Note for planning sheets: assistance on:

• downloading Netscape
• Configuring Netscape and downloading files

Don't forget your ideas may change and you can go through this
process as many times as you like.

You have two options:

1. Type your ideas in the appropriate areas then save or save and
print out the result.
2. Print out the planning sheet for each task and complete it in
your own handwriting.

Some questions in the planning sheets will ask for a short answer. Some
invite you to make an honest exploration of your thoughts and feelings,
which may take a little more time and space. Don't be surprised if you
end up writing pages; this could be the beginning of a beautiful
relationship with your academic self. You may even like to continue
throughout this research study to write down your personal plans,
reactions, speculations and doubts in a notebook or designated
computer file which then becomes your personal research journal - a
most useful tool for reflection and decision-making at all stages of your
research.

This process will help you summarise your choices and consolidate
your thinking in a way that may be useful to discuss with your
supervisor or fellow students.

What topic?

It is important to feel that you have selected a research topic which will
remain interesting to you - one small enough to investigate effectively,
with academic rigour, while satisfying your own need to contribute to
world knowledge in a significant way. Work through each of these
planning sheets in turn and you will find that the key components of
your research topic and the implications of your possible research
design begin to emerge and take shape in your mind. You may find that
the implications are much greater than you first supposed, and that each
time you open up a new thought, many others appear. This is very
common, and simply means that you should reduce the scale of your
undertakings and possibly omit some aspects of your first idea in order
to focus more directly on one specific and identifiable area.

Use these planning sheets to reflect on one set of ideas before using
them again on a revised set of ideas. The following planning sheets are
a downloadable Microsoft Word 6 file whattop:

• Topic mind-map
• Triad of major elements

1
It is important to place each part in a logical position so that your reader builds up an
understanding of the theoretical frameworks and practical aspects of your study in a clear,
identifiable sequence which unfolds the story and reveals the next piece of appropriate
information with conscious timing.

Preliminary pages
• title
• certification
• abstract
• table of contents
• acknowledgments
• list of tables
• list of figures
• glossary
• symbols
Main body
• introduction
• background
• context
• rationale
• research question(s)
• organisation of this document

Review of literature
• introduction
• main body
• conclusion

Methodology/methods and materials

• nature and purpose of the research
• research paradigm(s)
• research design
• data collection
• data reduction and analysis
• ethical considerations
• limitations and strengths of the research
o research methods
o reliability
o validity
o constraints

Findings/results
• discussion
• conclusion
• future directions

End pages
• reference list

2
 • appendices

The review of literature

Introduction
Most research is conducted within the context of existing findings and speculations by a
community of researchers in each discipline. Your study will draw from such a pool of
professionally shared knowledge and will undoubtedly contribute further to the traditional
understandings in your field.

1. First, we consider what is 'The purpose of the review of literature'. You will find that
the purpose and character of each chapter in a research report are intricately linked.
2. There is a comprehensive overview of the processes involved in planning and writing
a successful review of literature in 'A general guide to writing a review of literature'.
3. Become familiar with the ways in which research is conducted, presented and
discussed in your professional area, specifically within the schools of the Faculty of
Health and Biomedical Science at the University of South Australia. The section
'Writing in the Health and Biomedical Sciences' has a subsection on conducting the
review, with extracts from a study guide and several papers (as PDF (portable
document format) files to be read with Acrobat Reader). The subsection is 'The review
of literature: teachings of the Faculty'.
4. Work through some or all of the planning sheets in the section 'Organising your ideas:
The planning sheets'. These will help you sort and shape the items you have read into
a cohesive and well-conceived whole.

The purpose of the review of literature

The review of literature familiarises your reader with the what, why and how of your topic.

• What?
Reading: the extent, nature and relevance of your academic reading in the field(s)
covered by your research.
Interpretation: your own critical and scholarly interpretation of this body of
literature.
Presentation: your presentation of the many separate items as a coherent whole.
• Why?
o to establish a context for your study
o to present and critically evaluate the relevant conceptual frameworks and
associated research that has been conducted to date in your field
o to pinpoint an area of focus constituting a 'gap' which your study aims to fill
• How?
Prepare for a reflective cycle of searching, reading, conceptualising, organising,
shaping and presenting. At each stage you are aiming to pinpoint the exact position
within an existing body of research in which your own study can make its
contribution. Try to establish systematic work practices which enhance the
possibilities of this process.

