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CHAPTER 1

Fire Protection Management

A hostile fire can occur at any time and quickly become a major disaster if a facility is not prepared. Competent planning involves more than an annual inspection from the local fire authority and a call to 911 to summon help in case of an emergency. Within todays complex environment, commercial and industrial facilities require a detailed organization that is capable of handling a wide variety of emergencies.

FIRE LOSS PREVENTION AND CONTROL

The threat to life and property are real and apparent dangers of fire. But in a business environment, there are other fire loss consequences that must be examined. Business interruption, damage to the corporate image, and loss of future profits can present a threat to corporate goals and even survival. A well-planned and managed fire protection program prevents losses. By preventing losses, unplanned expenses can be eliminated. These expenses include insurance deductibles, insufficient insurance coverage, increased insurance premiums and the intangibles that insurance does not cover. The costs of business interruption and lost market share can also be high, and are often difficult to accurately calculate. Complying with government regulations and managing contractors when rebuilding can be expensive and timeconsuming. Losing the respect of customers, employees and the community can be particularly ruinous to the health of a business.

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A fire protection program should be examined from a liability risk perspective. Facility managers should recognize that simply complying with applicable regulations and codes may not be adequate when defending against a negligence claim. In a claim of this sort, the program will be compared to the standard of care of a reasonable person. In a jurys judgment, it might be necessary that a reasonable person be prudent, careful, consistently up to standard and one who embodies a community ideal of wise and sound behavior. In this light, would a fire and life safety program that conforms to only minimum standards be considered wise and sound? The magnitude of these consequences has led to the development of a formal structure to manage fire loss prevention and control. These fire risk management loss control strategies should be a part of every facilitys fire protection program.

Hazard Identification
The process of recognizing the hazards that could affect serious undesirable losses is known as hazard identification. It entails the continuous inspection of an existing facility and the evaluation of additions, modifications, new materials and evolving strategies. The American Institute of Chemical Engineers Guidelines for Hazard Evaluation Procedures presents many of the current methodologies used for hazard identification. These include: Engineering checklists and hazard indexes. Failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA). Fault tree analysis (FTA). Hazard and operability study (HAZOP). Preliminary hazard analysis (PHA). Event tree analysis (see Figure 1-1). Cause-consequence diagrams.

Risk Assessment
Once a hazard has been identified, an estimate of the potential for loss must be determined. Methods that predict the probability

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FIRE

EXTINGUISHED BY OCCUPANTS NO CONTROLLED BY SPRINKLERS NO EXTINGUISHED BY FIRE DEPARTMENT NO

YES

MINOR DAMAGE

YES

MODERATE DAMAGE

YES

HEAVY DAMAGE

MAJOR DAMAGE

Figure 1-1. A simple event tree is one of the many methods used to identify hazards.

and magnitude of a loss utilize a combination of statistical data, deterministic models and expert opinion. Fire risk assessment models include the steps listed below: 1. Identifying the circumstances that could lead to a serious loss. 2. Quantifying fire event occurrences and loss consequences for various scenarios. 3. Developing alternative fire prevention and protection strategies to reduce risk. 4. Evaluating the estimated changes in risk for each alternative. Fire risk is the product of the probability of the occurrence of a fire and the loss consequences of that fire (see Figure 1-2). If valid data is available, fire risk can be determined in an objective manner. An evaluation of historical data such as design standards, inspection methods, maintenance and operations procedures, and enforcement of safety standards can be used to determine the

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Probability of a fire occurring (P) Hazard Identification Loss Consequences Potential impact on life property operations (C) Risk Quantification (PxC)

Acceptable Risk monitor

Cost/Benefit Analysis of Loss Control Improvement

Not Acceptable Risk avoid transfer improve

Figure 1-2. Algorithm for the fire risk management process.

probability of a loss and its ensuing consequences. If historical data is not available, probabilities can be evaluated using subjective estimations. Loss-trending statistics such as human error, equipment failures, ignition sources and loss control elements are substituted for valid factual sources. An experienced fire protection engineer will also apply knowledge of past fire losses and evidence of loss control defects in a subjective appraisal. When the intensity of a potential fire has been quantified, direct and indirect loss potentials can be assessed. Damage to buildings, contents and equipment constitute direct losses. Indirect losses involve liabilities for injury or death, business interruptions, environmental contamination and the tainting of a companys image. These loss potentials are usually expressed in monetary terms.

