GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point?

Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes.

Syllabus Headings:
ecosystems and their management biophysical interactions which lead to diverse ecosystems and their functioning vulnerability and resilience of ecosystems impacts due to natural stress impacts due to human induced modifications to energy flows, nutrient cycling, and relationships between biophysical components the importance of ecosystem management and protection maintenance of genetic diversity utility values intrinsic values heritage values need to allow natural change to proceed evaluation of traditional and contemporary management strategies.

case studies of ecosystems TWO case studies of different ecosystems at risk to illustrate their unique characteristics including: spatial patterns and dimensions: location, altitude, latitude, size, shape and continuity biophysical interactions including: the dynamics of weather and climate geomorphic and hydrologic processes such as earth movements, weathering, erosion, transport and deposition, soil formation biogeographical processes: invasion, succession, modification, resilience adjustments in response to natural stress the nature and rate of change which affects ecosystem functioning human impacts (both positive and negative) traditional and contemporary management practices. The selected ecosystems at risk could include areas such as coastal dunes, freshwater wetlands, inter-tidal wetlands, coral reefs, arid areas, alpine areas, rainforests, temperate forests. urban places world cities the nature, character and spatial distribution of world cities

the role of world cities as powerful centres of economic and cultural authority the operation of global networks the relationships of dominance and dependence between world cities and other urban centres and the changing role of regional centres and the demise of the small town.

mega cities the nature, character and spatial distribution of mega cities in the developing world the challenges of living in mega cities such as housing, traffic infrastructure, water and power supplies, sanitation services, employment, and other social and health issues the responses to these challenges such as self-help projects, community selfgovernment, cooperation from NGOs, urban protest and the operations of informal economies. urban dynamics the urban dynamics of change: suburbanisation, exurbanisation, counterurbanisation, decentralisation, consolidation, urban decay, urban renewal, urban village, spatial exclusion a case study of the results of the urban dynamics in a large city selected from the developed world including its social structure and spatial patterns of advantage and disadvantage, wealth and poverty, ethnicity changing economic character, nature and location of residential land, commercial and industrial development culture of place as expressed in the architecture, streetscape, heritage architecture, noise, colour, street life, energy, vitality and lifestyles growth, development, future trends and ecological sustainability a case study showing one of the urban dynamics listed above, operating in a country town or suburb.

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes.

Ecosystems and their Functioning

biophysical interactions which lead to diverse ecosystems and their functioning

biophysical interactions which lead to diverse ecosystems and their functioning Diverse ecosystems: Two main ecosystems; terrestrial and aquatic. Three examples of terrestrial ones; tropical rainforest, desert and mountain. Tropical rainforest - warm and humid. frequent rain. average temperature is 25oC all year, no true seasons, little change in day length, growth throughout the year, infertile clay soil. Closed canopy, little understorey, large number of plant species (great diversity) competing for available light; trees often have large trunks and buttressed roots; many epiphytes (plants that grow on other plants) and vines; leaf litter. Desert - very little rain, a true desert has less than 100mm precipitation per year and arid areas less than 250mm. High summer day time temperatures (often >37oC); large temperature difference between day and night. Widely scattered shrubs, water conserving plants and non-drought-adapted ephemerals (6-8 week plants that grow and set seed quickly on rare occasions when water is available); some very dry, sandy deserts have almost no plant growth. Generally located between 20o and 35o north and south of the equator. Mountain - increasing altitude produces a decrease in temperature, similar to the effect of increasing latitude. Vegetation types vary with altitude, beyond a certain height, trees do not grow and the vegetation resembles tundra. see p.11 figure 1.1.1 for image on diverse ecosystems.

Definition: An ecosystem is formed by the interaction of all living organisms (plants, animals, humans) with each other and with the physical elements of the environment in which they live. - Some ecosystems at risk; coastal dunes, wetlands, intertidal wetlands, coral reefs, ! rainforests etc. FOUR SPHERES: biotic: biosphere abiotic: lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere

Biophysical interactions refers to the interactions of the Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere and Biosphere. Ecosystem functioning: refers to the 1. cycling of nutrients 2. the transfer of energy Water transports the nutrients in an ecosystem. - The sun is the driving force in the biosphere - its heat energy makes biochemical reactions possible and its light energy makes photosynthesis possible - When animals and plants die, they decay. Detritovores (mites, worms, millipedes, mollusks) bacteria and fungi work closely together in reducing larger pieces of dead materials into smaller pieces. Because of their activities, simple substances are released from dead matter. These substances are then absorbed by plants and go through the food chain again. DETRITOVORES enable chemicals to be recycled. They play an important part in cycling of carbon and nitrogen. Biogeography - the geographic distribution of soils, vegetation and ecosystems -where they are and why they are there. Five Factors that Influence the Location of Biomes: 1 - Latitude Sunlight / temperature. Depending on latitudinal pressure systems. 2 - Altitude 6.5 every 1000m. Also orographic factors such as orographic rainfall. Evaporation -> Condensation when air rises, cools and then precipitates. It hits the mountains, but has to move above them. The air is then dry and cools, leaving behind moisture. Process of desertification follows. 3 - Ocean Currents Influences precipitation levels. 4 - Continentality Interiors of continents - DRY. Middle - drier, more extreme temperature ranges. Outer / coastal - wetter, less temperature range. 5 - Edaphic Factors (soil) Geology / parent rock breaks down to form soil

The 5 : 4 : 3 Principle:

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes. 5 Levels at which interactions occur: -ecosphere -> ecosystem -> community -> population -> organism -> ecosystems are primarily concerned with interactions that occur in each of these 4 Spheres: Biosphere, Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere 3 Interactions: Chemical, physical, biological

Ecosystem Functioning: Ecosystem functioning is the ability of an ecosystem to CAPTURE, TRANSFER and STORE (short and long term) energy, NUTRIENTS and WATER.