As a result, your reader will discover the breadth, depth and scope of your topic through the
readings you present. You will show your keenly critical discernment as to the validity and

3
relevance of the previous research and the theoretical frameworks you have chosen to
include.

A general guide to writing a review of literature

A literature review represents the reading you have done in connection with your research
study. It is written and structured to:

• show the background against which your thinking processes have emerged
• elucidate the theoretical frameworks you have adopted or developed as a result of
becoming familiar with existing literature in the field

Your initial reading is likely to be very broad as you consider your research focus. Gradually
you will become more selective as you narrow the field. At the same time, you will find that
one reading leads naturally to others, as you search for relevant materials. Your aim should
be to explore at increasingly greater depth in order to gain knowledge and understanding
which will be relevant to your specific interest. Each new reading will shift your overview,
and each time that you shift closer to your own focus you will be able to plan your study with
greater clarity.

Tone
The tone of a thesis aims for clarity, precise expression and academic rigour. This may be
achieved in various ways, including:

• use of impersonal language where possible (Check with your supervisor whether you
can refer to yourself as 'I'. Opinions differ in different disciplines.)
• use of appropriate terminology (Always define specialist terms as they arise.)

The reflective cycle: searching, organising, presenting

Searching is a systematic process best handled if you consciously develop skills in search
procedures, including:

• library borrowing and interlibrary loans

• accessing through reference catalogues and indexes
• using relevant computer software, CD-ROMs, and the Internet
• browsing in bookshelves and journals
• subscribing to journals
• discussing issues with colleagues

It is a good idea to read review articles as a preliminary step in your search. This gives you an
overview of the main areas of interest and often helps you build up a sound framework from
which to generate your own well-informed opinions.

Know what you want and how to find it. Many people can help you, especially when you
know how to describe what you are looking for. Keeping a record of your searches in an
ongoing search log can be extremely useful and time-saving.

Organising yourself, your material, your reading and your records is a major key to success
in research. It is easy to become overwhelmed by the volume of material you accumulate.
You will help yourself enormously if you create workable recording systems and take one
step at a time within those systems.

4
Whatever you read:

• take a photocopy or note down the location of the original

• complete a booknotes sheet for each item without delay
• record publication details immediately
• note main points in a summary or diagrammatic form
• look for meanings and implications and write down your thoughts straightaway
• write out direct quotes accurately, with quotation marks and page numbers

Various tools can be used which to help you organise your reading into easily accessible
interlinked groups:

• computer software for referencing (for example, RefCard, Endnotes)

• booknotes or a card file system for annotating each item - compile your own
numbering system
• a notebook for each major component of your reading
• a manilla folder for each component of your reading (for storing 'scraps')

An ongoing reading journal is extremely helpful. As you write down your thoughts and
responses to the reading, you will find that the new material interacts with what you already
know or needed to know. Your understanding builds up systematically and generates new
thoughts - this is a very important part of the reflective cycle.

It is a good idea to establish some headings, or categories, for your reading as soon as
possible. Think of this as your own private 'Dewey' system in which all new information can
find a place. The categories should later fit into the structure of your literature review.

It is extremely useful to build up an ongoing concept map as you go along, adding authors in
their position of greatest relevance to your purposes.

Presenting the literature is an important process of articulating what you make of what you
have read. Eventually, the many readings must be gathered and presented as a coherent
whole. If you have worked consistently to draw out and record the most relevant features of
each as you have gone along, this process may not be as daunting as you first thought.

There are four major interlinking processes in the presentation of a literature review:

1. Critiquing rather than merely listing each item

A good literature review is led by your own critical thought processes - it is not
simply a catalogue of what has been written.

Once you have established which authors and ideas are linked, take each group in turn
and really think about what you want to achieve in presenting them this way. This is
your opportunity for showing that you did not take all your reading at face value, but
that you have the knowledge and skills to interpret the authors' meanings and
intentions in relation to each other, particularly if there are conflicting views or
incompatible findings in a particular area.

5
 Rest assured that developing a sense of critical judgement in the literature surrounding
a topic is a gradual process of gaining familiarity with the concepts, language,
terminology and conventions in the field. In the early stages of your research you
cannot be expected to have a fully developed appreciation of the implications of all
findings.

As you get used to reading at this level of intensity within your field you will find it
easier and more purposeful to ask questions as you read:

o what is this all about?

o who is saying it and what authority do they have?
o why is it significant?
o what is its context?
o how was it reached?
o how valid is it?
o how reliable is the evidence?
o what has been gained?
o what do other authors say?
o how does it contribute?
o so what?
2. Structuring the fragments into a coherent body
Through your reading and discussions with your supervisor during the searching and
organising phases of the cycle, you will eventually reach a final decision as to your
own topic and research design.