Risk Management
Risk management entails establishing acceptable degrees of risk and then identifying methods of controlling these recognized risks. Defining what is an acceptable risk depends upon the specific goals of the organization. Some of the criteria considered in the decisionmaking process include:

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Safety of employees and the public. Environmental concerns. Community goodwill. Fire codes, building codes, OSHA guidelines and other legal requirements. Insurance company requirements. Competitive market position. Profit and continued growth. Continuity of company operations. Protection of company assets from major loss exposures.

No action is necessary if a risk is deemed acceptable, except that changes that could increase risk must be monitored. If a risk is deemed unacceptable, decisions on how to handle it must be made. Some of the options available in managing a fire risk are: Avoid the risk by not participating in risky operations. Transfer the risk by obtaining insurance to cover a potential loss. Transfer the risk through funded reserves or self-insurance. Effect loss control improvements. Using a combination of the above to develop a risk management program.

When a risk management decision that involves loss control improvements has been made, a cost/benefit analysis should be conducted. But the benefit or a measure of risk reduction may be difficult to evaluate. Since this assessment of reduced probability of a fire and the reduction of fire loss is subjective, it should be supported by an examination of previous fire loss data and the opinion of a fire protection engineer.

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Evaluating the costs of a fire protection alternative is a much simpler task. These costs can be divided into initial costs, ongoing costs and ripple effect costs. Samples of these are described below: Initial Costs - Initial costs include: Equipment CostsIt is easier to estimate the cost of mass produced or pre-engineered products and systems, and they will also be less expensive than custom-made equipment. Installation CostsLabor costs and overhead rates will vary depending upon the person-hours and skill level required. Financing CostsRelevant interest expenses. Permit CostsOne-time fees payable to the building and/or fire departments. Cost Offsets From ResaleThe new systems may increase the resale value of the property and partially offset the initial costs. Ongoing Costs - These include: Operating CostsThese include expenses for labor and utilities. Maintenance, Repair And Replacement CostsSystems require routine maintenance, random repairs and often periodic replacement of the complete system or some of its components. Inspection CostsSystems often require testing or inspection at periodic intervals. Some tests require the destruction of system components that must then be replaced. System-Caused Damage CostsSuch as clean-up costs from the accidental discharge of a dry chemical suppression system. License or Permit CostsSuch as annual fees payable to a local jurisdiction. Cost OffsetsReplaced system components may produce revenues from salvage. Purchased equipment may be depreciated over a number of years.

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Fires Lingering Effects

In 1982, a fire in electrical equipment roared through the basement of the State Office Building in Binghamton, NY. Smoke and products of combustion spread throughout the structure, depositing dangerous PCB and dioxin residues. Thirteen years later, after cleaning, rebuilding and then recleaning the interior, the building finally reopened. The state invested a total of $53 million on detoxification efforts. Even after the renovation, dangerous amounts of dioxin-tainted dust were found. After additional cleaning efforts, a small amount of residue remained but was deemed safe.

Ripple-Effect Costs - Ripple-effect costs include: Supporting System CostsNew equipment may compel the modification or addition of a support system. Water tanks and fire pumps for automatic sprinklers are examples of these support systems. The initial and ongoing costs of the support systems must be identified and evaluated. Property Tax CostsThere may be tax consequences if the system adds value to the property. Trade-offsAdding safety features may allow trade-offs in such areas as increased density or the reduction in other required fire protection equipment or assemblies. Credits And IncentivesInsurance premiums should be lowered because the expected property loss will be reduced. Purchase incentives and income tax credits must also be considered.

Loss Control
An important part of any fire risk reduction plan is the development and implementation of a loss control program. A fire loss control program should contain specific objectives for life safety, property conservation and minimizing the interruption of company operations. An up-to-date written document should include discussions concerning these topics:

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Fire Prevention System designs, operational controls, employee training and maintenance methods employed to prevent fires from starting. Fire Detection And Suppression SystemsAutomatic fire protection equipment and devices used to detect, control and extinguish fires that do occur. Manual ProtectionManual firefighting provisions for incipient fires or to backup automatic fire protection systems. Protection For Buildings And EquipmentActive and passive fire protection measures used to defend structures, equipment and operations from fires that are not quickly extinguished.