Two basic processes involved: i) ENERGY FLOWS from the sun through the ecosystem via means of food chains and/or food webs. ii)NUTRIENTS such as Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon and Phosphorous are constantly CYCLING through the systems by means of biogeochemical cycles e.g. The Carbon Cycle. 1. ENERGY FLOWS All organisms require energy to sustain them. Comes from sunlight, trapped during photosynthesis. Green Plants - autotrophs (primary producers) - self feeders All other organisms ultimately depend on plants for their energy. These organisms are known as Consumers or heterotrophs (self feeders). Several levels of trophs or consumers are usually found in food chains, and can be distinguished in the process of eating and being eaten. First order consumers (herbivores), then omnivores and/or carnivores (second order consumers) and tertiary order consumers and so on. Decomposers play an important role in these flows of energy. Not all plant material is consumed - the majority is returned to the soil as dead plant material. The energy

stored in photosynthesis returns to the soil when a plant dies. Energy is also returned to the soil via the decomposers. A great deal of energy flows through detritus food chains - based on dead animal and plant material. Many decomposers and animals feed on detritus. Ecologists estimate that as much as 90% of the energy in a forest flows through the detritus food chain. Productivity is measured by Biomass (phytomass -> plants + zoomass -> animals and decomposers): The total weight or mass of living things in an ecosystem is called the BIOMASS - also a measure of the amount of energy locked into all the organisms in an area per unit of time. p.16 of Text Book More biomass in tropics -> Higher air pressure, increased rainfall, warmer temperatures, more plant life, more animal life and decomposers. Biomass is a measure as to how PRODUCTIVE an ecosystem is. (p. 16 fig 1.1.8). Most productive ecosystems -> tropical rainforests. Most ecosystems at risk are those which have a smaller area with a large amount of productivity. ! -> Low productivity = large area. (vice versa) Energy is lost as it is transferred up the food chain. Approx 10% each level. Hand-drawn example of the biomass pyramid:

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes. * Ecosystems have a one way flow of energy. Some energy taken by plants is lost as HEAT, and as they trap carbon based molecules, they give off a small amount of HEAT. Energy is lost to the environment when organisms move and during normal life processes. The energy flows through the ecosystem in one direction. -> from the sun, to producers and on to primary, secondary and tertiary consumers. It is diverted to the decomposers at each stage. On the way, some energy is lost from the system back to the environment in the form of heat. 2. NUTRIENT CYCLING Ecosphere is mostly a closed system - only externality is the sun. Nutrient cycling is achieved by decomposers. Without decomposers, the material of which all organisms are made could not be recycled and used again. Therefore they are also critical in the process of nutrient cycling. Initially, organisms gain energy from consuming another organism. The prey is a complicated collection of important nutrients and compounds. These are acquired by the predator and incorporated into its body or excreted to the environment. Detritovores eat an organisms material and then partly broken down by decomposers. e.g. Bacteria and Fungi. Decomposers secrete enzymes (chemicals) from their surface and attack dead tissue, breaking down its complex structure into basic compounds. Some of these compounds are captured and used by decomposers and others escape into the environment. (Atmosphere, Lithosphere, Hydrosphere), and are available to be REABSORBED and incorporated into producers. In this way, nutrient elements are recycled. Nutrients can also be cycled along a food chain. Importance of decomposing: 1. Assists transferral and recycling of vital elements to sustain life including plants, animals and decomposers

2. Makes use of dead matter / carcasses energy, removes build up and extracts waste and nutrients. Detritovores -> Scavenge, look for things to break down. Decomposers -> Dont scavenge, just break down. Biogeochemical cycle // Nutrient cycle means that ecosystems are largely self sustaining, although they require some input, particularly energy. Carbon cycle is a prime example of the nutrient cycle. p. 19 of text has a diagram and explanation. Notes from video: Carbon is the backbone of all life - a power pack - readily combined with other atoms to make organic molecules. Primary producers extract carbon from C02 and use it for photosynthesis for reprocessing 99.9% of the earths carbon is caught up in the long track cycle - in plants and organisms that HELD carbon, and sent it back into the atmosphere from the earth. Imbalance in carbon cycle from human development focussing on release of carbon into the atmosphere. Short track -> Biosphere Long track -> Lithosphere

vulnerability and resilience of ecosystems

Ecosystem vulnerability: all elements of an ecosystem are interdependent. This interdependence makes an ecosystem vulnerable, or places it at risk. A change beyond the limits of the equilibrium in any of the four spheres means that as a whole, an ecosystem cannot exist in its original state. An ecosystem is normally able to maintain a state of dynamic equilibrium, despite environmental changes and disturbances to ecosystem functioning caused by people. Dynamic equilibrium: the product of interrelationship of the elements in an ecosystem. Hand-drawn disturbance and recovery model:

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes.

Ecosystems are constantly changing, thus making it hard to predict how they will respond upon disturbance When the inputs or outputs of an ecosystem are disturbed, the ecosystem tries to absorb the change and return to its original state. Signs of ecosystems at risk: - Drop in primary productivity - Increased nutrient loss - Decline or extinction of indicator species (species that serve as a warning that a community/ecosystem is being damaged) - Larger populations of pests or disease organisms - Decline of species diversity - Contaminants IMPACTS DUE TO NATURAL STRESS:

1. Bushfires 2.Disease 3.Flood 4.Hurricane 5.Earthquakes HUMAN INDUCED DISTURBANCES 1. Urban development 2.Deforestation 3.Oil spills Factors Causing Ecosystems to be Vulnerable (BELL): 1. Location - Biogeographic range of many species restricts the location in which many species can be found o Temperature, light, nutrient levels and precipitation Some species especially require this, and are thus found in highly specific areas The greater degree of specialization an organism has to a particular set of environmental conditions, the more vulnerable that organism is to changes in those conditions E.g. Australias Wollemi Pine. o Proximity of ecosystems to large concentrations of people can also make them vulnerable. Urban stress e.g. water, land / agricultural uses 2. Biodiversity Biological diversity refers to the variety among living organisms and the ecosystems they inhabit. Loss of biodiversity refers to the extinction of species, loss or collapse of ecosystems and the reduction in genetic variety within a species due to a population decrease (at a dangerous level). Estimated 30 million species, losing 17,000 species every year. Genetic diversity: the variety of genetic information contained in all the individual plants, animals and micro-organisms Species diversity: a measure of the number of species at each trophic level of an ecosystem

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes. Ecosystems diversity: The diversity present within an ecosystem. - habitat difference; altitude, amount of wind, snow/precipitation, aspect, temperature, sunlight. o Habitat differences occur within ecosystems, biotic communities and ecological processes, plant and animal communities The loss of biodiversity places ecosystems at risk as the pathways in which energy and nutrients are transferred, are lost. 3. Extent - Island biogeography model o Smaller islands hold fewer species than larger ones o More remote, fewer species helf Immigration is a function of the degree of remoteness and the probability of extinction increases as island size diminishes Can also apply to shapes of nature reserves Hand-drawn examples:

4. Linkages Text page 26. Ecosystems can be made more vulnerable when linkages involved in energy flows and nutrient cycling are interrupted and altered. Ecosystems with low levels of interdependence are vulnerable to natural change they have fewer linkages. Linkages are those complex relationships that exist within ecosystems. If they are changed then ecosystems can be vulnerable. One linkage example; insects pollenating plants -> if insects die out, plants will be hindered in reproducing (lack of pollination). Humans can manipulate the linkages in systems, for their own benefit which comes at a cost to ecosystem functioning. Humans can exploit certain species for their own benefit primary consumers have highly specific food sources, and many parasitic organisms depend on specific hosts. This makes organisms vulnerable to disturbances in their ecosystems. (p. 23 + 24.) Negative affects of linkages - DDT Resilience: MOAR (FROM MITCH) Resilience: the ability of ecosystems to deal with disturbances or alterations to the energy flows and nutrient cycles, and return to a steady state, is called resilience.

