Respiration uses energy to make ATP which is needed to drive biological processes.

ANABOLIC CATABOLIC Metabolic reactions that build large molecules from smaller ones Break down large molecules into smaller ones

ATP is formed from 3 phosphate groups and adenosine.

ATP can be hydrolysed to ADP and Pi releasing 30.6 kJ per mol, ATP in these small amounts will not damage cell and will not be wasted. Enzymes are not very good at catalysing oxidation or reduction reactions. NAD Organic, non protein molecule which helps dehydrogenase enzymes to carry out oxidation reactions Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide made of two linked nucleotides Made in body from nicotinamide(V B3), 5C sugar ribose, adenine and 2 phosphate groups Nucleotides are nicotinamide and adenine

CoA Made from pantothenic acid(group B vitamin), adenosine, 3 phosphate groups and cysteine Carries ethanoate(acetate) groups made from pyruvate during link reaction onto Krebs cycle Carries acetate groups that have been made from fatty acids or amino acids onto Krebs cycle

GLYCOLYSIS 1 ATP molecule hydrolysed and phosphate group released attaches to glucose molecule at carbon 6 forming glucose 6-phosphate Glucose 6-phosphate is changed to fructose 6-phosphate via isomerism Another ATP is hydrolysed and the phosphate group released is attached to fructose 6-phosphate at carbon 1 now called fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Energy from hydrolysed ATP molecules activates Hexose sugar and prevents it from being

transported out of the cell Each molecule of Hexose bisphosphate is split into 2 molecules of triose phosphate (3c sugar molecules each with 1 phosphate group attached) Oxidation of triose phosphate now occurs and is anaerobic 2 hydrogen atoms are removed from each triose phosphate molecule(the substrate) using dehydrogenase enzymes and being aided by coenzyme NAD NAD is a hydrogen acceptor which when combined with hydrogen atoms becomes reduced NAD 2 molecules of ATP have been formed by substrate-level phosphorylation 4 enzyme catalysed reactions convert each triose phosphate molecule to a molecule of pyruvate (3C compound) 2 molecules of ADP are phosphorylated to 2 molecules of ATP by substrate level phosphorylation 2 ATP used 4 ATP made Net gain of ATP is 2 2 reduced NAD made 2 pyruvate made

Inner and outer phospholipid membrane make up envelope Inner membrane folded into cristae to give large surface area Intermembrane space between inner and outer membrane Matrix enclosed by inner membrane: semi rigid and gel like consisting of proteins, lipids and mitochondrial DNA/ribosome/enzymes

MATRIX AND OUTER MEMBRANE Contains molecules of coenzyme NAD Contains oxaloacetate(4C compound)- accepts acetate from link reaction Proteins which form channels to allow passage of molecules such as pyruvate

INNER MEMBRANE

Impermeable to protons Has embedded in it many electron carriers and ATP synthase enzymes Each electron carrier is associated with non-protein groups called cofactors which are haem groups and contain an iron atom Cofactors can accept and donate electrons due to ability of iron to reduce and oxidise so are called oxidoreductase Some electron carriers have a coenzyme that pumps protons from matrix to intermembrane space Since inner membrane is impermeable to protons, these protons accumulate in intermembrane space called chemiosmosis ATP synthase enzymes allow protons to pass through them and this causes ATP to be formed by proton motive force from ADP and Pi Coenzyme FAD is tightly bound to a dehydrogenase enzyme that is imbedded in inner membrane Hydrogen atoms accepted by FAD pass back into mitochondrial matrix and do not get pumped into inert membrane space

LINK REACTION Pyruvate dehydrogenase removes hydrogen atoms from pyruvate which are accepted by coenzyme NAD to become reduced NAD Pyruvate decarboxylase removes a carboxyl group (which becomes carbon dioxide) from pyruvate Pyruvate is converted to acetate which is accepted by coenzyme A to become acetyl coenzyme A, this carries acetate to Krebs cycle 2 pyruvate + 2NAD+ +2CoA 2CO2 + 2reduced NAD + 2 acetyl CoA 2 reduced NAD 2 carbon dioxide made