The effectiveness of a loss control program depends on management involvement and support. Administration, engineering and production managers should all provide input for the development of the program. Responsibility for implementing the plan should rest with the facility manager, loss control manager or a committee that has direct access to top management. Program Elements - Establishing formal procedures is the first step in any loss control program. Written procedures should identify specific objectives and will reduce the possibility of interpretive errors. A written document will also provide an available reference and a constant reminder. It is managements responsibility to ensure that employees receive the proper training so they may satisfactorily perform the duties that the program delegates to them. Individual procedures should focus on specific loss prevention elements such as housekeeping tasks, electrical maintenance or flammable materials handling. In addition to explaining what to do and when to do it, the procedures should educate employees as to why the task is important. It should also give them the authority to take action when needed. Frequent spot checks will ensure that procedures are being performed as intended. These spot checks might include implementing a regular system for examining the adequacy of housekeeping or be as uncomplicated as visiting a work area to insure that hot-work precautions are being followed. An inspection report like the one shown in Figure 1-3 can be used to easily document common fire prevention problems.

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Figure 1-3. Fire prevention inspection report. Courtesy: Los Angeles City Fire Department.

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Figure 1-4. Signs posted in work areas can remind employees to use safe work habits.

The use of appropriate passive physical controls is another key element in a comprehensive fire prevention program. When flammable liquids are stored and handled, equipping containers with approved shut-off valves will ensure that no unplanned releases occur. Devices such as fuses, circuit breakers and ground fault, overcurrent and differential relays interrupt a circuit and ensure that equipment will be shut down before abnormal conditions can cause a fire. The installation of barriers such as chain-link fencing around machinery areas will help keep them separate and clear of combustible storage. Signs such as those shown in Figure 1-4 can serve as reminders to prompt safe practices.

SELLING FIRE PROTECTION TO MANAGEMENT

The purpose of every sales call is to secure a commitment. An effective fire protection program involves the commitment of people at all levels in an organization. A facility manager committed to a certain fire safety measure must sell top management to gain adequate funds and labor to move ahead. Management must then sell the rank-and-file to ensure their compliance.

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Easy-To-Perform Tasks Can Prevent Hard-ToSwallow Fines

The U.S. Department of Labors Occupational Safety And Health Administration (OSHA) recently cited a St. Louis firm for willful violations of basic safety and fire protection rules. Was the $414,000 fine assessed S.A.S. Company, Inc. a hard pill to swallow or actually a spoonful of sugar? Compared to the emotional and financial trauma inflicted by a wrongful death lawsuit, it was probably the latter. The companys facilities include a mattress factory and a general merchandise warehouse. They were cited for three egregious or especially flagrant violations and nine other serious violations, including: Obstructed exits and blocked open fire doors. An unguarded open elevator shaft. An elevator with no inner gates, an unsecured rear wall and missing bolts in the drive machine. Improperly mounted fire extinguishers. No extinguisher training program. Lack of safe electrical practices. No hazardous materials training program.

Willful violations, according to OSHA, are committed with an intentional disregard of, or plain indifference to, the requirements of the Occupational Safety And Health Act and regulations. Serious violations involve those in which there is a substantial probability that death or serious physical harm could result from a hazardous condition and that the employer knew or should have known of the hazards.

The ability to secure a commitment is just one of the many skills a modern facility manager must possess. Since fire protection programs are most vulnerable when costs are examined, knowledge of basic sales techniques and how to apply them must be understood.

Basic Sales Model

A need and a product that fulfills that need are the components of the basic sales model. That the transaction benefits all parties,

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both the buyer and the seller, is another important aspect. When the sales model is applied to a fire safety measure, the need is for some sort of protection. The product is the specific type of protection and the benefits are the reduction of damage and other loss-related elements caused by a fire. A top salesperson studies a customers needs before making a sales call. A facility manager should do the same. Prior to meeting with management or owners to sell a fire safety measure, the facility manager should effectively document: A detailed scenario and dollar estimates of the property damage and business interruption that could result under the current conditions. A recommendation for improving the present condition and the benefits of that improvement. A key benefit is the potential savings. The savings is the difference between the loss with and without the improvement. Estimated costs to effect the improvement.

Justification for the measure is found in the difference between the possible savings and the costs associated with the improvement. If the recommendation appears to be both feasible and economical, then management should be approached to gain their commitment.

