JOURNAL OF RENEWABLE AND SUSTAINABLE ENERGY 3, 043113 (2011)

Small-signal analysis of a fully rated converter wind turbine

Nolan D. Caliao
Mindanao University of Science and Technology, Lapasan, Cagayan de Oro City, Misamis Oriental 9000, Philippines (Received 3 January 2011; accepted 8 July 2011; published online 8 August 2011)

Small signal analysis of the fully rated converter wind turbine connected to a large power system was undertaken. The dynamic behaviour of the fully rated converter wind turbine was investigated using eigenvalue analysis. Eigenvalue analysis was undertaken to determine the inuence of the network short circuit level on the networks dominant eigenvalues. It was shown that the strength of the transmission system does not inuence the dynamic behaviour of the generator of the fully C rated converter wind turbine. V 2011 American Institute of Physics. [doi:10.1063/1.3618744]
I. INTRODUCTION

The integration of wind power into the grid is now increasing at a signicant pace which poses new challenges for power system operators. As a result, there are revisions of grid code requirements (GCRs). In these grid codes, fault ride through is of primary concern. The reason for this is that when large proportion of wind energy is supplying the grid, they have to continuously supply power during fault to avoid large frequency deviation. There is even a bigger challenge of wind power technology. That is to bear the same responsibilities for contribution to power system management as conventional synchronous generators does. This is a huge challenge, considering that wind power generation differs fundamentally from conventional generation in various ways. Figure 1 shows the increase in size of wind turbines. In the 1980s, wind turbines were 15 m in diameter and generating about 50 kW. In the 1990s, wind turbines increased to over 100 m in diameter generating an average of 3 MW. The Enercon E-126 has a rotor diameter of 126 m. It can generate 7 MW, enough to power about 5000 four-person households in Europe.1,2 Also, Vestas announced recently to develop V164 7MW by 2012. The machine is designed for offshore application and will have a full converter topology with a permanent magnet machine. Fault ride through is primary requirements of the many grid codes, before wind turbines can be connected to the network. During a network fault, the wind turbine should remain connected to the network. Figure 2 shows the voltage sag versus duration curve of the GB grid code. A wind farm has to remain connected to the GB transmission system (operating at supergrid voltages) during a sag of zero retained voltage that lasts up to 140 ms. A wind farm has to remain connected and transiently stable for supergrid voltages above the heavy black line in Figure 2. Supergrid voltages are voltages greater than 200 kV.3,4 Modern variable speed wind turbines are able to meet fault ride through requirements and as discussed in a number of studies. Other grid code requirements include active power and reactive power support.49 This paper will demonstrate the dynamic behaviour of the fully rated converter wind turbine (FCWT) was investigated using eigenvalue analysis. Eigenvalue analysis was undertaken to determine the inuence of the network short circuit level on the networks dominant eigenvalues. It was shown that the strength of the transmission system does not inuence the dynamic behaviour of the generator of the fully rated converter wind turbine.
II. WIND TURBINE TECHNOLOGIES

Presently, large wind turbines are usually in the range 35 MW operating at variable speed. However, smaller wind turbines utilise the Danish concept. These wind turbines are at a xed
1941-7012/2011/3(4)/043113/13/$30.00 3, 043113-1
C V 2011 American Institute of Physics

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J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 3, 043113 (2011)

FIG. 1. Increase in size of wind turbines in recent years (Ref. 1).

speed and are usually connected to the distribution system. The drive train consists of a lowspeed shaft connecting the aerodynamic rotor to the gearbox, a 2- or 3-stage speed-increasing gearbox, and a high-speed shaft connecting the gearbox to the generator. The generators of these wind turbines are typically induction and operate at 690 V (AC). The advantages of xed speed induction generator (FSIG) wind turbines are that they are simple and reliable and the concept is well proven. Current xed speed wind turbines are the Vestas V82 1.65 MW, Siemens SWT-1.3-62 1.3 MW, and Suzlon S.64 1.25 MW. Variable speed wind turbines are used increasingly because they can meet most grid code requirements. The doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) wind turbines and the fully rated converter wind turbines are the most common designs. Commercial DFIG wind turbines include Gamesa G80 2 MW, GE WE1.5s 1.5 MW, Vestas V80-2.0 2 MW, and Siemens SWT-2.3-82 VS 2.3 MW. FCWT include GE 2.5xl 2.5 MW and Clipper Liberty 2.5 MW.