impacts due to natural stress

Mt St Helens example. MOAR (FROM MITCH)

impacts due to human induced modifications to energy flows, nutrient cycling, and relationships between biophysical components

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes. Catastrophic Gradual

Deforestation Ploughing Erosion Mining Urbanisation Water and air pollution

Irrigation Soil compaction Water and air pollution Tourism Exotic species

+ another level? Table .p.24 Rate of Change:

Ei = T x A x P Environmental impact = population x affluence x technology ANTHROPOGENIC EVOLUTION results of human influences BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION natural results Examples of impacts due to human induced modifications (can stem from any of the above catastrophic / gradual impacts). - An increase in energy flows thermal water from a power station released into a steam -> ^ rates of decomposition of organic matter -> ^ use of oxygen -> fish populations affected by biological oxygen demand - An increase in nutrient levels -> disposal of sewerage within rivers -> ^ nutrients act as a food source for more bacteria -> blooms and deoxygenates, kills other species (EUTROPHICATION) -> mat across the waters surface affecting the amount of sunlight reaching the plants *

- Deforestation / Desertification / Use of ocean resources o Deforestation 25% of worlds pharmaceutical products come from forests Used to cover 14% of worlds surface, now 6% 50% of flora and fauna is expected to be extinct in near future o Desertification Occurring in 70% of all dry alnds, of the area of the world $40 billion lost in productivity 24 billions of top soil lost each year o Use of ocean resources Australia has third largest fishing zone covering 9 million km^2 $1.6 billion grossed in Australias commercial fishing and aquaculture (1994current) 23 species heavily fished, 9 over fished, 9 under fished out of 100 weak ^^ Varying Degrees of Impacts: 1. Low impact a. Humans try to maintain and utilise native plant communities. Main biotic elements of the land are retained. a.i. E.g. Kalahari bushmen 2.Moderate impact a. Regions of alteration exist because humans at times substitute domestic animals for natural grazing animals. a.i. Extensive grazing lands e.g. Eingazal Neolithic village b. Shifting cultivation in rainforests c. Can easily be turned to low impact or high impact based on decisions (especially those preventing over population and prevention of careless techniques) 3.High impact a. Deliberate transformation of both physical and biotic elements of an ecosystem. Intensive agricultural practices, urban and industrial development and mining shows this. Problems such as crowding / sewerage disposal is evident. b. Decisions about resource exploitation / conservation, landuse, environmental quality determine the degree to which ESD will occur. the importance of ecosystem management and protection maintenance of genetic diversity

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes. Genes store the hereditary characteristics of an individual. The genes of an organism will define its features, including; size and resistance to disease. The resource value of natural ecosystems not only lies in the characteristics of an individual species but also in the genetic resistance to disease. No individual in a population of organisms contains all of the genetic diversity for the species. The genes of individuals will differ. The total of all different types of genes in a population is termed the gene pool. To establish a gene pool we need to collect wild varieties of commercial plant and animal speciess utility values Ecosystems provide a wide range of benefits for human society. They have many uses (utility value) for present and future generations. Stressing the huge uncertainties involved, that ecosystems provide a flow of market and nonmarket use value greater than $33 trillion per year, as against planetary product (world GDP) of 18$ trillion. Ecosystems withhold economic value o Benefits provided by forests in Canada home to one quarter of the worlds forests would amount to $83 billion, roughly 9% of the nations annual GDP. o Wetland ecosystems estimated to be worth US$14.9 trillion intrinsic values

Intrinsic value is related to but not identical to what economists call Existence value, which reflects the desire by some individuals to preserve and ensure the continued existence of certain species or environments. Intrinsic value they have the right to exist regardless of their utility value. (inspirations, aesthetic and spiritual non quantitative). From Espirit to deep ecology Pumalin park ecotourism ties together intrinsic and utlity values. heritage values need to allow natural change to proceed

MUNIH Maintenance, Utility, Need to allow natural change to proceed, Intrinsic value, Heritage

Value

evaluation of traditional and contemporary management strategies.

Traditional: low yield, long time (w/ out tech.) Contemporary: high yield, short time

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes.

Towra Point
1. Spatial Patterns and Dimensions of Towra Point Sketch map (on other page) Location: 16kms South of CBD / 151 E 32S (mangroves are found between 25N and S/ tidal zones between high and low tide / Southern shore of Botany Bay / Adjoins Kernell Peninsula Altitude: <5 masl Size: 4km squared Shape and continuity: Only 7 ha of the estimated 32 ha of mangroves which were once located in BB remain. (located on sketch map). Comprises of a Terrestrial and Aquatic Reserve. Discontinuous and patchy due to the private land holdings within BIOREGION. Coastal ecosystem is a very integrated system, now somewhat disturbed although some parts remain intact.

2. Biophysical interactions

Hydrosphere TPIW lies approx 3kms west of the entrance to Botany Bay and therefore is subject to influences of tidal and wave action generated from the ocean. TP has been in dynamic equilibrium (DEFINE**) with the forces of wind and water mostly wave action. Tidal range 0.1m 2.0m. Freshwater ponds have been contaminated by seawater and made them brackish. The catchment area for TP includes extensive urban, industrial and recreational areas that all contribute to the run-off entering the Georges and Cooks river, resulting in sediment build up at TP. Atmosphere - Weather and climate: Typical of the broader Sydney area => 1088 mm p.a. 7C temperature range. Lithosphere Low lying peninsula that separates two bays on either side I Woolooware Bay and the Weeny and Quibray bays. TPNR consists of sandpits, bars and mudflats. Nutrient rich organic muds and muddy sands have deposited in low energy depositional environments. * The muddy sand flats at the eastern end of TP are being damaged by coastal erosion. Towra Spit is actively extending in a SQ direction with beaches being eroded and contributing sand

to the growth of the spit. This spit is at times separated from the point to form an island and at other times it is joined.

Biosphere human impacts. Interactions: Biosphere Lithosphere extensive root systems of mangroves help keep the soil together during high tide (inundation) and in extreme weather Atmosphere Lithosphere Wind has contributed sediment to the building of the TP Peninsula. Southerly buster' a prime example of wind energy that influences this. Atmosphere Hydrosphere WAVE ACTION. Biosphere Lithosphere / Atmosphere / Hydrosphere indued through human impacts (see 4). Biosphere Lithosphere Leaves fall to create humous, then decomposers break down fallen leaf litter, thus creating a cycle Hydrosphere Lithosphere Wave action causing the movement of sediment and sand. Groynes built to stop the collection of sand which would otherwise result in long shore drift, the possibility of creating a new spit. Biogeographical Processes (define?): Continuous succession of plant communities. A limiting factor is that of the wave action and tides. TRANSECT DIAGRAM. Mangroves are a keystone species that support energy and nutrient flows. Mangroves provide a significant amount of leaf litter food for aquatic invertebrate species. These are eaten by fish and birds. Enormous utility value; reduce water pollution, provide shelter, refuge and food for many species, prevent erosion and act as visual screens and nurseries for fish species. Seagrass beds - reduce erosion, stabilise the sea bed, and also a source of food, nursery area for invertebrates. TPIW has a large amount of biodiversity hundreds of fish and invertebrates (230 in total).