As you begin to group together the items you read, the direction of your literature
review will emerge with greater clarity. This is a good time to finalise your concept
map, grouping linked items, ideas and authors into firm categories as they relate more
obviously to your own study.

Now you can plan the structure of your written literature review, with your own
intentions and conceptual framework in mind. Knowing what you want to convey will
help you decide the most appropriate structure.

A review can take many forms; for example:

o an historical survey of theory and research in your field

o a synthesis of several paradigms
o a process of narrowing down to your own topic

It is likely that your literature review will contain elements of all of these.

As with all academic writing, a literature review needs:

o an introduction
o a body
o a conclusion

6
 The introduction sets the scene and lays out the various elements that are to be
explored.

The body takes each element in turn, usually as a series of headed sections and
subsections. The first paragraph or two of each section mentions the major authors in
association with their main ideas and areas of debate. The section then expands on
these ideas and authors, showing how each relates to the others, and how the debate
informs your understanding of the topic. A short conclusion at the end of each section
presents a synthesis of these linked ideas.

The final conclusion of the literature review ties together the main points from each of
your sections and this is then used to build the framework for your own study. Later,
when you come to write the discussion chapter of your thesis, you should be able to
relate your findings in one-to-one correspondence with many of the concepts or
questions that were firmed up in the conclusion of your literature review.

3. Controlling the 'voice' of your citations in the text (by selective use of direct
quoting, paraphrasing and summarising)

You can treat published literature like any other data, but the difference is that it is not
data you generated yourself.

When you report on your own findings, you are likely to present the results with
reference to their source, for example:

o 'Table 2 shows that sixteen of the twenty subjects responded positively.'

When using published data, you would say:

o 'Positive responses were recorded for 80 per cent of the subjects (see table 2).'

or

o 'From the results shown in table 2, it appears that the majority of subjects
responded positively.'

In these examples your source of information is table 2. Had you found the same
results on page 17 of a text by Smith published in 1988, you would naturally
substitute the name, date and page number for 'table 2'. In each case it would be your
voice introducing a fact or statement that had been generated somewhere else.

You could see this process as building a wall: you select and place the 'bricks' and
your 'voice' provides the 'mortar' which determines how strong the wall will be. In
turn, this is significant in the assessment of the merit and rigour of your work.

There are three ways to combine an idea and its source with your own voice:

o direct quote
o paraphrase
o summary

7
 In each method, the author's name and publication details must be associated with the
words in the text, using an approved referencing system. If you don't do this you
would be in severe breach of academic convention, and might be penalised. Your field
of study has its own referencing conventions you should investigate before writing up
your results.

Direct quoting repeats exact wording and thus directly represents the author:

o 'Rain is likely when the sky becomes overcast' (Smith 1988, page 27).

If the quotation is run in with your text, single quotation marks are used to enclose it,
and it must be an identical copy of the original in every respect.

Overuse or simple 'listing' of quotes can substantially weaken your own argument by
silencing your critical view or voice.

Paraphrasing is repeating an idea in your own words, with no loss of the author's
intended meaning:

o As Smith (1988) pointed out in the late eighties, rain may well be indicated by
the presence of cloud in the sky.

Paraphrasing allows you to organise the ideas expressed by the authors without being
rigidly constrained by the grammar, tense and vocabulary of the original. You retain a
degree of flexibility as to whose voice comes through most strongly.

Summarising means to shorten or crystallise a detailed piece of writing by restating

the main points in your own words and in the order in which you found them. The
original writing is 'described' as if from the outside, and it is your own voice that is
predominant:

o Referring to the possible effects of cloudy weather, Smith (1988) predicted the
likelihood of rain.
o Smith (1988) claims that some degree of precipitation could be expected as the
result of clouds in the sky: he has clearly discounted the findings of Jones
(1986).
4. Using appropriate language
Your writing style represents you as a researcher, and reflects how you are dealing
with the subtleties and complexities inherent in the literature.

Once you have established a good structure with appropriate headings for your
literature review, and once you are confident in controlling the voice in your citations,
you should find that your writing becomes more lucid and fluent because you know
what you want to say and how to say it.