FIG. 2. Required ride through capability of wind farms for supergrid voltage sags of more than 140 ms duration under the GB grid code (Ref. 3).

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FIG. 3. Block diagram of xed speed induction generator wind turbine (FSIG).

Both DFIG and FCWT use power electronic converters to control the generator. For the DFIG wind turbines, a pair of IGBT-based (IGBT-insulated gate bipolar transistor) voltage source converters is connected to the rotor circuit.5,14,25 For the FCWT, a diode rectier can be used in the generator as in the case of the Enercon E-70 2.3 MW and E-82 2 MW wind turbines. The Enercon E-70 2.3 MW and E-82 2 MW wind turbines have direct drive (with no gearbox) and with electrically excited synchronous generators.
A. Fixed speed wind turbines

In a xed speed wind turbine, the generator is directly connected to the network (Figure 3). The frequency of the grid determines the rotational speed of the generator and thus of the rotor. The low rotational speed of the turbine rotor is translated into high mechanical speed of the generator through the gearbox. The generator speed depends on the number of pole pairs of the generator and the grid frequency. The xed speed wind turbine design has the advantage of being simple. The disadvantages of induction generators are high starting currents, which usually are smoothed by a thyristor controlled soft starter, and their demand for reactive power. The wind uctuations are directly translated into mechanical torque uctuations and consequently into electrical power uctuations in the grid. These can lead to voltage uctuations at the connection point and reduce the power quality in weak grids. The frequency of these wind induced power uctuation is about 1 Hz.18
B. Variable speed wind turbines 1. Limited variable speed wind turbines

This variable speed wind turbine uses wound rotor induction generator. In this design, additional variable resistors are used to control the slip of the induction generator (Figure 4). When the rotor resistance is varied, the torque-speed characteristic is changed, thus altering the slip of the machine. For example, doubling the rotor resistance approximately doubles the slip (Figure 5).18,19 This wind turbine is commercially known as OptiSlip. The external resistor is controlled optically. Thus, slip rings and brushes are avoided thus reducing maintenance. These wind turbines operate with speed range between 0% and 10% above synchronous.18,19
2. Doubly fed induction generator wind turbines

The block diagram of DFIG is shown in Figure 6. This machine uses wound rotor induction machine with two connections from the grid via the stator windings and via two back-toback converters to the rotor windings. Typically, a DFIG has a speed range between 40% and 30% of the synchronous value.21,22

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J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 3, 043113 (2011)

FIG. 4. Limited variable speed wind turbine.

DFIG has gained wide spread interest because of some advantages. One of its advantages is its ability to control reactive power and to decouple active and reactive power control by independently controlling the rotor excitation current. Its drawback is its need for slip rings. In a DFIG, a crowbar is used to protect the rotor side converter during network faults. Because of the stiff grid code requirements, wind turbines nowadays are expected to support the grid with respect to voltage control, reactive power support, and frequency support and are equipped with fault ride through capability. Current DFIG wind turbines are capable of providing these ancillary grid requirements.712,20 DFIG wind turbines inject a variable voltage into the rotor at the slip frequency. As shown in Figure 7, DFIG can operate from super-synchronous whereby it generates and delivers power to the network to sub-synchronous where it absorbs power from the network. Curve 1 of Figure 7 shows the torque-speed characteristic when the injected rotor voltage is zero (short-circuited rotor windings). When the injected rotor voltage is positive, the induction machine operates at sub-synchronous speed (Point A in the torque-speed curve 2). When the injected rotor voltage is negative, the induction machine operates at super-synchronous speed (point B in the torquespeed curve 3).