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes. The resilience of the ecosystem has been threatened by the human impacts that create new relationships between the biophysical components of the plant and animal communities present in the reserves modified.

Adjustments due to Natural Stress: Salinity salt marshes and mangroves have mechanisms to control their salt content. Plants / trees secrete salt to the leaves where it is accumulated in their swollen leaf bases / structure. Leaves are then progressively lost (wind etc) and the salt is returned to the earth. Tidal Movement salt marshes are only covered by water during king tides. Mangroves are covered by saline water twice each day, which displaces the oxygen in the soil that plants need to access Nutrient Deficiency nutrient availability in the salt marshes is very low, comes from adjacent ecosystem in the coastal dunes as the casuarina have the ability to fix the nitrogen in the air. Anaerobic soils totally saturated with saline water and have no oxygen. Mangroves use pneumatophores in order to access atmospheric oxygen found up to 30m from the base of the tree. Windstorm the mangroves have an extensive root systems (50% of the soil volume is occupied by mangrove roots). This provides stability from wave and wind action. 3. Nature and rate of change which affects ecosystem functioning. Ecological times (1000s of years) ancient river systems deposited fluvial sediments alternately with deposited marine sands. This resulted in the natural construction of TP. 4. Human impacts (handwrite incl. Sand mining and oil plant incl. Industrial I, Recreational R, Urban U) 5. Traditional Management Practices (aboriginal) Stewardship to the land (define!) Use of totem species to sustain equilibrium of ecosystem

Restriction and careful use of fire Nomadism did not exploit specific areas of the environment GWEAGAL tribe kept the ecosystem in tact and in a state of dynamic equilibrium. Rich in seafood and plants 6. Contemporary Management Practices (state and federal govts.)

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes.

Papua New Guinea Tropical Rainforest (PNG TRF)

Key points: Papua New Guinea Tropical Rainforest (PNG TRF) 9 30 S 147 07 E Bold and italicised in definition page attached

Unique Characteristics: 78% of the country has forest cover made up of two types of rainforest lowland and montane. 1 ha can equal up to 600 trees and 150 species

Types of Rainforest: Lowland extraordinarily rich with tree species. Canopy and sub-canopy include over 80 genera with up to 1200 species. Montane Replaces lowland rainforest at altitudes between 1,000 and 1,400 metres above sea level. Transitional forest types between these two

Note: p. 2 Cross Section

CHARACTERISTICS 1. Spatial Patterns and Dimensions: Location Equatorial zone, a temperate region that straddles the equator, with a high concentration of tropical rainforests Altitude above 1000 1400 metres, montane forests are found with evergreen and deciduous trees, and a mixture of broadleaved and coniferous trees. Lowland forests are found at lower elevations where the majority of trees are broadleaved, evergreen trees. Latitude: 3 S and 11 S equatorial latitudes Size:

 70% of PNG is covered in TRF 1% of the worlds pristine forests Total area of PNG = 460,000 km^2 Shape: Irregular, divided by Owen Stanley Ranges Cross sections show its steep terrain etc. Continuity: Only has 40% of its Rainforest in tact much of PNGs patchiness is a result of natural disasters Clearances for traditional agriculture 2. Biophysical Interactions: Weather and Climate: Wet season over 2000mm p.a. o December to April most prevalent Lowland tropical rainforest is found in areas where rainfall is more than 2000mm / year o Function with no significant range in temperature or rainfall High temperatures promote bacterial activity and the rapid rate of decomposition which is the basis of the nutrient cycle High amounts of heat energy drive the water cycle and provide foundation for complex food webs Daily rainfall assists in movement of nutrients through ecosystem

Geomorphic and Hydrologic Processes: Rainforests act as Water Machines most water that precipitates transpires and evaporates from the rainforest itself Evaporation is a cooling process which prevents tracts of rainforest from turning into a desert 75% of rainfall is returned into the atmosphere either by direct evaporation (25%) or by transpiration (50%) the remaining 25% runs off as surface flow. The lithosphere is not static geomorphic processes are those of mountain building, weathering and erosion

Earth Movement:

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes. Landmass developed 5-6 million years ago and uplify rates were massive and attributed to volcanism o Dissected mountain landscape Vertical movements around 7000m occurred along major fault lines Relief and contours that creates different ecosystems of low-land and montane rainforest.

Weathering and Erosion: In tropical areas, the rate of mechanical/physical weathering is usually slight due to the minimal freezing and thawing of water in rocks o Chemical weathering is most rapid in hot, wet areas. Steep terrain = fluvial erosion

Transport and Deposition: Higher lands receive more orographic rain, but runs down slopes, transporting runoff and sediment into streams.

Soil Formation: Soils normally thin and low in nutrient content Laterites o Acidic o Leached o Deep o High in iron o Low in humus Well drained soils are important for rainforest development when the water table is high, vegetation prospers Soils are generally more productive in montane areas that in the lowlands o Weathering is slower in cooler conditions Fertility is locked in biomass, so soil can meet forests needs

Biogeographical processes?

Adjustments in response to natural stress: Can take 400-800 years to grow o Have remarkable capability to adapt to change

Natural Stress: Natural stress that TRFs are sensitive to are localised in character e.g. landslides, natural fires etc Given favourable climates and time, TRFs will recover from these stresses

In contrast, the continual nature of a variety of human stresses of TRFs has resulted in ecosystems becoming vulnerable and severely threatened. Examples of natural stress include: Long term climate changes - During the last 50,000 years

Geological instability - Earthquakes and associated land slides, volcanic activity Wind storms / Cyclones - 1996 CJ destroyed 650 ha of rainforest in Oro province and because there was no capacity for a large salvage operation, 400000 cubic metres of timber was left to rot. - Erosive action of water has exerted a major impact upon large areas of TRF in recent times in PNG, resulting in considerable proportions of the forest that must be regarded as seral rather than climatic in nature - Compounded by poor drainage; areas that have poorly drained soils have a detrimental impact on the trees in the TRF. (trees need well drained soils). Nature and Rate of Change which affects Ecosystem Functioning: Functioning energy flows and nutrient cycles Constant warmth of the sun drives this ecosystem Temperature-Water-Large Biomass (45kg of biomass / square metre) Specialisation by organisms to tolerate specific defences has resulted in tree-specific organism populations Functions as a Dynamic equilibrium and can recover from both human and naturally induced stress, o Human stress is at a greater scale and more accelerated