Sales Model Application

After a fire damages a laboratory at a research facility, the manager discovers that there was a considerable delay in contacting the municipal fire department. It is also determined that nobody at the facility was properly trained in the use of portable fire extinguishers. The loss from the fire, smoke and water damage, as well as business interruption, amounts to nearly one million dollars. The facility manager believes that the delay in reporting the fire and the lack of appropriate extinguisher training significantly contributed to the large dollar loss. The manager realizes that there is a need for effective emergency action. A product or program that could fulfill that need is the development of an emergency organization (EO). The facility manager needs to study two loss expectancies, one with an EO in place and one without. The loss without an EO is

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Figure 1-5. Average dollar loss per non-residential fire, 19801989.

already known$950,000. The manager confers with the facilitys production, engineering and maintenance departments and concludes that the loss could have been limited to $125,000 if an effective EO had been in place. The projected figures used here are not arbitrary. Figure 1-5 details actual fire loss statistics compiled by a national insurance carrier. The facility manager meets with the companys CEO and CFO and presents the two loss expectancies. The need already being apparent to all, the manager introduces the productan effective EO. The benefits of the EO are outlined: The EO is staffed, equipped and trained to handle fire, EMS, hazmat and other internal emergencies. The EO can instantly respond to an emergency where each passing second can mean increased damage and dollar loss. Trained EO personnel will help to eliminate the delayed or wrong actions often taken by anxious people in an emergency situation.

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A potential $825,000 savings in the event of a fire could be realized with an effective EO in place.

The substantial savings is presented by the facility manager as the justification for the training and equipment expenses needed to assemble an EO. Another element of the classic sales model emerges at this pointthe objection. Everybody acknowledges that an EO is needed, but true to form, the CFO points to historical data that shows large fires rarely occur at the companys facilities. The facility manager is prepared to overcome this objection by negotiating a compromise. The amount needed to form an EO is just a fraction of the potential savings it would represent. After discussing the estimated costs presented by the well-prepared manager, an initial expenditure of $40,000 and annual expenses of $10,000 are earmarked for an EO. The five-year cost of the EO will be less than one-tenth the loss expectancy of a single fire.

THE EMERGENCY ORGANIZATION

Many facility managers feel that it is enough to rely on the local fire department to handle emergencies as they arise. But todays complex environment compels a much more ambitious strategy. A detailed organization is required by modern facilities to manage emergency situations that may develop. While the make-up of this organization may be somewhat different than the management team that runs the day-to-day operations, the two must work together toward a common goal. During an emergency, the emergency team is responsible for controlling the situation within the context of their ability. Their objectives are to protect life, minimize property damage and attempt to reduce any adverse impact on the facilitys image.

The Emergency Plan

The objective of an emergency plan is to protect a facility and its occupants. The plan is a precise outline detailing the various facets that must be coordinated in an emergency situation. The plan should start with a description of its purpose and can include an organizational chart. Each position of the emergency response team should have a designated back-up, since a fire can occur when a key member is sick or on vacation.

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Descriptions of the responsibilities of each team member are important aspects of the plan. Details for reporting emergencies, directing evacuations, assisting disabled occupants and other important functions must be included. Specific information on managing the press, working with government agencies, notifying insurance carriers and notifying family members in case of injury or death are part of a well-structured emergency plan. A strategy for the timely restoration of a facility following a fire must not be omitted from the plan. Organizing a team to start a clean up so that the facility can return to normal operations as quickly as possible is essential to restoration. The team needs to take prompt action to ensure that further damage does not occur, but must preserve the scene for cause determination and insurance investigation.

Organizational Structure
The key person in the emergency organization is the Fire Safety Director or Emergency Coordinator. The person in this position is responsible for the implementation and the updating of the fire/life safety program or emergency plan. The director will ensure that the building staff, employees, tenants and all occupants are familiar with the emergency procedures. This position is often filled by the facility manager, risk manager or one of their regular staff. The emergency management team should also include a representative from engineering. This individual will have access to the plans of the building and be knowledgeable about the location of mechanical equipment, utilities, roof access and other important physical features. A representative from operations will have knowledge of the hazardous materials that may be present and what other operations may cause special problems for the fire department. A spokesperson who will coordinate information with outside agencies should be designated. This individual will disseminate information to the fire department upon their arrival and act as continuing liaison between the facility emergency organization and the fire department command staff. The spokesperson may also meet with representatives from other local, state or federal agencies. Responses to these government representatives should be preplanned so that appropriate information is available when required. If the emergency becomes a significant incident, media presence can be expected. A media relations coordinator should handle all contacts. Some questions to anticipate are: What happened? Was anyone hurt? What is the extent of the damage? Answers to