FIG. 5. Torque-speed (slip) curves with varying rotor resistance.

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FIG. 6. Doubly fed wind turbine.

The rotor side converter is used for both speed control and to provide power factor control whilst the supply side converter is responsible for transmitting active power. The induction machine converter is controlled in a synchronously rotating dq reference frame with the d-axis oriented along the stator ux vector position. This ensures decoupling control of stator-side active and reactive power ows into the grid.
3. Fully rated converter wind turbines

Recently, there has been interest in wind turbine equipped with fully rated back to back converters. The back to back converters are either connected to a squirrel-cage induction generator of a synchronous generator (Figure 8). The gearbox is designed so that maximum rotor speed corresponds to rated speed of the generator. Synchronous generators or permanent-magnet synchronous generators can be designed with multiple poles in which no gearbox is needed. If the generator is a synchronous machine, the generator side converter can be a diode rectier. However for an induction generator, an IGBT-based generator side converter is used as it

FIG. 7. Effect of rotor injected voltage on DFIG torque-speed characteristics.

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Nolan D. Caliao

J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 3, 043113 (2011)

FIG. 8. Fully rated converter wind turbines.

supplies current for the magnetisation of the windings. There is more freedom to control both the generator and the grid-side converter independently because of the decoupling of the generator and the grid by the DC-link. Thus, this topology offers many options for network support.5,13,23,24 Figure 9 shows the block diagram of a FCWT with a squirrel-cage induction generator. The generator is fed through back-to-back power converters via the stator windings. These converters, which are IGBT-based voltage source converters, are linked by a capacitor. The converters perform an AC=DC=AC conversion which decouples the generator from the grid. The generator side controller is based on rotor ux oriented control. The grid side controller is based on load angle control or vector control.1416
4. The generator side converter controller

Table I provides the dynamic equations of an induction generator which represent the fullorder model (5th order model). The 3rd order model was used in this chapter. The inertia constant in the swing equation represents the total inertia constant of the wind turbine generating system. This is equivalent to the sum of the inertia constants of wind turbine and the induction generator referred to the high speed shaft. The total inertia constant used is 4.8 s.18
III. SMALL-SIGNAL ANALYSIS OF FULLY RATED CONVERTER WIND TURBINE CONNECTED TO A LARGE POWER SYSTEM

Small signal stability is the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism when subjected to small disturbances. The disturbance is considered small if the equations that describe the system response can be linearised. The disturbance can be a fault or changes in load. There are two forms of instability that may arise from the disturbance. The instability may be a steady increase in the generator rotor angle due to lack of synchronising torque or rotor oscillations of increasing amplitude due to lack of damping torque.17,26

FIG. 9. Block diagram of a fully rated converter wind turbine based on induction generator.

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TABLE I. Voltage, ux, electromagnetic torque, and swing equation of an induction generator (Ref. 15). Voltage equations Flux equations

d     vds Rs ids xwqs wds (2.1) d t

     wds Lss ids Lm idr

(2.5)

d     vqs Rs iqs xwds wqs (2.2) d t

     wqs Lss iqs Lm iqr

(2.6)

d     vdr Rr idr sxwqr wdr (2.3) d t

     wdr Lrr idr Lm ids

(2.7)

d     vqr Rr iqr sxwdr wqr (2.4) d t

     wqr Lrr iqr Lm iqs

(2.8)

      Here; Lss Ls Lm and Lrr Lr Lm

Torque equation Swing equation

     Te wdr iqr wqr idr

(2.9)

2H

 d xr   Tm Te dt

(2.10)

In time-domain studies, the outputs are provided directly and the system dynamic behaviour is shown visually. Small signal analysis complements time domain results by identifying and quantifying the cause and nature of these dynamics.17 Small-signal analysis of a fully rated converter wind turbine connected to a large system was performed. Both eigenvalue analysis and participation factors were used to determine the inuence of the generator controller gains on various modes. The inuence of the damping and synchronising power coefcient on the networks dominant eigenvalues were investigated. Eigenvalue analysis was also used to investigate the inuence of the transmission line reactance on the dominant eigenvalues of the network. A participation factor study was conducted to measure the inuence of each state variable on the modes of oscillation.
A. Differential and algebraic equations of grid connected FCWT