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes. - 33-50% of nutrients are held in the biomass and because of this, the removal of trees causes disruption to the functioning - Limited fertility = vulnerable - Plants are not resilient as are used to fertile soil - Seeds do not germinate after a period of drought after 25 days - Pollination little wind to transfer pollen so plant species rely on insects - If insects are removed, the dependant species will not produce species Deforestation Destroys root systems Removes nutrients Rapid erosion exposes underlying soil Ground surface gets heavy rain Pollination destroys processes Pest and diseases multiply

TRADITIONAL AND CONTEMPORARY Uses result in the need for > Practices USES: TRADITIONAL CONTEMPORARY

Uses: -

Material to build Fuel for warmth and cooking Food e.g. nuts, seeds, fruit Clothing e.g. big leafs Medicine Music (lol) -

Massive palm rubber and coconut sap plantations Harvesting palm oil Tree felling (exploitation) and selling lumber (wood sawn into rough planks) Human induced fire Mining oil and gas

More importantly, clearing the forest for agriculture: Slash and burn techniques converted large areas into grassland (brought on my an advancement in technology / introduction of capital and increase in productive capacity) Ring-barking and felling People moved every couple of seasons 200000ha each year disturbed through shifting cultivation 4 million ha. Has been cultivated over the past 20 years Population growth rate of 2.3% p.a. 1000km2 have been converted into grassland

Effects: Loss of traditional culture sites Soil erosion Extinction of wildlife Siltation of rivers Loss of fruit trees and medicinal plants Stats: In 1998, 2% of world forest was cleared each year 2001, 18% Present rates lost all forest by 2032 1994, PNG exported 494.4M kina worth of forest products representing 17% total exports

Contemporary management essay: 18/20 needed more stats and extra example of so mil MORE

PRACTICES: TRADITIONAL CONTEMPORARY

The Fore People: Live in eastern highlands of southern fringes of central range between the Lamari and Yami rivers Traditional shifting cultivation farming style, sweet potato as staple crop

The national Governments philosophy for commercial development of the countrys forests is a praiseworthy one recognising that the forests are a valuable resource which should be maintained In 1991, a new number of strategies were

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes. Preferred rainforest sites being virgin implemented to try and control the out of control and corrupt industry: rainforest or secondary growth Men and older boys did most of the Statuary authority run by a board to work trench digging to divert water, be established cut down bush (w/ axes) Assistance from the World Bank to Garden clearing was done with stone establish data on species and regrowth axes and fire-hardened digging sticks times pre-1950s. Creation of forest plantations Once plot was infertile, it was left for 20-30 years in order for it to return to Undertake essential research, fertility particularly into resources assessment, sustainable cutting Shifting cultivation allowed the forest to methods and silviculture regenerate and was an appropriate management system where population Political Situation: densities remained low and the farming tools were primitive In 1987 a commission of inquiry into the operations of the timber industry These factors helped to change the was established by the supreme court tropical rainforest ecosystem judge Thomas Barnett As the fallow periods became shorter This report discovered extensive due to population pressure, gardens political corruption in the timber became larger -> converted to industry grassland -> running soil fertility National Government was so So Mil: embarrassed that the publication was suppressed and is not available for the public corruption was found at all levels of Government Bribes were common to allow illegal logging contracts Offending companies Rimanau Hijau + companies from Singapore and Malaysia

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ISSUES: Two main reasons as to why they are hard to regulate: 1. Too greater political corruption (at all levels)

2. Lack of officers in the field The commercial use of PNG forests bears little relationship to the philosophy of forest management stated in the Constitution and that a number of suggested strategies for forest management have been ignored. Forest management strategies are not working, and will continue not to work until: 1. Culture of corruption must change in PNG and marketing. Malpractices and bribery must be stopped 2. Significant increase in well trained forestry officers to implement strategies 3. Phasing out of log experts should be undertaken immediately 4. A through forestry database needs to be created so good decisions about sustainable development can be made 5. The government cannot afford to subsidise / assist in the management practices there needs to be responses from communities, NGOs and IGOs 6. Poverty is a major obstacle to addressing underlying causes of forest loss in ONG. Cash and infrastructure offered by the Governments and foreign companies have been difficult to resist Communities have been lied to, mislead by Governments and often leaders.

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes.

Urban Places
the nature, character and spatial distribution of world cities Three dominant world cities: 1. London 2. New York 3. Tokyo Urban area: higher population density than the surrounding area. Morphology: the study of the form of human settlements and the process of their formation and transformation e.g. London influenced by water. Fluvial morphology involved in rivers and geomorphology. Very few world cities are in developing countries. Nature: what the cities have in common e.g. economic authority and cultural authority. (Influence / leadership / power). Are the product and a cause of a globalised economy culture Have become much more dominant in the urban hierarchy since the 1960s Large spheres of influence Not always the largest populated cities Some world cities have become megalopolises as conurbation has occurred Are more important at the global scale than they are at the national scale Interconnected to other global cities Connected in global network as organising nodes Command and control centres in the global economy

Megalopolises Tokyo and BOSNYWASH advanced technology Character: distinct features.

LONDON

NEW YORK

TOKYO

Tower Bridge Wembley London Tube National art gallery Trafalgar square

Madison Sq. gardens Empire State Fifth avenue JFK and Le Guardia (airports)

Eiffel tower National assembly Paris Metro Champs Elysee The Louvre

Sites for concentration of corporate headquarters CBD with large office developments Centres in financial services Site for global markets large retail centres, commodity exchanges Centres for specialised high-order business services, insurance offices, legal and advertising firms, property development, hotels Sites of leading NGOs and IGOs Prestigious locations and centres of entertainment Transport hubs Communication hubs media and news organisations Culture industries fashion houses Major tourists attractions

Containerisation has caused shipping to relocate to areas outside major world cities. Old docklands have undergone urban renewal housing Spatial distribution: locational patterns. e.g. the three major continents, three in the northern hemisphere. Defined by dense patterns of interaction at a global, multinational and national scale World cities located in developed nations in the northern hemisphere World cities have large spatial articulations Three world cities have great functional reach Spatial dispersed in different time zones but globally integrated Large spheres of influence and control o Created conurbations

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes. Population growth now slowing Spatial articulation cities have command over neighbouring areas. o TNC HQs o Employment attraction Facilitated global exchange and production o Supported by regional areas

the role of world cities as powerful centres of economic and cultural authority has facilitated global exchange of capital, goods and services and information and production. Some of the worlds largest TNCs Oil, finance and automobile corporations figure prominently amongst these TNCs. World cities that are lower on the hierarchy play host to: Regional HQs for top TNCs e.g. IBM in Sydney The global HQs for TNCs that are not in the top 20-100 e.g. 4 big banks Do not necessarily have to be in a specific city to be a huge TNC, yet many TNCs are concentrated in major cities due to: Services Communications Locality / ease of access 3 Main economic powers: Tokyo NY London 2 Other: Hong Kong, Paris

