Sander van den Broek 4100131 Delft University of Technology 7th of October

Physics for Mechanical Engineers homework week 4

Exercise 4.1 Consider the hydrogen atom, consisting of an electron orbiting a proton. a. Give an analytical expression for the velocity v [ m ] of the electron as a function of the s orbit radius r [m]. In the classical Bohr model of the atom the electron is seen as a particle orbiting the nucleus of the atom. The radius of which is (as is the case with e.g. planets in the solar system) directly proportional to the velocity of the orbiting body. The balance between the velocity and radius is:
k k FC + FE = 0 m vr + rk2 q1 q2 = 0 v2 = mr q1 q2 v = mr q1 q2 Since the sign only relates to the direction (and is therefore irrelevant) the equation can be simplied to: k 2 v= q (1) mr
2

b.Give an analytical expression for the total energy E [J] of the electron as a function of the orbit radius r [m]. The total energy of the electron consists of the kinetic energy as well as the potential energy Esys = Ek E p The potential energy has a minus sign since the baseline is at an innite distance. kq2 kq2 1 k Esys = mv2 2 q2 r using answer from a. Esys = 2 2r r r 2 kq Esys = (2) 2r

c. In literature, you can nd that the energy required to ionize a hydrogen atom from its lowest energy state is 13.6 eV. Compute the distance between the electron and the nucleus when the hydrogen atom is in its lowest energy state. The following data has been looked up in reference literature: q=1.602 1019 [C] m=9.11 1031 [kg] Esys =13.6 1.6 1019 = 2.18 1018 [J] k=8.99 109 [ Nm ] C2
2

Rewriting the previous formula we derive the expression r = | 2E | r= 8.99 109 (1.602 1019 )2 = 52.95 1012 m or 52.95 pm 2 2.18 1018 1 (3)

kq2

d. Discuss the similarities and differences between the electric eld and the gravitational eld d. The similarities of the gravitational and electric eld are: Both are inversely proportional to the distance2 . The forces are both caused by object properties (mass & charge). They both attract over a distance and in a vacuum. Both are central and conservative. Both propagate at c (speed of light). Differences are: Gravity can only attract, electric force can attract and repel. Objects can be shielded from an electric eld, not from gravitational elds. They both attract over a distance. Electrostatic forces are much greater (101036 greater).

Exercise 4.2 Electrostatic comb-drives are a widely used type of actuator in MEMS. The picture below gives you a nice impression of how a comb-drive looks like. For now we will consider just two parallel plates, one being xed and the other connected to a linear spring. This simplication will still show you some of the interesting characteristics of the comb-drive, while the analytical solution is much more easily obtained. For this specic situation, the capacitance of the two parallel plates is given by the following formula C = 0A d x a. Explain what assumption is behind this formula. The formula assumes that theres a vacuum between the two plates ( 0 is used) and that A d (the effects of the edge are neglected for example). b. Use this formula together with the formula for the energy stored in a capacitor to derive an expression for the electrostatic force between the plates as a function of the applied voltage V and displacement x.
1 The total energy stored in a capacitor is E = 2 CV 2 Force can be derived by taking the derivative of the energy with respect to the change in distance (work).

| Fel | =

E 1 0A 1 A = = 0 x x 2 d x 2 ( d x )2

Now use the following values. k = 1 N/m, A = 1 mm2 , d = 100 m and V = 100 V. c. Plot a graph of both the electrostatic and the spring force as a function of x. Discuss the stability of the equilibrium point(s). Numerically nd the stiffness of all stable equilibrium points and compare it to the stiffness of the spring.

Figure 1: Y:Force as a function of X:displacement The plot of the two functions shows three equilibria of which only two are real (the largest has x>100 m) The two real equilibria are x=4.89 106 m x=7.585 105 m
2 F 0 AV k el = = x ( d x )3

For the rst point using the equation above we get: N k1 =0.103 m N k2 =6.28 m For stability the stiffness of the spring must be higher than the stiffness of the electrostatic force kel >k. The rst point is therefore stable, the second is not. d. Beyond the pull-in voltage, there are no equilibrium points any more. Find an analytical expression for the pull-in voltage V p i. hint: look carefully at the tangent of the F-curves at V p i. First the pull-in distance has to be calculated, this is done by combining equation with the Balance of force at equilibrium ( F = 0) and of the sum of stiffness. kx =
0 Ael V 2

2( d x )2

&

F A V2 2kx = 0 el 3 k k x dx (d x )

d Solving the last equation leads to x = 3 which is the pull-in distance. Solving the force equilibrium with the previously calculated pull-in distance:

2( d x )2 Leading to the nal expression:

0=

0 Ael V

kx 3

x= d

27 0 AV 2 9 0 AV 2 kd kd = 3 8d2 8d2 8kd3 27 0 AV 2

V= Which for the given values equals: v=

(4)