The good use of language depends on the quality of the thinking behind the writing,
and on the context of the writing. You need to conform to discipline-specific
requirements. However, there may still be some points of grammar and vocabulary
you would like to improve. If you have doubts about your confidence to use the
English language well, you can help yourself in several ways:

8
 o ask for feedback on your writing from friends, colleagues and academics
o look for specific language information in reference materials
o access programs or self-paced learning resources which may be available on
your campus

Grammar tips - practical and helpful

The following guidance on tenses and other language tips may be useful.

Which tense should I use?

1. Use present tense:

o for generalisations and claims:
 The sky is blue.
o to convey ideas, especially theories, which exist for the reader at
the time of reading:
 I think therefore I am.
o for authors' statements of a theoretical nature, which can then be
compared on equal terms with others:
 Smith (1988) suggests that ...
o in referring to components of your own document:
 Table 2 shows ...

Use present perfect tense for:

o recent events or actions that are still linked in an unresolved way to

the present:
 Several studies have attempted to ...

Use simple past tense for:

o completed events or actions:

 Smith (1988) discovered that ...

Use past perfect tense for:

o events which occurred before a specified past time:

 Prior to these findings, it had been thought that ...

Use modals (may, might, could, would, should) to:

o convey degrees of doubt

 This may indicate that ... this would imply that ...

Other language tips

o Convey your meaning in the simplest possible way. Don't try to use
an intellectual tone for the sake of it, and do not rely on your
reader to read your mind!
o Keep sentences short and simple when you wish to emphasise a
point.

9
 o Use compound (joined simple) sentences to write about two or
more ideas which may be linked with 'and', 'but', 'because',
'whereas' etc.
o Use complex sentences when you are dealing with embedded ideas
or those that show the interaction of two or more complex
elements.
o Verbs are more dynamic than nouns, and nouns carry information
more densely than verbs.
o Select active or passive verbs according to whether you are
highlighting the 'doer' or the 'done to' of the action.
o Keep punctuation to a minimum. Use it to separate the elements of
complex sentences in order to keep subject, verb and object in
clear view.
o Avoid densely packed strings of words, particularly nouns.

The total process

The story of a research study

Introduction
I looked at the situation and found that I had a ………………. to ask about it. I wanted to
investigate something in particular.

Review of literature
So I ………………. everything I could find on the topic - what was already known and said
and what had previously been found. I established exactly where my investigation would …
……………. into the big picture, and began to realise at this stage how my study would be
………………. from anything done previously.

Methodology
I decided on the number and description of my ………………., and with my research ……
…………. clearly in mind, designed my own investigation process, using certain known
research ………………. s (and perhaps some that are not so common). I began with the
broad decision about which research ………………. I would work within (that is,
qualitative/quantitative, critical/interpretive/ empiricist). Then I devised my research
instrument to get the best out of what I was investigating. I knew I would have to …………
……. the raw data, so I made sure that the instrument and my proposed method(s) of
analysis were ………………. right from the start. Then I carried out the research study and
………………. all the data in a methodical way according to my intended methods of
analysis. As part of the analysis, I reduced the data (by means of my preferred form of
classification) to manageable thematic representation (tables, graphs, categories, etc). It was
then that I began to realise what I had found.

Findings/results
What had I ……………….? What did the tables/graphs/categories etc. have to say that
could be pinned down? It was easy enough for me to see the salient points at a glance from
these records, but in writing my report, I also spelled out what I had found truly significant
to make sure it was not missed by my readers. For each display of results, I wrote a

10
corresponding summary of important observations relating only elements within my own
set of results and comparing only like with like. I was careful not to let my own
interpretations intrude or voice my excitement just yet. I wanted to state the facts - just the
facts. I dealt correctly with all inferential statistical procedures, applying ………………. of
significance where appropriate to ensure both reliability and ……………….. . I knew that
I wanted my results to be as watertight and squeaky clean as possible. They would carry a
great deal more credibility, strength and thereby academic 'clout' if I took no shortcuts and
remained both rigorous and scholarly.

Discussion
Now I was free to let the world know the ………………. of my findings. What did I find
in the results that answered my ………………. research question? Why was I so sure I had
some answers? What about the unexplained or unexpected findings? Had I interpreted the
results correctly? Could there have been any other factors involved? Were my findings
supported or ………………. by the results of similar studies? Where did that leave mine in
terms of contribution to my ……………….? Can I actually generalise from my findings in
a breakthrough of some kind, or do I simply see myself as reinforcing ……………….
knowledge? And so what, after all? There were some obvious limitations to my study,
which, even so, I'll defend to the hilt. But I won't become over-apologetic about the things
left undone, or the abandoned analyses, the fascinating byways sadly left behind. I have my
memories ...

