SPATIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN HEAT ISLAND IN JOHOR BAHRU CITY, MALAYSIA

Tetsu Kubota and Dilshan Remaz Ossen Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

ABSTRACT This study investigates the spatial characteristics of urban heat island (UHI) in the city of Johor Bahru, Malaysia. Two field measurements were carried out in March (rainy season) and September (dry season) 2008 in order to analyze the spatial distributions of nocturnal air temperature and humidity in the city. The nocturnal temperature difference between the urban and surrounding areas recorded only 2C in the rainy day, but it reached a maximum of 4C in the sunny day. More than one UHI were observed in the city. It was found that relatively large open spaces scattered in between the built-up areas may create low air temperature areas and divide the UHI of the city. 1. INTRODUCTION The urban heat island (UHI) is the phenomenon that temperatures in urban area become higher than those in the surrounding areas due to urbanization. The scientific awareness of urban climate anomaly arose at least in the mid-eighteenth century. However, experimental studies had not been carried out until the development of meteorological instruments such as the thermometer in the mid-nineteenth century (Oke, 1991). Especially from the mid-twenty century, UHIs have been observed practically in most part of the world except in extreme cold climates (Emmanuel, 2005). Most of the cities in Southeast Asia experience hot-humid climate all the year round. Thus, UHI in this region would cause considerable increase of annual cooling loads for buildings and therefore raise urban energy consumption significantly. The air temperature rise caused by UHI may also result in the expansion of tropical diseases such as dengue fever and malaria, etc. Moreover, since UHIs lead to decrease of the average wind speed and stimulate the occurrence of photochemical smog in cities, it would cause further deterioration in urban air pollution. As before, it is evident that UHIs would cause various serious environmental problems in the tropics, but the urban climate of tropical cities has not been extensively

studied (Oke, 1982). Sani (1987) has conducted comprehensive researches regarding this subject in Kuala Lumpur. The above study analyzed both air temperature distribution and air pollution levels in the city and observed the urban-rural temperature difference of 4.4-5C. However, the above study did not deal with other major Malaysian towns such as Johor Bahru. The characteristics of UHI much depend on the geographic and climatic conditions of respective towns. Therefore, in order to identify the characteristics of UHI in the tropics profoundly, it is essential to compare them between different towns. This study investigates the spatial characteristics of UHI in the city of Johor Bahru. Two field measurements were carried out in March (rainy season) and September (dry season) 2008 in order to analyze the spatial distributions of nocturnal air temperature and humidity in the city. 2. METHODS The city of Johor Bahru is located in the southernmost part of the Peninsular Malaysia (Fig. 1). It is the second largest city after Kuala Lumpur in terms of population size. Its population including the conurbations was nearly one million in 2000. In most of the Malaysian towns, the monthly mean air temperature and humidity are almost constant. The annual mean air temperature is about 26C in the city of Johor Bahru and the deviation of monthly mean air temperatures is about 1C. However, there is a seasonal climatic change, which is dominated by the monsoons, in terms of wind conditions and rainfalls. The monsoon season can be divided into two monsoon periods and the inter monsoon period; namely, the northeast monsoon period (November to March), the southwest monsoon period (May to September) and the inter monsoon periods (April and October). Precipitation in the northeast monsoon period (November-March) is relatively higher in the city of Johor Bahru (rainy season) than that in the southwest monsoon period (May-September) (dry season). Hence, the field measurements were carried out in March and

39

Weather station

Large industrial area

City center

Singapore

Fig. 1 Three routes for mobile survey and measuring points for stationary survey
Air temperature
(C) Air temperature

36 32 28 24

Measuring period

Rain period 12:00 12:00 0:00 0:00 12:00 12:00 0:00 0:00 0:00

SRW/m2 humidity (W/m2) RH (%)

Relative

100 20 80

60 40 800 400 0

Solar radiation

3/11

3/12

3/13

3/14

(a) Rainy season (March 2008)