8 100 106 = 183V 27 8.85 1012 1 106

Exercise 4.3 Musical instruments are based on standing waves. With wind instruments, a standing wave in an air-lled resonance-box occurs. In high school, you have encountered the following rules of thumb for the tones (frequencies f [Hz]) of wind instruments with length L [m] and sound velocity v [ m ]. s v 1 f n = 2L (n + 2 ) with n=0, 1, 2, . . . for one side open, one side closed. v f n = 2L (n + 1) with n=0, 1, 2, . . . for two equal endings. In this exercise, you will step by step derive these rules a. What is a standing wave? Use a drawing to support your explanation. Each frequency has nodes and antinodes. Nodes are points at which there is no displacement, antinodes are the points with the most displacement. When two waves travelling in opposite directions encounter each other they combine (principle of superposition) y = ( x, t) = y1 ( x, t) + y2 ( x, t). When the combined wave does not move along the x-axis it is called a standing wave (a moving wave is called a travelling wave). When two opposing waves with an equal amplitude A and angular frequency | | combine they produce a standing wave. The wave has stationary nodes (where the amplitude is zero due to destructive interference) and stationary antinodes (where the amplitude is the highest, with a maximum of 2A due to constructive interference). Figure 1 illustrates the behaviour at various periods within the frequency. At t0 the waves are in phase and the antinode points have amplitude 2A. At t2 the waves are 180 out of phase and the standing wave is 0 at all time periods. t1 and t3 are equally out of phase but with a180offset resulting in an inverted amplitude. We will start by deriving the rst rule of thumb. Consider the resonance-box below. The box is closed at x = 0 and open at x = L. The pressure p inside the resonance box is described by the following partial differential equation: 2 p 2 p p = v2 2 with x t2 x

= 0 and p = x ( L, t) = 0
x =0

b. Show that, by assuming the pressure to be harmonic in time, the differential equation can be simplied to: 2 v2 2 p ( x ) + 2 p ( x ) = 0 x 4

Figure 2: Origin of standing waves Assuming that the partial differential equation is separable: T X = v2 = 2 T + 2 T = 0 T X Which have the general solutions: XT = v2 X T X = A cos( x x ) + B sin( ) v v & & X + 2 X=0 v2

T = C cos(t) + D sin(t)

The only boundary condition known is boundary condition we have:

p x x =0

= 0 and p = x ( L, t) = 0 applying the rst

p x x x x = X T = ( A sin( )+B cos( ))(C sin(t) + D cos(t) x v v v v Since T=0 would give a trivial solution (p( x, t) = 0) there would only be a non-trivial solution if B = 0 reducing the equation to: p( x, t) = AC cos( x x ) cos(t) + AD cos( ) D sin(t) v v

Taking the second derivative of this we get: 2 p 2 x 2 x 2 = AC 2 cos( ) cos(t) AD 2 cos( ) D sin(t) = 2 p( x, t) v v x2 v v v Making it obvious that:

v2

2 p( x ) + 2 p( x ) = 0 v2 5

(5)

c. Solve this differential equation and derive the rst rule of thumb. Using the second boundary condition p( L, t) = 0 we get p = X ( L) T and since p = 0 for all elements of T it is clear that X ( L) = 0 A cos( since f = 2 fn = nv L n = 1, 3, 5 . . . which is equavelent to fn = v 1 (n + ) 2L 2 n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (6) L nv ) = 0 cos is 0 for every therefore = v 2 L n = 1, 3, 5, . . .

d. Derive the rule of thumb for a tube which is closed on both sides. Since both side are closed the boundary conditions are reasoning used in previous questions X (0) = X ( L) = 0 X =
p x x =0

p x x = L

= 0 using the

x x ( A sin( ) + B cos( )) v v v

Filling in the rst boundary condition: B = 0 The second boundary condition: X = x A sin( ) v v
L v

Since A = 0 (trivial) sin( x ) must equal 0. which means v = nv v f 2 = f = L 2L n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

= n with n = 1, 2, 3 . . .
v ( n + 1) 2L n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (7)

= fn =

e. Make drawings of the fundamental modes of an open-closed, a closed- closed and an open-open resonance box. Use your drawings to reason (no math) why the rule of thumb for open-open is equal to the rule for closed-closed. Drawing the waveforms makes it clear that they have the same frequency but are phaseshifted 180. Open-closed do not have a whole period in their waveform since that wouldnt allow it to conform to the boundary conditions.

(a) Closed wave

(b) Open wave

Figure 3: Pressure waves f. A random instrument has a fundamental tone f 0 = 100 Hz and rst overtone f 1 = 300 Hz. Argue whether this instrument is open-open, open-closed or closed- closed and give f 2 . f. This can be checked and calculated using the frequency rules previously derived. For an open-closed system: 100 = 331 340 340 3 L= = 0.85 m f 1 = = 300 Hz 4L 400 2 0.85 2

Which conforms with the measurements, now to double check comparing it with the closedclosed/open-open conguration: 100 = 200 2 340 340 L= = 0.59 m f 1 = = 289 Hz 2L 340 2 0.59

Making it obvious that the instrument is in a closed-open conguration, and making the second overtone 340 f2 = 2.5 = 500 Hz (8) 2 0.85