Conclusion
We'll take a long hard look at this study from a broad perspective. How does it rate? How
did I end up answering the question I first thought of? The conclusion needs to be a few
clear, succinct sentences. That way, I'll know that I know what I'm talking about. I'll wrap
up with whatever generalisations I can make, and whatever implications have arisen in my
mind as a result of doing this thing at all. The more you find out, the more questions arise.
How I wonder what you are ... how I speculate. OK, so where do we all go from here?

Three stages of research

There are three stages of research: reading, research design and implementation, and writing
up the research report or thesis. Each of these stages has associated activities.

1. Reading

• keeping notes
• thinking
• comparing
• critically evaluating existing knowledge

2. Research design and implementation

• dealing with practicalities

• thinking logically and planning

• concept-mapping
• hypothesising
• organising the experiment, testing, interviewing

11
 • data gathering and recording
• reducing data and analysing
• deciding on the implications of the findings

3. Writing up the research report or thesis

• considering structure, purpose, sequence, voice and language for

each section; devising frameworks
• constructing arguments
• using existing notes as a basis for expanded text
• using conventions correctly
• using headings logically
• writing often
• keeping words flowing

Use an active, cyclical writing process: draft, check, reflect, revise, redraft.

Establishing good practice

1. Keep your research question always in mind.

2. Read widely to establish a context for your research.
3. Read widely to collect information which may relate to your topic,
particularly to your hypothesis or research question.
4. Be systematic with your reading, note-taking and referencing records.
5. Train yourself to select what you do need and reject what you don't need.
6. Keep a research journal to reflect on your processes, decisions, state of
mind, changes of mind, reactions to experimental outcomes etc.
7. Discuss your ideas with your supervisor and interested others.
8. Keep a systematic log of technical records of your experimental and other
research data, remembering to date each entry, and noting any
discrepancies or unexpected occurrences at the time you notice them.
9. Design your research approaches in detail in the early stages so that you
have frameworks to fit findings into straightaway.
10.Know how you will analyse data so that your formats correspond from the
start.
11.Keep going back to the whole picture. Be thoughtful and think ahead
about the way you will consider and store new information as it comes to
light.

Choosing your topic

Introduction

Choosing and refining a topic can be one of the most protracted and difficult processes in
research. The world seems so full of questions.

The planning sheets (downloadable Word 6 files) are designed to help you make a few
decisions about what really interests you and what is feasible as a research topic.

12
Don't forget your ideas may change and you can go through this process as many times as
you like.

You have two options:

1. Type your ideas in the appropriate areas then save or save and print out
the result.
2. Print out the planning sheet for each task and complete it in your own
handwriting.

Some questions in the planning sheets will ask for a short answer. Some invite you to make
an honest exploration of your thoughts and feelings, which may take a little more time and
space. Don't be surprised if you end up writing pages; this could be the beginning of a
beautiful relationship with your academic self. You may even like to continue throughout this
research study to write down your personal plans, reactions, speculations and doubts in a
notebook or designated computer file which then becomes your personal research journal - a
most useful tool for reflection and decision-making at all stages of your research.

This process will help you summarise your choices and consolidate your thinking in a way
that may be useful to discuss with your supervisor or fellow students.

What topic?

It is important to feel that you have selected a research topic which will remain interesting to
you - one small enough to investigate effectively, with academic rigour, while satisfying your
own need to contribute to world knowledge in a significant way. Work through each of these
planning sheets in turn and you will find that the key components of your research topic and
the implications of your possible research design begin to emerge and take shape in your
mind. You may find that the implications are much greater than you first supposed, and that
each time you open up a new thought, many others appear. This is very common, and simply
means that you should reduce the scale of your undertakings and possibly omit some aspects
of your first idea in order to focus more directly on one specific and identifiable area.

Use these planning sheets to reflect on one set of ideas before using them again on a revised
set of ideas. The following planning sheets are a downloadable Microsoft Word 6 file
whattop:

• Topic mind-map
• Triad of major elements
• Current broad view
• Inspiration for this topic
• Current intellectual position on this topic
• Possible title
• Formulating your research question

Why this topic?

If you have a good reason for pursuing a certain line of research, it is vital to be able to
communicate this, both to yourself and to others. Take some time to think about your own
motivation, then more formally articulate a rationale in social academic or intellectual terms.