SRW/m2 humidity Air temperature (W/m2) (%) (C) RH Air temperature

Fig. 2 Measuring instrument for mobile survey September 2008 respectively, to examine the characteristics of UHI in both rainy and dry seasons. In order to cover most part of the city, mobile surveys were conducted in different three routes simultaneously, while about 15 measuring points (stationary points) were placed at schools located in the city as shown in Fig. 1. Compact data loggers with thermometer and hygrometer (TR-72U and TR-52, T&D Corporation) were used for both measurements. In the mobile survey, the data loggers were installed in the well-insulated plastic pipes, which were fixed on the roofs of cars (Fig. 2). In the stationary survey, on the other hand, the data loggers were placed at outdoors of selected schools at 1.8m height above ground. In parallel, a weather station (EASIDATA Mark 4, Environdata) was installed in the university campus, which is situated about 20km northwest from the city center (see Fig. 1). The recorded climatic parameters at the station are air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and direction, barometric pressure, rain fall, and horizontal global radiation. Air temperatures and relative humidity were recorded at one minute intervals in the mobile survey, while the data was taken at five minutes intervals in the stationary survey. All the data were recorded early morning of the

36 32 28 24

Measuring period

Relative

100 20 80

Rain period 12:00 12:00 0:00 0:00 12:00 12:00 0:00 0:00 0:00

60 40 800 400 0

Solar radiation

9/21

9/22

9/23

9/24

(b) Dry season (September 2008)

Fig. 3 Weather conditions in urban surrounding area during the measuring days two measuring days: 4:20a.m.-5:40a.m., 14 March and 3:45a.m.-4:45a.m., 24 September 2008. This is because it is generally believed that UHIs are particularly intense at night. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Spatial distribution (a) Rainy season (March 2008) The weather conditions in the two measuring periods at the weather station are summarized in Fig. 3. As before,

40

Weather station

Large industrial area

(a) Air temperature

Weather station

(b) Relative humidity

Fig. 4 Spatial distribution of air temperature and relative humidity in the rainy day (4.20-5:40a.m., 14 March 2008) the weather station was placed in the university campus, which is located on the outskirt of the city (see Fig. 1). The campus comprises abundant green areas. Thus, the weather conditions at the station are considered to represent those of the surrounding rural areas. As shown in Fig. 3a, the three days before the measuring day were continuous rainy days. Relatively heavy rain was observed during the afternoon and light rain was recorded in the night. Weak solar radiation was prevailed throughout the three days and therefore maintains low air temperatures especially during the daytime. The maximum air temperatures of the previous three days are 29.3C (3/11), 27.0C (3/12) and 26.9C (3/13), while the average nocturnal air temperatures are 23.4C (3/11), 22.6C (3/12) and 21.5C (3/13), respectively. The range of measured air temperatures at the weather station in the measuring period was found to be only 0.1C. Thus, it can be assumed that the data obtained through the mobile survey were observed under the constant air temperature conditions. The measured distributions of air temperatures and relative humidity are illustrated in contour lines in Fig. 4. The temperature contour lines are indicated in every 0.5C (Fig. 4a), while the humidity contour lines are expressed in every 2%RH (Fig. 4b).

41

Weather station

(a) Air temperature

Weather station

(b) Relative humidity

Fig. 5 Spatial distribution of air temperature and relative humidity in the sunny day (3:45-4:45a.m., 24 September 2008) As shown in Fig. 4a, although the temperature differences are not large due to the rainy conditions, there are several UHIs, where the relatively higher temperature is observed. The UHIs can be seen in relatively densely built-up areas, such as the city center, large housing estates and industrial areas. The maximum air temperature is observed at the center of large industrial area, which is 23.1C, while the minimum temperature is seen at the weather station, which is 21.2C. The nocturnal temperature difference between the above two points is, therefore, about 2C. As shown in Fig. 3a, the solar radiation had been very low during a few days before the measuring day. Therefore, the above temperature difference of 2C is likely not due to the heat gain by the solar radiation but due to the anthropogenic heat released from the factories in the industrial area. It should be noted that the nocturnal urban-rural temperature difference can reach 2C due to the effects of anthropogenic heat alone even in a rainy day. As shown in Fig. 4b, the distribution of relative humidity, on the other hand, is very small simply because of the rainy conditions. (b) Dry season (September 2008) As indicated in Fig. 3b, although rain was observed in the early morning of 22 September, the three days before