Headquarters: Regional -> National -> International TNC Examples Table (stats as of top 100 non financial, 2007):

JAPAN

NEW YORK

LONDON

- Toyota 616,121 total employed 284,722 total assets - Honda 110,663 total assets 178,,960 total employed - Nissan 94,949 total sales 180,535 total employed

- General Electric 327,000 total employed 795 000 total assets - ExxonMobil 80,800 total employed 390,328 total sales General Motors (GM) 266,000 total employed 148,883 total assets -

- Vodafone 254,000 total assets British Petroleum (BP) 284,365 total sales 236,076 total assets -

From this table, we can see the major TNCs; vehicles, oil and communication (nonfinancial) (UNCTAD.org)

Financial Examples: JAPAN NEW YORK LONDON

- Nomura Holdings 17 host countries 14,688 employees Sumitomo Mitsui

- Citigroup 75 Total host countries 337 000 employed worldwide 1,884,318 total assets

- HSBC 47 host countries 1,857,520 total assets Barclays

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes. 901,711 total assets 1,949,167 total assets 14 host countries - JP Morgan and 36 host countries Chase 31 host countries 1,351,520 total assets - Merrill Lynch 24 host countries 841,299 total assets As seen from these financial companies, many are involved in investments and banking.

the operation of global networks 4 pages handwritten in folder communications transport airports intra-city networking the relationships of dominance and dependence between world cities and other urban centres and the changing role of regional centres and the demise of the small town.

Telec

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes. mega cities the nature, character and spatial distribution of mega cities in the developing world (need more)

Megacities: a large agglomeration (a central city, or more than one centre, with neighbouring communities linked to it by continuous built-up areas) of at least 8 million inhabitants (as per UN definition of 2000). Nature: Primacy economic, cultural and political Rapid and recent growth rural/urban migration and rate of natural increase Overurbanised there are more urban residents than the economies of the cities can support. This generally occurs when large cities cannot provide enough revenue (via taxes) to provide the services that people need. The larger the city grows, the greater the problem becomes. The larger the city grows, the greater the problem becomes. It becomes more difficult to balance the inreased urban population, the growth of the citys economy and the infrastructure required to support both. Dual economies formal / informal Dependent on cities in global network Character: Extend beyond boundaries Former colonial cities (can be seen in old buildings and outdated infrastructure) CBD Manufacturing centres factories Shanty towns Market places Animate transport and mechanised transport Inadequate infrastructure Polluted (air, water and garbage) Spatial Distribution Asian and south American concentrations Two in Africa Within continents SEA / SA (Asia) with 5 located in Latin America. Increasingly located in developing countries Megacities: very large agglomerations of at least 8 million inhabitants (UN Stat.)

o Megacities have experienced rapid over urbanisation due to rural urban migration, natural increase and international migration. o Over urbanisation: more urban residents than the economies of the cities could support causing challenges within cities. o In developing countries the urban population grew from 17% to 40% in 50 years. o Challenges: Housing, traffic infrastructure, water and power supplies, sanitation services, employment and other social and health issues. o Responses: Government-directed projects, community self help projects, NGOs, Urban protest and informal economies. o Generally, the responses have made a positive impact to the challenges of over urbanisation in developing megacities. HOUSING Mumbai India NGOs & URBAN PROTEST 14 million, capital of India, most populous in the country, economic centre 5% GDP. Providing sufficient housing is a severe problem in all of the mega cities of the developing world shanty towns, pavement dwellers and homeless. This is caused by the rapid rate of pop increase as a result of natural pop increase & rural urban migration Challenges Mumbai is a diverse primate city situated on the West coast of India. (S. Tropic Cancer) Very uneven disparity of wealth world class housing to slums and shanty towns. Housing crisis due to high natural increase and rural-urban migration. Over 55% of the pop. live in the slums and shanty towns. Huge flow on effect social, health etc. Slum growth rate in Mumbai is greater than its urban growth rate. Urban Protest and NGO Response Numerous urban protest movements with the aim of forcing the Government into action. Protests in Sanjay which included a mass hunger strikes and public demonstrations which received national media attention. This resulted in the Dinsaw Trust (NGO) to give monetary assistance and initiate a relocation program (build huts) for the shanty town dwellers. Gave them land of their own. Although the location was remote the land is now owned by the community which has allowed them to gain access to permanent housing.

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes. Youth for Unity and Voluntary Action (NGO) has provided support for pavement dwellers and protested against forced evictions.

TRAFFIC INFASTRUCTURE Shanghai China GOVT. RESPONSE Over 20 million, largest city in China, East Coast, Unprecedented economic growth (8%) Challenges Problems due to increased use of private vehicles running on an outdated transport network. 0.2 cars per 1000 people, but still problem due to large population. Roads congested with buses, trucks, bicycles & pedestrians Cause mass congestion and gridlock. Inadequate public transport services to accommodate the over urbanised city. Surface road network common. Road widths as narrows as only 9m in some bottleneck sections Old roads formed for less traffic and different transportation methods outdated. Not enough major highways. Overloaded urban roads with frequent traffic jams especially during rush hours. Gov responses Underground railway system which has increased the speed of travel for areas along its route. Upgrading of Waitan in the CBD of old Shanghai increasing road width. Improved traffic laws and regulations to increase traffic flow. Construction of the Nanpu & Huangpu bridges which decreased congestion between old Shanghai and the Pudong New Area. Elevated road system (major high speed highway link) commenced in 1991, over 50km long & has severely decreased traffic problems. Invested in more efficient public transport services.

WATER AND POWER SUPPLIES Tehran Iran GOVT. & NGO Largest city in Middle East, Over 13 million inhabitants, North of Iran, 0.7% Water

Water Challenges Water is an extremely scarce and valuable resource in Tehran. Water reticulation system is present with the system reaching 99% of population, but not enough water. Uncontrolled migration has caused water consumption to exceed water supply. Tap water consumption in the country is 70% over and above the global average. (Ministry of Energy) Water quality is deteriorating at an alarming quality due to untreated municipal and industrial wastewater. Government Response Increased deep well drilling operations to tap into underground water resource. Government: Renovate old water supply networks from the 60s to prevent water wastage. Placed control on water consumption by limiting running tap water to only a few hours a week. Has worked in ensuring the population has enough water. Taught population to be more water conscience.