13
The following planning sheets are a downloadable Microsoft Word 6 file whytopic:

• Motivation to pursue this topic

• Rationale

How will you research this topic?

The planning sheets for this subsection help you make practical initial plans for your actual
research study without losing sight of the 'big picture'.

You will note in broad terms your research design ideas so far, find out some techniques for
operationalising your research question, and finally you'll make some methodological
comparisons and ask yourself why you are doing it this way.

The following planning sheets are a downloadable Microsoft Word 6 file how:

• Research design ideas so far

• Operationalising your research question
• Why do it this way?

Finalising your topic choice

Use the planning sheet 'Research proposal discussion paper' to consolidate and crystallise the
ideas you have articulated during previous planning sheets. When completed, you discuss
your current proposal with your supervisor and interested others. Remember that you can
change your mind many times, so do not necessarily think of this version as final.

Write as concisely as possible and avoid the intrusion of stray or redundant statements.

The following planning sheet is a downloadable Microsoft Word 6 file finalise:

• Research proposal discussion paper

14
What topic?

Contents

Topic mind-map 2
Triad of major elements 4
Current broad view 6
Inspiration for this topic 8
Current intellectual position on this topic 9
Possible title 10
Formulating your research question 11

15
 Topic mind-map
When we think of knowledge it is always divided and subdivided in certain ways
- we know that it is impossible to consider everything at once in all its detail. So
we devise ways of understanding both the broad and the detailed aspects of
knowledge in any area by means of classification, in which details or ‘lower
order’ items group together to fit within broader or ‘higher-order' items.

A topic statement is about as broad as you can be in identifying one area of

knowledge. This is your central concept under which all related items are
subsumed in a logical series of groupings. You are in control of the subdivisions
and their labels. For instance, under the topic “Transport’ you could choose to
make a division between ‘road, air, rail and sea’, or between ‘mechanised, animal
and naturally-powered’, or between ‘medieval, modern and futuristic’.

This process of analysis is very important indeed for clear thinking and
communication. It also gives you, the researcher and writer, immense control
over what you say you will cover, allowing you to determine at the same time
your preferred scope and scale and manner of coverage. This system also works
extremely well when we are trying to communicate some idea or understanding
to other people, as in a research report.

Following is an example of a ‘mind-map’ outline.

1. Add your proposed topic, represented by a label made up of a single word or

phrase, to the centre circle. Be sure you put the right topic in the middle.
2. Next, break your topic down as subconcepts and add these as labels to the
next ring of circles. Each subtopic can then be broken down to as many levels
of detail as you can manage at this stage. This will help you to determine the
current scope and ‘shape’ of your topic.

Using brief labels allows you to conceptualise each idea without getting too
wordy, which can be quite useful. If you are a ‘words’ person, then you may like
to dispense with the circles and brainstorm in a more verbally flowing way. Even
so, you could try making physical barriers such as lines or relative positioning
between separable items, topics or concepts.

Once you have tried out this mind-map method of brainstorming, you are sure to
want to try out further topics. Remember, there is no predetermined size, shape
or configuration for a mind-map - it represents your thoughts at the time. For
each new topic breakdown, simply place a new label in any position on a fresh
piece of paper or screen - and start again. The more you try this, the more you
will find that there is endless variation in the way that ideas can be conceived
and shaped. By analysing your own topic in this way, you will discover at least
two things: that awareness of how your own brain deals with knowledge and
ideas will allow you to think and communicate much more clearly and
analytically; and that even now you may have the wrong topic in the middle of
the map!

16
17
 Triad of major elements
Most research involves exploring the relationships between quite distinct factors
and showing the effect of one thing upon another.

It is curious that a list of thesis titles usually reveals three major elements,
which can (often, but not always) be identified in qualitative research as subject,
context and the perceived effect of variables, and in quantitative research as
sample, process and the measurable effect of variables.

Subject Sample
Context

Properties

Variables
(perceived) Variables
(measurable)

Qualitative research Quantitative research

Subject/sample Selected on what basis?

WHAT What shared/idiosyncratic
WHO characteristics?
How many?
How representative?
How divided or grouped?

Context/properties What is already known and non-

WHEN/WHERE variable?
Background and historical facts
Location and contextual description
Who with, who for, who by?
Physical or literal description of
surrounding factors

Variables Research items which could change

HOW? or be changed
HOW MUCH? Nature of equipment, testing
HOW MUCH MORE? procedure or research instrument
Measurable effects
Comparable phenomena

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Titles of research reports often represent the major elements investigated. Look
through the following list of health thesis titles, taken at random from the
University of South Australia’s library catalogue.