42

Air temperature (C)

the measuring day were sunny days at large. The previous day (9/23) observed the maximum air temperature of 33.4C and the average nocturnal air temperature of 25.8C, respectively. The range of measured air temperatures at the weather station in the measuring period was again found to be very small, which is 0.2C. Thus, also in this case, it can be assumed that the data obtained through the mobile survey were observed under the constant air temperature conditions. The distributions of air temperature and relative humidity are illustrated in Fig. 5. As shown, the temperature differences in the city are much larger than those of the rainy day (see Fig. 4a). However, interestingly, the locations of UHI have some similarities between the two observations. Like shown in Fig. 4a, several UHIs can be seen in relatively densely built-up areas in Fig. 5a. Nevertheless, though the highest air temperature was observed in the industrial area in the rainy day as in Fig. 4a, the maximum air temperature in Fig. 5a is observed at the city center, which is 28.6C. This is because the heat gain was increased further due to the solar radiation in addition to the anthropogenic heat. The minimum air temperature is seen near the weather station like in Fig. 4a, which is 24.6C. The nocturnal urban-rural temperature difference is, therefore, 4C. As shown in Fig. 5a, many open spaces (green areas) and rivers are scattered in between the built-up areas in the city. These open spaces may create low air temperature areas and divide the UHI of the city. It is worth to note that the temperature drop of 2-3C can be created within a short distance such as 4km by placing relatively large open spaces in the city. The distribution of relative humidity is the opposite conditions of that of air temperature (Fig. 5b). Basically, the areas with higher air temperatures have lower relative humidity. 3.2 Land use and UHI intensity Fig. 6 illustrates the air temperature distributions measured through the mobile survey. Measured air temperatures in both sunny and rainy days for different three routes (see Fig. 1) are shown, respectively. Major land use along the respective routes is also indicated at the bottom of the figures. Route 1 starts from the vicinity of the weather station and heads to the city center. After reaching the city center, the car went to the northeast of the city (see Fig. 1). In this route, the minimum air temperature is recorded around the starting point, which is 24.6C in the sunny day and 21.4C in the rainy day. After that, the air temperatures increase towards the city center in both days as in Fig. 6a. Although the peak air temperatures are recorded at almost same locations between the two observations, the intensity of UHIs is significantly different. The maximum air temperature reaches 27.8C in the sunny day, while the corresponding air temperature for the rainy day is only 22.1C. The fluctuation of air temperature distribution is large in the sunny conditions, thus up to 1-2C temperature drops can be seen. This is

29 Air temperature (C) 28 27 26 25 24 23 24

23 22 21 0

Sunny day (24 Sep 2008)

Air temperature (C) Air temperature (

0 Rainy day (14 Mar 2008) 15 5 10

20

25

30

Distance from the starting point (km)

10

15

20

25

30

Distance from the starting point (km)

Residential & open space Industrial Residential & open space River & open space Residential & open space Agriculture & open space Residential Residential Industrial & commercial

Major land use

(a) Route 1
29
Air temperature (C)

28 27 26 25 24 23 24

Sunny day (24 Sep 2008)

Air temperature (C) Air temperature (

23 22 21

0 Rainy day (14 Mar 2008) 15 5 10

Open space & residential

20

25

30

35

Distance from the starting point (km)

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from the starting point (km)

Residential & open space Residential & open space Open space Residential Residential Residential Industrial & residential

Industrial

Industrial

(b) Route 2
29 28 27 26 25 24 23 24 0 Rainy day (14 Mar 2008) 15 5 10

Sunny day (24 Sep 2008)

Air temperature (C) Air temperature (

23 22 21

20

25

Industrial

Major land use

30

Distance from the starting point (km)

10

15

20

25

30

Distance from the starting point (km)

Open space & residential Residential & open space Institution & open space Residential Residential Residential

Straits & residential

Major land use

(c) Route 3

Fig. 6 Relationship between major land use and temperature distribution likely due to the existence of open spaces (green areas) as shown in Fig. 6a. Route 2 runs across the city from west to east (see Fig. 1). As shown, a large industrial area is situated at the end of the route. In this route, the profile of air temperature distribution is considerably different between the two observations especially at the large industrial area (Fig.

