of the vacuum tube
depend on the exposure time, sensitivity, wavelength and quantum efficiency of the because of the photoelectric effect. Focusing light.
photomultiplier. Incoming photons strike sensitive
sensor. Resolution depend on the pixel size and the telescope focal length. Well content electrodes, direct photo-electrons toward a THERMOELECTRIC COOLERS LIQUID NITROGEN COOLERS
area and release photo-electrons (photoelectric
is transferred up-down in parallel form and left-right in serial form, toward the output series of energized electrodes (dynodes). PELTIER MODULES
effect). Electric fields direct them toward a thin
amplifier and the output pin. When accelerated electrons strike dynode channel carved into an isolating substrate, where they
- + - - + -- Red=electrodes;
surface, more electrons are released and
directed toward the next dynode. The net
are multiplied. A shifting process move the content of Peltier module
Liquid Nitrogen
system assembly
Cyan=isolating oxide layer; each channel to the output pin.
Pixel effect is a multiplication of electrons at each Liquid Nitrogen gas maintain the sensor
Blue=charge storage well; Semiconductor device based on the
structure stage. The electron avalanche, eventually Structure at -110ºC to avoid formation of thermal
Green=sensitive area; Peltier effect. A variable electric
reach the last dynode (anode) where is of a dark current. Useful for IR observations.
FRONT BACK Black arrows=photons; current passing through a junction of
available to external measuring and
ILLUMINATED ILLUMINATED SiPMT
processing circuit. different metals, produce a variable
temperature. One plate became hot
vacuum
and the other cool. Sensor is placed in
Vacuum contact to the cool plate. Maximum
spectral response PMT Schematic
temperature difference 80ºC.
versus of a liquid
quantum efficiency Nitrogen
of front and back cooler
illuminated CCD
Schematic of a
Spectral response versus quantum Size comparison Peltier module
CCD mosaic Vacuum tube PMT
efficiency of vacuum tube PMT assembly
Structure of a PMT and SiPMT versus SiPMT

CONVERTING PHOTONS TO A SCIENCE IMAGE

- - =
RAW IMAGE, of galaxy M51,
contains photons captured by the
telescope and noise generated by Corrected raw image
the imaging system.

Flat frame shows difference

in pixel sensitivity, dust on
optic surfaces, fringes and
Dark frame shows thermally
generated electrons. Exposure
length equal to raw exposure.
Bias frame shows internal noise,
due to electronics, and defective
pixels. Exposure time = 0..
Corrected flat frame
=
vignetting.

SCIENCE IMAGE, of galaxy

M51, corrected for internal and

- - =
external errors and noise, ready
for further image processing.
(Raw – dark – bias) / (flat – dark – bias)

CALIBRTION FRAMES
 SUMMARY OF LIGHT DETECTORS FOR ASTRONOMICAL IMAGING IN THE UV, VISIBLE AND IR WAVELENGHTS

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Galaxy Galaxy M82 in Galaxy M82 in IR light

M82 in UV light visible light

DETECTOR
DETECTOR
DETECTOR
CHANNEL
MICRO

CCD
Si:As IBC

CCD
HgCdTe

CCD
Si PIN
CCD
InSb
CCD
SiC

SPECTRAL RESPONSE PIXEL PIXEL

DETECTOR PICTURE
QUANTUM EFFICIENCY MATRIX SIZE

10K x
10K
(rods)

PICTURE
HUMAN EYE 6.3K x variable
PICTURE

6.3K
(cones
for each
colour)

FRONT
4 to 24
ILLUMINATE 8K x 8K
micron
D CCD

QUANTUM EFFICIENCY
SPECTRAL RESPONSE
QUANTUM EFFICIENCY
SPECTRAL RESPONSE

BACK 10K 4 to 24
ILLUMINATE
x 10K micron
D CCD

CONCLUSIONS
Our knowledge of the Universe is strictly related to photon detectors for every band of the electromagnetic spectrum. When
Galileo point his telescope to the heavens, until the application of photography to Astronomy, the Universe, suddenly

MATRIX
PIXEL
2K x 2K

2K x 2K
2K x 2K

2K x 2K
MATRIX
PIXEL
1K X1K

increase its dimension, observations were subjective, depending on the eye of the observer, no matter of the telescope
N/A

dimension. Astronomy, is today, inconceivable without electronics, we are able to take pictures of the Universe in different
wavelengths thank to the precise understanding and application of the photoelectric effect on semiconductors materials.
Very large scale integration technologies help to the development of larger sensors with many millions of pixels,
20 micron

incrementing the resolution and the field of view of astronomical images, taking the full advantage of the optics of modern
MICRON
100
10 TO

micron
10 to 24

micron
10 to 24
micron
10 to 24

micron
10 to 24

SIZE
PIXEL
SIZE
PIXEL

large telescopes. Even when actual state of the art technology give us a near perfect sensor, many features will be improved
in the future: flatness of spectral response, greater quantum efficiency, fast read out speed, low noise, large pixel count and
selective read out, are characteristics that surely we will see in the next generation of photon detectors.