The first three in the list are analysed and notated as follows:
• subject/sample
• context/properties
• variable (perceived or measurable effects). Context/properties
• broad overall topic statement

1. The organisation of allied health professionals in Australian general

hospitals.
Variable Subject/sample

2. Perceptions of consumers and their significant others, of the service

delivery of a South Australian regional mental health service and of the
adaptive role functioning of the consumers of the service.
Broad topic
statement

3. Solvent waste disposal: a workplace hazard in laboratories: an

examination of current solvent waste practices in laboratories to
determine whether they meet safety, environmental and legal requirements.

How would you analyse the titles in the rest of this list?

• The effectiveness of physical education programs in reducing cardio-vascular

disease risk factors in selected ten year old Australian school children.
• Synergy or Segmentation? Students' Perceptions of their Learning across Modular
Undergraduate Programmes
• 'The Knowledge Based Resources produced through Human Resource Management
Practice'
• Teacher Perception of Key Skills and Transfer
• A Case Study of the Changes to Teacher Education in Malta from 1987 to 1999
• How Lecturers Experience 'Student-Centred' Teaching
• Mentors - Born or Made? A study of mentor development in a community mentoring
context
• The Experience of Teaching in Art, Design and Communication
• Saleable for Shareable Knowledge, Experts or Guardians? A Case Study in the Social
Relations of Knowledge Production in Higher Education
• Scholars and Princes in the Hall of Learning
• Agency and Context in Educational Development
• Captivated By Learning (The study of an innovative organisational strategy for professional
development)
• Lifelong Learning or Lifelong Yearning; An analysis of Widening Participation policy
implementation in Cumbria, 1999 - 2001
• Teachers’ Conceptions of, and Approaches to, Teaching & Learning using Communication
and Information Technologies

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Notice how much broader and categorical a study appears when even one of the
three elements is either implied or missing. It is as if we know the researcher is
bound to come up with what they promised in their title, and so unless it is
extraordinarily comprehensive, we may feel apprehensive that it could fall short
of expectations. Narrowing the focus by adding a further element can reduce this
possibility.

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 Current broad view
Having identified your broad topic, separate it into three major elements by
filling in the circles below.

Subject/sample
what

variable(s
)
HOW?
Context
WHEN/ HOW
WHERE MUCH?

HOW
MUCH
MORE
THAN?

Now consider whether your idea is sufficiently balanced, narrowly focused, and
comprehensive for a research topic….yet!

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 Current broad view
Write down your current view on the following:

What are you investigating?

Why are you investigating this?

How do you intend to investigate this?

So what?

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 Inspiration for this topic
Describe the situation or discovery that led you to embark on this area of study.

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 Current intellectual position on this topic

Describe the intellectual position you hold in relation to this topic. What do you
actually feel to be the case? Why?

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 Possible title
Write down as many thesis or research study titles as you can find (try
the library catalogue).

Underline the three main elements of each title.

Do these elements correspond to the major elements of the research

itself in each
case? Tick each title if you feel the title fits the research.

Using your triad of major elements (previous planning sheet), describe

the three major elements in your current topic:

1. ………
2. ………
3. ………

Draft title
Combine these elements using appropriate relationship words:

Working title
Refine your title by making sure that it really covers what you see as the
main elements and shows what you want to highlight in the relationship
between each:

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 Formulating your research question
Remind yourself of the three or more elements involved in your research, which
you may have articulated in the planning sheet ‘Triad of major elements’.

What problem do you see that needs a solution?

What do you really want to know? Write it down in question form

............……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

............……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………….…….…?

Is this too big?

Can it be subdivided?

Write down three or more subordinate questions, each representing part of the
original:
1.
2.
3.

• Are subquestions necessary or viable?

• Does your original question need modification? Is it too vague?
• Are there any redundant words or phrases?
• Can your original concept be reduced again in scale?
• Can it be applied to a more narrowly defined element?

Now, write down your question in its best form so far, including subquestions if
you think they are needed:

Keep this version and think about refining it some more at a later date!

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How will you research this topic?

Contents

Research design ideas so far 2

Operationalising your research question 3
Why do it this way? 4

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 Research design ideas so far
Write down some ideas about your topic and how you wish to investigate it:

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 Operationalising your research question
Operationalising in research is the process of moving from a theoretical
question to a practical method for testing or observing certain
phenomena. You are looking for a watertight way of demonstrating what you find
through your research, and you do not want someone else to point out the
inconsistencies and loopholes in your methods, so this is an important part of
your activities as a researcher. Brainstorm some ideas first.