43

CBD

Open space & residential

Commercial & residential

6b). As discussed before, the UHI intensity in the industrial area is very high compared with that in the surrounding areas especially in the rainy day. In the rainy day, the maximum air temperature of the city is observed in this industrial area. Route 3 starts from the vicinity of the weather station and heads to the city center. After reaching the city center, the car went to the north through the commercial areas (see Fig. 1). As shown in Fig. 6c, the minimum air temperatures are recorded near the starting point in both observations. In the sunny day, the maximum UHI intensity is observed in this route, which is 4C. The highest points are seen in densely built-up areas in both observations. Considerable temperature drops by 1-2C are observed in the sunny day. As discussed before, this is also likely due to the existence of open spaces (green areas) as shown in Fig. 6c. 4. CONCLUSIONS (1) The nocturnal temperature difference between the urban and surrounding areas in the city of Johor Bahru recorded only 2C in the rainy day, but it reached a maximum of 4C in the sunny day. (2) It was found that there are several UHIs in both rainy and sunny days in the city. The maximum nocturnal air temperature was observed in the large industrial area in the rainy day. This indicated that the urban-rural temperature difference can reach 2C due to the effects of anthropogenic heat alone even in a rainy day. (3) The maximum nocturnal air temperatures in the sunny day were recorded in relatively densely built-up areas, such as the city center, large housing estates and industrial areas. It was found that relatively large open spaces (green areas) scattered in between the built-up areas may create low air temperature areas and divide the UHI of the city. Further study is needed to examine the possible mitigation measures for the effects of UHI in the tropics, focusing especially on the temperature reduction effects caused by the green areas. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research project is supported by a grant from the Research Management Center of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (Vote 77513). We would like to express our sincere thanks to all the students who conducted the field measurements. Special thanks are due to Ms. Toe, Mr. Daniel, Mr. Tham and Mr. Chang of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for their generous supports. REFERENCES Oke, T.R., Climate of city, in Baer, F. et al. (eds), Climate in human perspective, A tribute to Helmut E.

Landsberg, Dordrecht, Netherlands, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp.61-75, 1991. Emmanuel, M.R., An urban approach to climate-sensitive design, Spon Press, 2005. Oke, T.R., The energetic basis of urban heat island, Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 108(455), pp.1-24, 1982. Sani, S., Urbanization and atmospheric environment in the low tropics, Experiences from the Kelang Valley Region Malaysia, Punerbit Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi. Tetsu Kubota obtained a doctor degree from Shibaura Institute of Technology, Japan in 2001. Since 2006 he has been a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Dilshan Remaz Ossen received a doctor degree from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia in 2006. Since then, he has been a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Built Environment of the above university.

44

CARVING MOTIFS IN TIMBER HOUSES OF KELANTAN AND TERENGGANU

Ismail Said1, Zumahiran Kamarudin2
1

Associate Professor, Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Sekudai, Johor, Malaysia
2

Doctoral Candidate, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Sekudai, Johor, Malaysia b-ismail@utm.my

ABSTRACT Prominent timber houses of Kelantan and Terengganu are adorned with decorative carved components depicted in motifs of flora, geometry and Arabic calligraphy. Consistency in patterns of motif, particularly flora, results to establishment of identity to the vernacular architecture of northeastern region of Peninsular Malaysia. This paper presents an analytical study of the visual forms of motifs of carved components in the houses of Kelantan and Terengganu which denotes its significant attributes and uses. Carvings of nine houses in Kelantan and four houses in Terengganu were analyzed by interpreting 13 sets of carving measured drawings of the houses. The drawings were obtained from Centre for the Study of Built Environment in the Malay World (KALAM) at the Department of Architecture in the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). Interpretation of motifs is based on meanings described in the texts accompanied the drawings and literatures of Malay woodcarving, and triangulated with narrations from the two woodcarvers. The analysis of the documents revealed that several types of carved components with distinctive motifs in two and three dimensional compositions were placed in certain orders within the fabrics of the houses. Wall, door and window ventilation panels, railings, gate panel and stringers are types of components characterized by the shape of perforation and incision with relief or non-relief carvings. These components were crafted in relation to the house form and architectural elements such as wall, door, window, stair and gate. The significant aspect of the placement of the carvings in the houses is that it enhances beautiful ambiance and signifies regional identity to the vernacular architecture of these two states.

states of Peninsular Malaysia. It is ornamentation to the timber architecture of the region. Motifs of flora, geometry, Arabic calligraphy and cosmic features are depicted on panels of doors, walls, railings and ventilation components in different shapes and sizes (Ismail, 2001). Common motif, especially flora, contributes to the identity of northeastern region which originated from the architecture of Langkasuka Empire dated as early th century (Farish and Eddin, 2003). as 14 However, differences arise in intricacy and complexity of the motifs and its stylization. The intricacy and complexity of carving suggest a certain degree of skillfulness and creativity of the traditional craftsmen in the fabrication of the carved components (Muhammad Afandi, 1995). The proficiency of shaping woodcraft with the skilful use of the media offers the craftsman a means of artistic expression (Jackson and Day, 2005). Most of the carved components found in the houses depict floral design with perforated and relief carving. This paper presents a preliminary finding of a descriptive study of the carving motifs shaped on various forms of carved components found in the traditional timber houses of Kelantan and Terengganu. The major research question is what are the types of motif depiction that shaped the composition in woodcarving in Kelantan and Terengganu timber houses.