The power system is modelled as a set of differential and algebraic equations given by dx f x; u; dt 0 gx; u; (3.1) (3.2)

where x represents the state variables, z represents the algebraic variables, and u represents the control inputs. In small signal studies, Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2) are linearised around an operating point by Taylor series expansion. The Taylor series represents a function as an innite sum of terms

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calculated from the values of its derivatives at a single point. For small perturbations, the second and higher orders terms are neglected. Therefore, the linearised forms of Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2) are _ Dx ADx BDu; Dy CDx DDu: (3.3) (3.4)

In Eqs. (3.3) and (3.4), Dx is the state vector of dimension n, Dy is the output vector of dimension m, Du is the input vector of dimension r, A is the state or plant matrix of size n n, B is the control or input matrix of size n r, C is the output matrix of size m n, and D is the (feedforward) state or plant matrix of size n n.15,17,27 Equations (3.3) and (3.4) can be Laplace transformed. Thus, the state equations in the frequency domains are obtained as sDxs Dx0 ADxs BDus; Dys CDxs DDus: Rearranging Eq. (3.5), a solution to the state equations can be obtained sI ADxs Dx0 BDus; where I is an identity matrix.17,28,29
1. Eigenvalues and participation factor

(3.5) (3.6)

(3.7)

a. Eigenvalues The eigenvalues of a matrix A are given by the values of the scalar parameter k. The eigenvalues are obtained from the characteristic equation of matrix A. The characteristic equation is given by detA kI 0: (3.8) The eigenvalues of the matrix A provide important information about the response of the system to small disturbance. The eigenvalues provide information about any oscillatory modes that exist in the system.17,29,30 The eigenvalues of the state matrix A consist of a real component (r) and an imaginary component (x) and are given by k r6jx: (3.9)

The modes of oscillation of a power system are determined by the eigenvalues, which can also determine its stability. For instance, real eigenvalues correspond to a non-oscillatory mode. A negative real eigenvalue represents a decaying mode whilst a positive eigenvalue represents aperiodic instability. Complex conjugate eigenvalues correspond to an oscillatory mode.17 b. Participation factor The participation matrix provides a measure of the inuence of each dynamic state on a given mode. The participation matrix P is given by 2 3 2 3 /1i wi1 p1i 6 p2i 7 6 /2i wi2 7 6 7 6 7 (3.10) P i 6 . 7 6 . 7: 4 . 5 4 . 5 . . pni /ni win

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In normalised form, the participation factor is dened as j/ k win j ; Pni Pn ni i1 j/ni k win j (3.11)

where n is the number of state variables, Pni is the participation factor of the nth state variable into mode i, /in is the ith element of the nth right-eigenvector, win is the nth element of the ith left-eigenvector.17,31,32
B. Small-signal analysis 1. Simplified large power system model

Figure 10 shows a fully rated converter wind turbine connected to a large power system. The machine is a 5th order squirrel-cage induction generator. The system of equations that describe the induction generator model is given in Table I. The drive train is modelled as a single mass. The large network is represented by the lumped inertia (2H) of the whole network. The term KS Dd, called the synchronising power, acts like a restoring force of the spring-mass system. It acts to accelerate or decelerate the rotating inertia back to the synchronous operating point. The term KD Dx, called the damping power, opposes changes in the rotor speed. These two components act on each other and inuence the dominant eigenvalues of the power system. Stronger transmission systems with lower values of reactance have a larger value of KS. Large KS provides more synchronising power to the generators of the system.17,26,29,30
2. Parameters used in small-signal analysis

Table II shows the parameters used in determining the eigenvalues. The generator active power is set at rated value of 1 pu and the slip is 0.01. The ratio proportional to the integral gain of the generator side controller was set at 250. The ratio of the proportional to the integral gain in the grid side controller for angle and the grid side voltage controls were set to 10.