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questions relating to business or facility operations such as the number of employees, annual sales, and types of operations conducted should be pre-planned by the management team. The fire department will often have a public information officer respond to significant emergencies. This person can provide assistance in coordinating and controlling information. Emergency Response Team - Each individual floor or area of a facility should have its own emergency response team (see Figure 1-6). The basic responsibilities of the team are to notify building occupants and the fire department that there is a fire and to assist with the evacuation. Some facilities choose to train specific team members to use portable fire extinguishers on incipient fires. Wardens are appointed to lead each response team. Wardens should be selected for their ability to take charge, make rational decisions and maintain order. It is important that these individuals have a thorough knowledge of the facilitys emergency plan and are available during standard business hours. Wardens, in times of emergency, will be in charge of making sure that notifications have been made to the appropriate emergency personnel and managing the emergency team in their designated area. They will also coordinate any relocation or evacuation and handle communications with emergency officials. Room Monitors or Suite Wardens will ensure that all employees or visitors in their immediate area have been evacuated. They will notify the Floor Warden of this fact prior to leaving the area themselves. The Room Monitor should also make sure that all electrical equipment has been shut off, enlist assistance for the physically disabled, take a head-count at the designated safe refuge or evacuation area and keep the group together and under control. Stairwell Monitors, after meeting with Floor Wardens, assume their designated positions in all stairwells. They instruct relocating occupants of the safe refuge area to be used, coordinate the flow and entry of people into the stairwell, and secure the floor and close the stairwell door when the floor has been evacuated. Traffic Monitors are utilized when floor areas are large or complex. If sizable numbers of visitors frequent the building, Monitors should be assigned to the elevator lobbies to redirect evacuees. Searchers assist the Wardens in conducting a systematic search of specific areas such as restrooms or storage rooms. Searchers are also useful when an area contains a complicated corridor system. Doors should be marked with chalk after a room has been searched.

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FIRE SAFETY DIRECTOR

AREA WARDEN

AREA WARDEN

AREA WARDEN

ROOM MONITOR

STAIRWELL MONITOR

ROOM MONITOR

STAIRWELL MONITOR

ROOM MONITOR

STAIRWELL MONITOR

ROOM MONITOR

TRAFFIC MONITOR

ROOM MONITOR

TRAFFIC MONITOR

ROOM MONITOR

TRAFFIC MONITOR

ROOM MONITOR

SEARCHER

ROOM MONITOR

SEARCHER

ROOM MONITOR

SEARCHER

ROOM MONITOR

EQUIPMENT MONITOR

ROOM MONITOR

EQUIPMENT MONITOR

ROOM MONITOR

EQUIPMENT MONITOR

Figure 1-6. Example of an emergency organization for a large or high-rise facility.

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Telephone Monitors are assigned to maintain an open line for each floor or area. Communications Monitors are utilized to physically relay information to or from an emergency site. These monitors should be very familiar with the building layout. First Aiders should only be qualified personnel. They report to the Warden or to primary relocation or evacuation routes. Fire Equipment Monitors operate fire extinguishers as needed. These persons must be trained in the safe and proper use of fire hose and extinguishers.

Fire And Evacuation Drills

The fire codes of many jurisdictions require that fire drills be conducted in certain types of occupancies at predetermined intervals. Fire and evacuation drills should be essential components in every facilitys emergency plan. Initial drills can be announced in advance. Notices such as the one in Figure 1-7 can be used to advise tenants and employees of the proposed drill. Wardens and Monitors can be given pre-instructions. Since the object of the introductory drills is to help uncover weaknesses and work-out problems, they can be limited to groups of three to five areas or floors. Subsequent drills may be unannounced and should simulate as closely as possible actual emergency conditions. The joint testing of facility emergency systems, staff procedures and tenant/occupant control factors will create an effective drill program. All drills should be taken seriously by all personnel. The responsibilities given to the Fire Safety Director, Wardens and Monitors are numerous and vital. These are the people that will conduct, document and critique the drills. It is crucial that the people selected for these positions have managements full support and cooperation. The authority given to them should be clearly defined and understood by their associates. Identifying these key people with vests, hats or armbands will ensure that they are recognized by everybody. Drills can be initiated in several ways: Singling out a person and presenting a fire/evacuation problem. Direct activation of the fire alarm system by pull-station.