Power Challenges The over urbanisation of Tehran has placed an enormous strain on power supplies. Although the government has invested extensively on hydroelectric power generation, it is inconsistent due to drought and unable to supply enough power to Tehran. In 2008, Tehran has been hit by power cuts of up to 3 hours each day. Government and NGO response NGOs Green Front of Iran in conjunction with the government has supplied solar power water heaters to families of 5 or more. Government - heavily investing in Nuclear energy production (meet up to 20% of energy demands) and hydroelectricity to meet up with energy consumption. Heavy investment in more dam construction (Karun 3) which will allow for hydroelectricity generation to occur.

SANITATION SERVICES Karachi Pakistan SELF HELP PROJECT/COMMUNITY Largest city in Pakistan, over 15.5 million, major financial centre, South coast of Pakistan. Clean water supply & adequate sewerage system & other infrastructure are the basic operation of any modern city.

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes. Quantity of dwellings with inside running water is a very strong indicator of whether a city is located in a developed or developing country poor in developing megacities. Challenges Karachi is the largest city in Pakistan with a poor sanitation being a vital concern. Orangi located on the North West side of Karachi is a large squatter settlement with 1 million inhabitants. Until 1980 most households used bucket latrines & soak pits for human waste disposal. The open sewers for the disposal of waste water resulting in a high rate of water borne disease including typhoid and malaria. Orangi was considered for decades to be a no hope area receiving very little response to solve the poor sanitation issue. Self help response/Community self governance The Orangi Pilot Project was a self help response established by Dr. Hameed Akhan who had previously helped to establish a successful cooperative movement in Dhaka Bangladesh. The Orangi Pilot Project was a research institution which aimed to identify problems & developed solutions that can be implemented by the population in an organised approach. The project promoted community organisation & self management on a sustainable basis. empowering the citizens. It provided the organisation for the residents of individual lanes form groups, to elect project managers and contribute cash & voluntary labour to get their own sewer installed. Community as a whole makes the decision. Community has decided to maintain potholes and maintain the system properly so to lessen blockages. Over 3/4s of Organis houses were connected to covered sewers. The districts mortality rate fell from 130 per thousand in 1982 to 37% by 1991. Cost efficient - The results were achieved at a fraction of the cost of projected government implemented schemes. The Pakistani Govt. working with the Orangi pilot project on self help principles to solve various issues in the city. EMPLOYMENT Bangkok Thailand INFORMAL ECONOMIES 64 million, largest urban city in Thailand, Primate city, South coast. Challenges

 In 1998, a result of the Asian economic crises there were many workers were made redundant in Bangkok. Workers were mainly in the textile & electronic industries where 90% of workers were women. Decreased ability to support household. Most of the workers were aged over 40yrs, had low skills, were in the industrial sector, were supporting families and found it difficult to find new jobs as they had skills that did would fulfil the requirements of jobs in the formal economyinformal economies. Informal Economies Response To cope with the challenge of unemployment in Bangkok some turned to small subcontractor factories in the informal sector which paid low wages, had poor working conditions & violated labour laws. Could not demand better working conditions as they risked being made redundant once again. NOT EFFECTIVE - This response did not solve the problem, leading to other challenges. Many of those who were laid off were unable to find work until economic recovery was underway

CRIME Buenos Aires Argentina GOVERNMENT RESPONSE & URBAN PROTEST 13 million, Largest city in Argentina, East Coast Challenges Surge in street crime due to the severe economic disparity within the city. Pickpockets, scam artists and purse snatchers are common. Established crime networks hard to police to combat. Foreign tourists have been warned to not take valuables with them as a precaution to prevent crime. Prevalence of firearms of over 1.8 million as compared with 400,000 in 1993. (CNN)

Urban Protest In 2009, over 10,000 marched to the Plaza de Mayo demanding more anti crime measures to be implemented by the Government. They also demanded more police presence in the city. Government Response

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes. Surge in Police presence Over 60,000 police in Buenos Aires. In 1984 the Argentinean government abolished the death penalty. Over 30,000 people have been killed since 1984.

Sao Paulo, Brazil/ Metropolitan Region of Sao Paulo (MRSP) Housing Responses: Government: o Socialist mayor in 2000 proposed $3 billion (real) towards housing issue. 1000 unfinished Cingapura (low cost housing initiative) units to be completed can cost up to 20,000 real. o Secretariat for Housing and Urban Development (SEHAB) - (1) construction of new housing units by self-help groups or private developers; (2) regularization and upgrading of slums; (3) resettlement housing and infrastructure works for populations living in hazardous zones; (4) housing construction and improvement in areas close to employment hubs; and (5) urban rehabilitation of the historic center. The secretariat is currently working on slum upgrading in thirty slums and its programs cover the rehabilitation of approximately 31,000 housing units. Self-help mutirao, a self help scheme where people are encouraged to build their own homes, and others within the community. These cost 11,000-15,000 real more cost effective. Used construction of public housing, where everyone benefits and, concomitantly, providing aid in a rotating system. Traffic Infrastructure (serious challenge): Government o New underground metro system in development; new roads / trains / buses, a pedestrianized CBD, parking restrictions -- reduces pollution (ESD) o Use Bike project that promotes sustainable transportation; bicycle parking for free and low cost renting stops in subways Govt. hinders this due to its inability to subsidise too expensive for NGOs etc. to cover. Water and Power Supplies: CHALLENGE: While the MRSP has relatively high coverage levels for water supply through house connections (98.4%) and adequate sanitation (81.2%), many poor residents live in unsanitary conditions in the slums circling the city. Water pollution compounds the problem of water scarcity. The metropolitan area imports about half of its water supply from the Piracicaba River basin in the Campinas Metropolitan area to the north, which has led to a lingering water conflict. The Alto Tiet water resources master plan was developed by the University of So Paulo and was approved in 2003. o Basin committes (22 in MRSP) in charge of; (i) licensing water resources use; (ii) charging for water use; and (iii) dividing the costs of multiple-use interventions which have collective benefit. Organisations are not involved due to small returns if they invest in project CHALLENGE: Millions of people all over the world are living in slum areas without a legal connection to the electricity supply. Many of them risk their lives to make intricate,

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes.
illegal connections to overhead lines. These activities often result in fatal accidents and the wasting of electrical energy. RESPONSE: In 2005, the International Copper Association (ICA) and United States Agency for International Development (USAID) set up an international programme to promote sustainable electricity services in slum areas. A pilot project was initiated in 2006 in the favela (slum area) of Paraispolis in So Paulo, Brazil.