FIG. 10. Fully rated converter wind turbine connected to a large power system.

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TABLE II. Parameters used in the small-signal analysis.

ge kpd ge kpq ge kiq gr kph gr kih gr kpVgr

Generator active power 1 pu

Slip 0.01

ge kid

kiVgr 10

gr

250

10

a. Eigenvalues Table III shows the eigenvalues of the grid connected fully rated converter wind turbines with a 5th order induction generator model. It can be seen that all real parts of the eigenvalues have negative values. This means that the system is small-signal stable. Also, Table III shows that there are three oscillating modes. These oscillating modes are associated with the generator dynamics, of x 66 rad=s and rotor mode of x 2.59 rad=s, and with the dynamics of the large power system of x 6.7 rad=s. It is observed that the stator mode is highly damped with a damping ratio of 1. The rotor mode has low damping ratio of 0.02. The mode of oscillation associated with the large power system has damping ratio of 0.12 which is considered good damping value of the system.17,31 The number of modes of oscillation is due to the oscillating mode of the large power system dynamics and the oscillation modes of the induction generator. The oscillating mode of the large network dynamics is 6.7 rad=s. The number of modes of oscillation will reduce when the order of induction machine is reduced. For the 3rd order machine model, the stator transient dynamics is neglected. For the 1st order machine models, both the stator and rotor transient dynamics are neglected, thus the 66 rad=s and the 2.59 rad=s frequency components disappear. b. Participation factors Table IV shows the participation factors of different state variables on the eigenvalue of the FCWT with damping controller and using the 5th generator order model. The participation matrix for the entire system was also obtained using the 3rd and 1st order models of the induction generator. It was found that when 3rd order model was used, the eigenvalues k1 and k2 are not present, and when 1st order model was used, eigenvalues k1, k2, k3, and k4 are not present. It is seen that the oscillating modes k1 and k2 are primarily associated with the stator ux state variables with participation factor of 100% (Dwqs and Dwds ). The oscillating modes k3 and k4 are associated with the rotor ux state variables with participation factor of 100% (Dwqr and Dwdr ). The non-oscillating mode k5 is associated with the rotor speed of the induction generator. Oscillating modes k11 and k12 are associated with the large network dynamics (Ddn and Dxn ). The non-oscillating modes are associated with the generator and the grid side controller state variables, the DC-link, and the power oscillation damping controller.
TABLE III. Eigenvalues (5th order machine model). Dynamics Generator k 1,2 3,4 5 Generator-side controller DC-link Grid side controller Large network PDC 6 7 8 9 10 11,12 13 14 r6j x 4.2 10 6 j66 0.048 6 j2.59 0.2852 0.14 0.10 4.2 0.1475 0.0067 0.8 6 j 6.7 0.5196 0.1
3

f (Hz) 10 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.0 0 0

f (damping ratio) 1 0.02 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.12 1 1

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TABLE IV. Participation of state variables on the eigenvalues (only dominant ones) obtained from the 5th order machine model. State variable  Dwqs  Dw
ds

Dynamics Generator

Participation factors on the eigenvalues (%) k1 49:9; k2 49:9 k1 49:9; k2 49:9 k3 49:9; k4 49:3 k3 49:9; k4 49:3 k5 99:9 k6 49:4; k7 50:3 k6 51:1; k7 48:8 k8 80:2 k9 95:1 k10 100:0 k11 47:3; k12 47:3 k11 41:4; k12 41:4 k13 69:3 k8 14:7 k14 99:0

Comments Oscillating modes k1 and k2 are associated with the stator transient dynamics of the generator. Oscillating modes k3 and k4 are associated with the rotor transient dynamics of the generator. Non-oscillating mode k5 is mainly associated with the machines rotor speed. Non-oscillating modes k6 and k7 are with the generator side controller state variables. Non-oscillating mode k8 is associated with the DC link state variable vdc . Non-oscillating modes k9 and k10 are associated with the grid side controller state variables. Oscillating modes k11 and k12 are associated with the large network dynamics. Non-oscillating modes k13 and k14 are associated with the damping controller (compensator and wash-out terms).