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Figure 1-7. Sample fire drill announcement. Attach a drill schedule and any special instructions.

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Specific verbal advisement using the public address system. Other reaction-based method that would initiate procedures.

Prior to and at the completion of all drills, the fire department and/or the central alarm supervising station should be notified. If given advance notice, the fire department may want to participate in the drill. Some departments can provide an inspector to help conduct or evaluate the initial drill program. Timing the various phases of the drill will assist future drills by establishing goals for improvement. Significant times to note are: Time from the discovery of the emergency to the notification of staff and systems operation. Time from alarm initiation to the evacuation of a floor or area. Time from the alarm initiation to the relocation at specific refuge sites and a head count taken.

Since fire drills are required by many fire authorities, non-participation by tenants or employees must be documented. A list of these individuals should be given to the Fire Safety Director so that the appropriate action may be taken. Some form of critique should follow each drill. Methods involve a meeting of the Fire Safety Director, staff and wardens to review the drill, or the collecting of drill report forms such as the one shown in Figure 1-8. These forms are then analyzed and a general evaluation is issued to all members concerned. In either case, the evaluation should examine the problems encountered, changes needed and any ways to improve the program. The fire drill procedures and the entire emergency plan are dynamic blueprints for a fire protection program that must be constantly reviewed and updated.

PRIVATE FIRE BRIGADES

Many large commercial and industrial facilities train groups of their own employees to perform actual firefighting duties. The aspect of limiting fire loss by containing fires in the incipient stage is the primary justification for forming a private fire brigade. Does our facility really need a fire brigade? Dont we pay a lot

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Figure 1-8. Sample fire drill critique form.

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of taxes? Shouldnt we be able to rely on the local fire department for our fire protection needs? These are valid questions often asked by managers, and in fact, a facility has every right to rely exclusively on the fire department for all fire suppression activities. But a number of factors must be considered before the idea of a fire brigade is rejected: Does the facility have a high vulnerability to fire? How great are the property damage and business interruption potentials? Would a fire brigade help in reducing a facilitys susceptibility to losses? Is a local fire department readily available and can it be effective?

The possible benefits versus the costs of a fire brigade program should also be evaluated: How much will the program cost? How much time will be spent on training? Will brigade members increased awareness of fire make preventing fires more likely? Can fires be safely fought by the brigade? Will injuries increase the workers compensation premiums? Would an expanded fixed automatic fire protection system be more effective? Which would have the greater effect on hazard insurance premiums?

Local, state and even federal requirements must also be considered. OSHA guidelines, for example, allow management to choose the level of a facilitys fire fighting capacity from five options: 1. No employee will have any fire fighting responsibility. All occupants will evacuate the facility upon notification of a fire.

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2. All employees will receive training in the use of fire extinguishers to fight incipient fires. 3. Only specified employees throughout a facility will receive training and respond to incipient fires. 4. An organized fire brigade will fight incipient fires. 5. An organized fire brigade will fight structural fires. A structural fire brigadeas indicated in Option 5could be beneficial in many situations, but is often difficult to maintain financially. A well-trained team of employees equipped to attack incipient firesOption 4on the other hand, is comparatively simple to develop and support. Whatever option is chosen, the effectiveness of the program depends on the commitment of company management and their ability to motivate the employees involved.

Function
The basic responsibility of a fire brigade is to control an emergency prior to the arrival of the fire department. The brigade does not replace the fire department, but should be considered as an interim measure. A brigades performance during the early stages of an emergency will help to increase the effectiveness of the responding fire companies. Brigade members familiarity with the facility and the events of and prior to the emergency are a valuable resource. In addition to fire fighting duties, fire brigades can be trained to provide emergency medical services (EMS) and conduct physical rescues. Pre-planning emergencies, organizing fire drills and providing CPR education are other functions that a brigade may perform. When a facility handles hazardous materials, the brigade may be involved in administering public education and safety programs, organizing community drills and responding to hazmat incidents. Figure 1-9 presents the wide variety of issues that may be of concern to fire brigades.