KREBS CYCLE Acetate offloaded from coenzyme A (which is free to collect more acetate) and joins 4C compound oxaloacetate to form 6C compound citrate Citrate is decarboxylated and dehydrogenated to form 5C compound Pair of hydrogen atoms is accepted by a molecule of NAD to become reduced NAD 5C compound is decarboxylated and dehydrogenated to form 4C compound and another molecule of reduced NAD 4C compound is changed into another 4C compound during which ADP is phosphorylated to produce a molecule of ATP by substrate level phosphorylation Second 4C compound is changed into another 4C compound A pair of hydrogen atoms is removed and accepted by coenzyme FAD which becomes reduced FAD Third 4C compound is further dehydrogenated and regenerates oxaloacetate while another molecule of NAD is reduced 6 NAD reduced 2 reduced FAD 4 carbon dioxide made 2 ATP made

Occurs in cristae Reduced NAD and reduced FAD are reoxidised when they donate hydrogen atoms which are split into protons and electrons to electron carriers

Protein complex I accepts first electron carrier from NAD to form NADH dehydrogenase Protons go into solution in matrix Electrons are passed along a chain of electron carriers and donated to molecular oxygen- final electron acceptor Energy released from electrons along electron chain is used by coenzymes associated with electron carriers (complexes I,II and IV) to pump protons across intermembrane space pH gradient built up and protons diffuse through channels in inner membrane space by chemiosmosis Protons drive rotation of part of ATP synthase enzyme to join ADP and Pi to form ATP Electrons passed from last electron carrier in the chain to molecular oxygen which is final electron acceptor Oxygen reduced to water 4H+ + 4e- + O2 2H2O

INEFFICENCY: Some protons leak across mitochondrial membrane reducing number of protons to generate proton motive force Some ATP produced is used to actively transport pyruvate into mitochondria Some ATP is used for shuttle to bring hydrogen from reduced NAD made during glycolysis in cytoplasm into mitochondria

Only anaerobic process as a source of ATP is glycolysis. Here the reduced NAD, generated during the oxidation of glucose has to be reoxidised so that glycolysis can keep operating. LACTATE FERMENTATION Occurs in mammalian muscle tissue during vigorous activity when ATP demand is high and oxygen is in deficit Reduced NAD is reoxidised to NAD+ with pyruvate accepting hydrogen atoms from reduced NAD NAD is now reoxidised and available to accept more hydrogen atoms from glucose Enzyme lactate dehydrogenase catalyses the oxidation of reduced NAD together with reduction of pyruvate to lactate When more oxygen is available lactate can be converted back to pyruvate which can then enter krebs cycle via link reaction or recycled to glucose and glycogen The reduction in pH will reduce enzyme activity in muscles not build u of lactate

ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION Each pyruvate molecule loses a carbon dioxide molecule it is decarboxylated and become ethanal The reaction is catalysed by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase which has a coenzyme bound to it Ethanal accepts hydrogen atoms from reduced NAD which become reoxidised as ethanal is reduced to ethanol by ethanol dehydrogenase Reoxidised NAD can now accept more hydrogen atoms from glucose during glycolysis Yeast dies at 15% ethanol concentrated Yeast starts in aerobic conditions then moves to anaerobic conditions to undergo alcoholic fermentation

CARBOHYDRATE:

PROTEIN:

FATS:

Theoretical maximum yield is 2870 kJmol-1 and it takes 30.6 kJ to produce 1 mol of ATP so 1 mol of glucose could produce 94 moles of ATP Only 30 mol AT formed so efficiency of 32% Remaining energy is released as heat which helps maintain suitable body temperature thus allowing enzyme controlled reactions to proceed Excess amino acids are deaminated meaning removal of amine group and conversion to urea Rest of molecule is turned into glycogen or fat to be respired This means conversion to pyruvate or to acetate and carried to Krebs cycle or entering Krebs cycle directly Number of hydrogen atoms per mole accepted by NAD and then used in oxidative phosphorylation is slightly more than the number of hydrogen atoms per mole of glucose so proteins release slightly more energy than equivalent masses of carbohydrates Triglycerides hydrolysed by lipase to fatty acids and glycerol Glycerol converted to glucose and then respire but fatty acids cannot respire Fatty acids produce a lot of ATP by oxidative phosphorylation as they are a source of protons due to large number of carbons and hydrogens Each fatty acid combined with CoA which requires energy from hydrolysis of a molecule of ATP to AMP and 2 inorganic phosphate groups Fatty acid-CoA complex is transported into mitochondrial matrix where it is broken down by beta oxidation pathway (reduced NAD and FAD formed)into 2-acetyl groups attached to CoA Acetyl groups released from CoA and enter Krebs cycle