 Dwqr  Dwdr  Dxr Generator side controller DC-link Grid side controller Large network PDC Dx1 Dx2 Ddc v Dx3 Dx4 Ddn  Dxn Dx5 Dx6

Table V in the Appendix provides the parameters used in the model.

C. Influence of the transmission line reactance on the networks dominant eigenvalues

The transmission line impedance (reactance as the line resistance is neglected) is one of the measures of grid strength. The high line impedance corresponds to an electrically weak AC system. A weak AC system has undesirable effects such as voltage variations. The usual cause of abnormally high impedance is the loss of one line of two or more parallel transmission lines. Line compensation may be used to reduce the effective value of the transmission line reactance. The inuence of the transmission line reactance on the networks dominant eigenvalues was investigated. The fully rated converter wind farm (FCWF) is operating at 2100 MVA. The total equivalent reactance from the FCWF was increased from 0.2 pu to 0.8 pu.17,33,34 In the grid connected FCWF, the short-circuit ratio (SCR) can be used for measuring the strength of the AC grid with respect to the FCWF. The short-circuit ratio is dened as SCR short circuit MVA of AC system : Rating of wind farm (3.12)

The short circuit MVA is given by SC MVA Eac ; Z tl

2

(3.13)

where Eac is the ac voltage and Z tl (Z tl Xtl , when the resistance is neglected) is the impedance of the AC transmission line. SCR, indicating the strength of the system from the system impedance point of view, is dened as the AC system admittance expressed in per unit power.17,29,30,34 Using the FCWF rating as the base MVA, a transmission line reactance of Xtl 0:2 pu corresponds to a high SCR of 5. A transmission reactance of Xtl 0:8 pu corresponds to a low SCR of 1.25.17 Figure 11 shows the displacements of the dominant eigenvalues of the network when the equivalent transmission line reactance is increased from 0.2 pu to 0.8 pu. It shows that the eigenvalues moved towards the imaginary axis of the complex plane. Starting at a

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J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 3, 043113 (2011)

FIG. 11. Inuence of the equivalent transmission line reactance on the networks dominant eigenvalues.

transmission line reactance of 0.2 pu, the eigenvalue is located at about 0.8535 of the real axis. When the line reactance was increased to 0.8, the eigenvalues moved to about 0.851 of the real axis. The displacements of the eigenvalues when the transmission line reactance was increased were not signicant. It means that the strength of transmission system does not participate signicantly in the dynamic behaviour of the generator. Although the frequency and the damping ratio changed, the generator dynamics remain decoupled from the grid.17,31
IV. CONCLUSIONS

The performance of a FCWT connected to a large power system was examined for small perturbation using small signal analysis (both eigenvalue analysis and participation factors). Detailed understanding of the interactions of the state variables of the FCWT model was provided by small-signal analysis. It also allows quantication of how much a state variable inuences a particular mode. Transient studies were undertaken to complement the results of smallsignal stability analysis. Eigenvalue analysis was conducted to determine the inuence of the transmission line reactance on the networks dominant eigenvalues. It was shown that the strength of the transmission system does not affect signicantly the FCWF dynamics. Although the frequency and the damping ratio changed, the generator dynamics remain decoupled from the grid.

APPENDIX: PARAMETERS USED IN SIMULATIONS

TABLE V. Parameters of FCWT connected to a large power system. Induction generator parameters (squirrel cage): base of S 2000 kVA, 2 MW, 690 V, 50 Hz, 4 poles, Rs 0:0049 pu, Rr 0:0055 pu, Ls 0:0924 pu, Lr 0:0996 pu, Lm 3:9591 pu Total wind turbine inertia constant, Hwt 4.8 s DC-link capacitance 80 mF Large power system parameters: (base S 2000 kVA) Hn 3.5 s, KD 12, KS 1, Xtl 0:2 pu, Xgr 0:02 pu

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Small-signal full wind turbines

J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 3, 043113 (2011)

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