Organization And Staffing

OSHA standards include requirements for the organization and training of fire brigades when they are established by an employer. Below is a sampling of the fundamental guidelines:

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LOSS POTENTIAL

FIRE RISK

EMPLOYEE SAFETY

AUTOMATIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS

PRIVATE FIRE BRIGADES

PUBLIC FIRE DEPARTMENT CAPABILITIES

GOVERNMENT GUIDELINES

INSURANCE

TRAINING & EQUIPMENT EXPENSES

Figure 1-9. Issues for fire brigade consideration.

The employer will have a written policy explaining the brigades existence, training levels, membership and function. The employer will ensure that employees are physically able to perform required duties. All fire brigade members will receive training at least annually. All members expected to perform structural firefighting duties will be trained at least quarterly. The employer will inform members about special hazards such as the storage and use of hazardous materials which they may be exposed to during operations. The employer will maintain and inspect firefighting equipment annually, and portable fire extinguishers and respirators at least monthly.

Organization of typical fire brigades is shown in Figures 1-10 and 1-11. The Brigade Chief has overall responsibility for brigade

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EMERGENCY COORDINATOR

FIRE BRIGADE MEMBERS

FIRE BRIGADE LEADER

Figure 1-10. Organization of a small facility fire brigade.

operations. The Chief should have qualifications commensurate with the duties of the position. For larger facilities, the position of Chief can be a full-time job, reporting to the facilitys Emergency Coordinator. In some cases, the Chiefs duties will include those of the Emergency Coordinator. An Assistant Chief is assigned on each shift. They have overall responsibility for any emergency occurring on their shift. One or more Captains are assigned under the Assistant Chiefs. The Captains direct crews performing specific tasks. Smaller facilities may combine the functions of the Assistant Chief and Captain into one position. Employees in either position will generally have other fulltime responsibilities. Comprehensive job descriptions will ensure that all brigade members have a working knowledge of their own responsibilities and of the organization as a whole. Emergency duties, as shown in Table 1-1, can range from monitoring the fire alarm panel, to coordinating employee evacuation or fire department access, to actual fire suppression activities. Staffing requirements will be determined by the responsibilities established for the fire brigade in its organizational statement.

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FIRE BRIGADE CHIEF

SHIFT ASST. CHIEF

SHIFT ASST. CHIEF

SHIFT ASST. CHIEF

SHIFT CAPTAIN(S)

SHIFT CAPTAIN(S)

SHIFT CAPTAIN(S)

BRIGADE MEMBERS AND SUPPORT STAFF

BRIGADE MEMBERS AND SUPPORT STAFF

BRIGADE MEMBERS AND SUPPORT STAFF

Figure 1-11. Fire brigade organization for a larger facility.

Staffing levels can be initiated with economy in mind, but safety must take precedence over any economic concern. The operation of a brigade with too few members could be ineffectual or even dangerous. With too many people, the result could be chaos. Determining whether service in the fire brigade should be voluntary or mandatory depends on the facility and the level of service required. Many facilities utilize security and/or maintenance personnel as brigade members and fill the remaining positions with volunteers. Volunteers should be chosen for positions based on their experience with the facility and/or their experience with some form of firefighting. The manner in which volunteers are solicited for brigade positions has an important impact on results. Managements attitude and genuine enthusiasm will have a surprising effect. If the brigade is a source of company pride and some sort of incentive is offered, members can often be chosen from a long waiting list. And money is not the only incentive. Some indication of service such as a badge or pin can become a mark of distinction and will be enough to inspire favorable numbers of recruits.

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Figure 1-12. An instructor from the Los Angeles City Fire Departments Fire Safety Education Unit leads a fire extinguisher training session for a group of office facility employees. Courtesy: Los Angeles City Fire Department.

Training
Nothing is more important to the effectiveness of a fire brigade than training. A comprehensive training program must be adopted and a commitment made to furnish brigade members with the skills necessary to protect the facility and themselves. A foundation of training needs can be developed by studying the facilitys emergency records. The type of problems encountered in the past are good examples of the incidents that can be expected in the future. Addressing these problem areas can help to minimize production downtime, lower the number and size of insurance claims and keep outside emergency services intervention to a minimum. NFPA 600, Private Fire Brigades suggests that training sessions be conducted monthly. OSHA requires that brigade members receive training commensurate with their responsibilities. These guidelines should be considered minimums at best. The actual training needs of a facilitys brigade will depend on the frequency of incidents, the experience and number of brigade members, and the level and type of training provided. Local fire departments can offer assistance in developing a training program and in many instances may help conduct drill sessions (see Figure 1-12).