Sanitation: Slum dwellers live on public land and irregular plots, tend to concentrate in precarious, flood-prone areas in the basin, and have no appropriate infrastructure for water supply, sewerage, drainage and solid waste management. Their domestic waste therefore contributes directly to the pollution of the water reservoir. o World Bank: improving the quality of life of 550,000 inhabitants through the rehabilitation and expansion of sanitary infrastructure, solid waste collection and drainage 8,050 new connections to the existing sewerage system and 41,000 connections prepared for the new sewerage system Employment: A lack of employment means that people have to look for other ways of earning money in the informal sector. Lack of jobs - Informal sector - low paid, menial jobs e.g. porters, shoe shiners. Employs over half the citys workforce. o Govt. implementing successful rural employment schemes will prevent more emigrants entering the city, already overrun with poverty-stricken residents. If work, therefore income is available in the countryside, there will be fewer reasons to move into the city. Sex trade (crime and health): It is estimated that around 75,000 women are forced into prostitution or sex slavery across the European Union, usually recruiting women from Sao Paulo or Rio and then sending them over to Europe to work once theyve been trained o Local governments have been focusing on increasing public awareness of this drastic social Sao Paulo Brazil crime, and the numbers of women forced to work in the sex trade are now slowly decreasing. o Tourists encouraged not to buy favours from prostitutes as it will support human slaves trade, illegal syndicates, high risks of health issues (STIs), assaults and robbery.

More on responses from specific NGOs / self help, etc. More on Challenges (outline, even though they are easier to remember) Confusion between responses and challenges (formatting) ^

Bangkok, Thailand Water and Sanitation (C+R): Bangkok's water supply situation is unsatisfactory. Only about 66% of the people have access to piped drinking water from within the city, with 8% of people having piped water from outside, 6% from wells and 20% from other sources, e.g. vendors. A major problem is the overuse of ground water as a source of supply. Extensive seasonal flooding o widespread subsidence of the land o problems of urban run-off o overflows from the river o obstruction of natural drainage due to converting canals into roads. (sanitation) The response of the government has been to introduce projects to provide adequate internal drainage and storage capacity, large-scale dyking and pumping facilities, extension and improvement of the existing canal and drainage system and the construction of flood barriers. Employment: Challenges In 1998, a result of the Asian economic crises there were many workers were made redundant in Bangkok massive structural unemployment within industrial sector. EMPLOYMENT Challenge + Response Job creation. Where the attraction of investment by the formal sector in business expansion creates employment. This may be directed into import substituting businesses or into export orientation by adding value to local resources. Mega cities involved in the employment by export-oriented development include Bangkok, Mumbai and Calcutta. Informal Economies Response Bangkok some turned to small subcontractor factories in the informal sector which paid low wages, had poor working conditions & violated labour laws. People were out of jobs and resorted to menial jobs. Sex trade (crime and health): o NGO: SOLD project (2007) stopping child prostitution through education

Housing: Challenge: It is easy to build low-cost homes if they are just prefab concrete boxes with corrugated-tin roofs. But the dream of low-cost housing that is fit for purpose, wind and water proof, with adequate lighting, sanitation and water, near where the occupants work, is impossible. The underlying problem is that this urban under-class cannot afford a decent place to live since they often live from day to day, getting by as best they can, often on far less than the Bangkok minimum wage.

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes.

Response: The National Housing Authority (NHA) was assigned to supervise the Baan Ua-arthorn project ("We care"), a low-cost housing scheme formed mainly to implement the Govts promise for a million new housing units. NGO CASE Community Architects for Shelter and Environment use the notion of self-help and education to learn how to build and improve their living standards. Traffic Infrastructure Challenge: The problem (in Bangkok) is insufficient mass transportation Bangkok possesses no underground rail system, and its Skytrain, an elevated system, has been criticised for its high prices and limited network. Severe traffic and pollution (more than 2.6m vehicles drive through Bangkok each day - increases by 481 daily) o Road shortage (8% coverage / Tokyo = 16%)

Response: Pedestrianised streets in parts of the city in an attempt to improve the city's appalling traffic congestion and pollution levels. o The two-month pilot scheme was launched in Silom Road, in the heart of the city's commercial district / 800m part of the road has been closed every Sunday for the past two months June 2010 Bus Rapid Transport bus initiative covering 15km of CBD.

Need more on traffic it looks weak? More on sex trade Is there anything on power supplies?

URBAN DYNAMICS: Urban dynamics of change: suburbanisation, ex-urbanisation, counter-urbanisation, decentralisation, consolidation, urban decay, urban renewal urban village, and spatial exclusion Suburbanisation the movement of people, employment and facilities away from the inner city towards outer urban areas i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Parramatta Chatswood North Sydney Campbelltown Liverpool Bondi Junction

The urban processes of gentrification and urban consolidation are often present within suburbanisation. Examples of gentrification include Woolloomooloo that has attracted middle-high income earners to its outer urban area. Urban consolidation is vital in suburbanisation as a means of making the area more productive in regards to resource use. Ex-urbanisation a process whereby people, usually those who are quite affluent, move from the city to rural areas but continue to maintain an urban way of life either through long distance commuting or technology Ex-urbanisation can involve the decentralisation of urban areas, due to the attractions of outer city and rural life, especially with self-sufficient employment with the likes of people working at home, example. (Perimetropolitan region) i. Dural ii. Galston iii. Kenthurst iv. Windsor v. Richmond vi. Picton vii. Camden Counter-urbanisation a reversal of the rural-large city movement associated with urbanisation. Can refer to alternate lifestyles

GEO NOTES HSC. Must add: traditional and contemporary? Megacities first dot point? Dominance and dependence of world cities? Demise of small towns? + urban notes. i. ii. iii. iv. Galston Lismore Byron Bay Nimbin

The main urban process of counter-urbanisation is that of decentralisation. The two directly correlate as decentralisation comes as a result of counter-urbanisation as society shifts from industrial to post-industrial thus bringing changes in economic and social structures. Decentralisation the dispersal of activities and people from large urban centres to smaller urban centres and rural communities i. See counter urbanisation Consolidation - refers to a diverse set of planning policies intended to make better use of existing urban infrastructure by encouraging development within existing urbanised areas into non-urbanised land, thus limiting urban sprawl. Metropolitan Sydney. i. Greenwich ii. iii. Gentrification can again be attributed to the use of urban consolidation within urban areas. Urban decay the deterioration of the built environment. Urban infrastructure falls into a state of disrepair and buildings are left empty for long periods. Urban renewal the redevelopment of an urban area i. Pyrmont ii. Balmain iii. Woolloomooloo Urban decay can be a subject of mass decentralisation and counter-urbanisation. Over time a large proportion of urban decay, especially in areas in which the working class have moved away to other areas, can be gentrified / renewed to suit middle to high-income earners. A prime example of this is Pyrmont.

Urban village distinctive residential districts comprising a clustering of people with a common culture forming an identifiable community. i. Double bay ii. Leichardt iii. Mosman Spatial exclusion the protection of luxury lifestyles, which has resulted in restrictions in spatial access and the freedom of movement of other urban dwellers. Examples include high security suburbs, walled estates and security conscious shopping malls and business centres. i. The Manor Cherrybrook ii. Raleigh Park Kensington