Use the table below to:

1. list theoretical or abstract questions in the first column

2. specify at least three possible procedures for addressing each question, in the
second column
3. give the exact sample or subject population, in the third column
4. give your preferred research instrument for this method, in the fourth column.
Choose the techniques which might work in practice.

No 1 2 3 4
Research Procedure Sample Instrument
question

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 Why do it this way?
When you have a few ideas about how you might conduct your research study,
think about whether this is the best of all possible methods for the purpose.
Compare your proposed methodology or research paradigm with those use by
other researchers in similar subject areas. Complete the table below and while
doing so, reflect on your own reasons for your own choice, and ask yourself
whether you could change any aspects of your ideas—for example, combine
certain ‘tried and true’ techniques with others that may be more adventurous.

No Proposed My Other known Their

procedure methodology studies preferred
/paradigm (author- methods
date)

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Finalising your topic choice

Contents

Research proposal discussion paper 2

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 Research proposal discussion paper
Name Date

Proposed title:

Write a sentence, or two, which sums up the essence of your research and include the
basic elements you wish to investigate. What is your research about?

Describe the circumstances in which you became interested in this topic:

What problem did you see that needs a solution?

What do you really want to know?

Why is this significant?

Research questions so far?

What ideas do you have for a methodology so far?

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The total process
The story of a research study

Introduction
I looked at the situation and found that I had a question to ask about it. I wanted to investigate
something in particular.

Review of literature
So I read everything I could find on the topic - what was already known and said and what
had previously been found. I established exactly where my investigation would fit into the
big picture, and began to realise at this stage how my study would be different from anything
done previously.

Methodology
I decided on the number and description of my subjects, and with my research question
clearly in mind, designed my own investigation process, using certain known research
methods (and perhaps some that are not so common). I began with the broad decision about
which research paradigm I would work within (that is, qualitative/quantitative,
critical/interpretive/ empiricist). Then I devised my research instrument to get the best out of
what I was investigating. I knew I would have to analyse the raw data, so I made sure that the
instrument and my proposed method(s) of analysis were compatible right from the start. Then
I carried out the research study and recorded all the data in a methodical way according to my
intended methods of analysis. As part of the analysis, I reduced the data (by means of my
preferred form of classification) to manageable thematic representation (tables, graphs,
categories, etc). It was then that I began to realise what I had found.

Findings/results
What had I found? What did the tables/graphs/categories etc. have to say that could be pinned
down? It was easy enough for me to see the salient points at a glance from these records, but
in writing my report, I also spelled out what I had found truly significant to make sure it was
not missed by my readers. For each display of results, I wrote a corresponding summary of
important observations relating only elements within my own set of results and comparing
only like with like. I was careful not to let my own interpretations intrude or voice my
excitement just yet. I wanted to state the facts - just the facts. I dealt correctly with all
inferential statistical procedures, applying tests of significance where appropriate to ensure
both reliability and validity. I knew that I wanted my results to be as watertight and squeaky
clean as possible. They would carry a great deal more credibility, strength and thereby
academic 'clout' if I took no shortcuts and remained both rigorous and scholarly.

Discussion
Now I was free to let the world know the significance of my findings. What did I find in the
results that answered my original research question? Why was I so sure I had some answers?
What about the unexplained or unexpected findings? Had I interpreted the results correctly?
Could there have been any other factors involved? Were my findings supported or contested
by the results of similar studies? Where did that leave mine in terms of contribution to my
field? Can I actually generalise from my findings in a breakthrough of some kind, or do I
simply see myself as reinforcing existing knowledge? And so what, after all? There were
some obvious limitations to my study, which, even so, I'll defend to the hilt. But I won't

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become over-apologetic about the things left undone, or the abandoned analyses, the
fascinating byways sadly left behind. I have my memories ...

Conclusion
We'll take a long hard look at this study from a broad perspective. How does it rate? How did
I end up answering the question I first thought of? The conclusion needs to be a few clear,
succinct sentences. That way, I'll know that I know what I'm talking about. I'll wrap up with
whatever generalisations I can make, and whatever implications have arisen in my mind as a
result of doing this thing at all. The more you find out, the more questions arise. How I
wonder what you are ... how I speculate. OK, so where do we all go from here?

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