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Fire drills are a significant ingredient in a complete training program. Unannounced drills are the only practical way to examine the effectiveness of the brigade response and to determine if prefire plans are viable. If drills are conducted in a realistic manner, the problems encountered can be worked out before an actual emergency occurs.

Pre-Fire Plans
Pre-fire plans should be developed for all areas of a facility. The objective of these plans is to limit the danger to employees and visitors, and to minimize the damage resulting from fires. Encouraging brigade members to participate in the development of these plans is an effective training tool. It will allow them to become more familiar with the facility from a fire protection point-of-view. Pre-fire plans should be detailed enough to comprehensively cover the different areas within a facility but must be flexible enough to allow for the myriad variables encountered in an emergency situation. The work sheet shown in Figure 1-13 is a sample form that can be used to gather data. Figure 1-14 is a sample building plan. A pre-fire plan should include the following information:

Table 1-1. Key fire brigade positions.

Title
Advisor Alarm Panel Monitor Crowd Control Electrician Firefighter Or Extinguisher Hydrants Staging Area Director Standby Main Gas Valve Standby Sprinkler Valve Traffic Coordinator

Function
Liaison between management and brigade. Monitors alarm panel until system is reset. Monitors panel for additional alarms. Keeps unauthorized people away from fire area. Supports staff. Provides electrical assistance. Assists in controlling emergency. Opens hydrant houses. Assists fire department with hydrant connections. Ensures extinguishers and other equipment are on scene. Stands by to shut off gas supply, if necessary. Stands by to close sprinkler control valve, if necessary. Directs fire department to scene. Keeps pathways clear.

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A facility plot plan with access and evacuation routes for each area denoted. A review of the building construction features and their expected performance under fire conditions. A discussion of facility operations, equipment and fire hazards. An overview of fire alarm and suppression devices, sprinkler control valves, fire pumps and other related equipment. The strategy and tactics to be used for fighting a fire in the specified area. A review of the proposed operations of the public fire department and its interaction with the brigade.

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Figure 1-13. Pre-incident Planning Form.

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Figure 1-13. Pre-incident Planning Form (continued).

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Chapter 1

Figure 1-14. Sample building plan. Courtesy: Los Angeles City Fire Department.

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Figure 1-15. Sample worksheet for gathering pre-fire plan data.

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Chapter 1

Sources
Bouvier, Kenneth J., An Overview of an Industrial Response Teams Capabilities, Fire Chief, January 1992.

Brannigan, Francis L., Fire Loss Management, Fire Engineering, October 1989.

Edwards, Richard J., The Fire Brigade: Industrys First Line of Defense, Fire Engineering, August 1990.

Emergency Procedures Guideline Format for High-Rise Buildings. Los Angeles, CA: Los Angeles City Fire Department, 1987. Fire Brigade Options, The Sentinel, January 1992.

Fire Inspection Management Guidelines. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1982.

Fire Protection Handbook, 17th Edition. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1992.

Floor Warden Tenant Response Team Manual. Los Angeles, CA: Skyline Ventures, Inc., 1983. Health Care Facilities Training Manual And Lesson Plans. Los Angeles, CA: Los Angeles City Fire Department, 1994.

Loss Prevention Management Has Major Impact on Profitability, The Sentinel, July 1993.

Petrocelly, Kenneth L. Facilities Evaluation Handbook. Lilburn, GA: The Fairmont Press, Inc., 1992.

Required Safety Manual for Hospitals. Los Angeles, CA: Los Angeles City Fire Department, 1992.

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For Further Reading

Bryan, John L., Damageability of Buildings, Contents And Personnel from Exposure to Fire, Fire Safety Journal, July 1986.

Dittman, Charles R., Selling Management The Best Fire Protection Available, Professional Safety, Vol. 33, No. 10, 1988.

Fire Protection Through Private Enterprise, Journal of American Insurance, Vol. 56, 1980.

Fire Safety in Health Care Facilities (Video). Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1994.

Handbook of Industrial Loss Prevention. Norwood, MA: Factory Mutual System, 1967. High Rise Evacuation (Video). Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1993.

Holmes, Craig and Wylie, Jim, Route to Business Recovery, Building Operating Management, December 1994.

NFPA 600, Industrial Fire Brigades. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 1996.

Stronach, Ian, Industrial Fire Brigades: Alive And Well? Firehouse, January 1994.

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