2. METHODS 2.1 Analytical Review on Measured Drawings The analytical review was conducted on thirteen prominent Malay timber houses. Nine houses were located in Kelantan and the other four houses were located in Terengganu. Table 1.0 shows the information of the houses including the types of architectural forms and year of construction, owners and locations of the houses. Several factors determine the selection of the houses which include: (1) the houses represent the type of dwelling architecture that originated

1. INTRODUCTION Woodcarving is considered as an integral component to the vernacular Malay houses of Kelantan and Terengganu, the north-eastern

45

from the east coast region of Peninsular Malaysia, (2) the houses were decorated with excellent carvings which are regional and distinctive in

character, (3) the houses provide a comprehensive collection of carved components which are relevant for visual analysis purpose.

Table 1.0: Timber houses of Kelantan and Terengganu N o 1 2 Type of House Rumah bumbung perabung lima Rumah Bujang Berserambi Dua Beradik Rumah Bujang Rumah bumbung perabung lima Rumah bumbung perabung lima Rumah bumbung perabung lima Rumah bumbung perabung lima Twelve-pillarded house/ Long-roofed house Rumah bujang berserambi dua beradik Rumah Bujang Berkembar Dua Beradik Rumah bujang berselasar Rumah bumbung limas Rumah bujang berserambi dua beradik Year Built 1920 s 1850 s 1800 s 1920 s 1930 s 1937 1933 1800 s 1920 s 188? Owner Encik Hassan B. Mohd Amin Tuan Hj. Mohamad Dobah (Tuan Hj. Mohamad Abdullah) Wan Aisyah Hj. Wan Ahmad Hj. Abdullah Hj. Yaakub Mohammad Wan Hussain Bin Wan Abdul Rahman Hassan Bin Yusof Tok Yakub Location of House Jalan Pengkalan Chepa, Kota Bharu, Kelantan 1408, Jln. Post Office Lama, Kota Bharu Jalan Sultanah Zanab, Kota Bharu Jalan Post Office Lama, Kota Bharu, Kelantan 2623, Kampung Sireh, Kota Bharu 4962, Kampung Sireh, Kota Bharu 4963 Lorong Tukang Perak, Kampung Sireh, Kota Bharu Kampung Belongan, Bachok, Kelantan Jalan Sultanah Zanab, Kota Bharu, Kelantan 168, Kampung Hiliran Masjid, Kuala Terengganu Kampung Losong Haji, Su, Kuala Terengganu Duyong Kecil, Kuala Terengganu D62, Paloh Makam Tok Ku, Cabang Tiga, KT, Terengganu

3 4 5 6 7 8

Haji Wan Sulong

10

Hjh Mariam Hj. Mat

11 12 13

1850 s 1914 1800 s

Hj. Awang Dato Biji Sura (Nik Mohamad bin Hitam) Tok Ku Paloh

A set of measured drawings which consists of plans and elevations of the 13 houses including crossed sectional and detail drawings was referred for detail descriptive analysis to identify the types of carved components and determine its motifs and ordering principles of composition. These measured drawings and the reports were

produced and documented by the students of architectural program from the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Edition and reproduction of a few documented drawings were made to improve its visual quality and accuracy for the purpose of analysis and data display. The objects which provide raw materials for visual investigation must

46

be also viewed, understood, or placed in some analytical framework before they can be regarded as data (Emisson and Smith, 2000). 2.2 Interview with Woodcarvers Personal interviews were conducted with the two prominent woodcarvers to obtain their verification on the carving motifs and reasons of selecting the motifs. The first woodcarver interviewed was Norhaiza Nordin from Kampung Raja in Terengganu and the second one was Muhaimin Hasbullah from Temerloh in Pahang. Each interview was carried out in approximately two-hour period with the adoption of standardized open-ended interview questions. Narrative information from the woodcarvers were triangulated with the measured drawing data.

for the sake of following certain order and movement in plant life instead of being oblivious to it. This is suggestive indication of their cognizance state of mind to the life in nature.

Figure 1: Ventilation panel fitted on wall of rumah ibu (main hall) at Mohamad Dobahs house with intricate floral design

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The analysis revealed that a collection of 13 types of architectural components were fitted with carving: ventilation panels of window, door and wall, railings of verandah and staircase, wall panel, leaves of door and gate, stringer, gate, roof eave, bracket and gable end. The visual forms of the carved components were fabricated with specific carving motifs, types of incision, shapes, sizes and layouts. The distinctive forms of the various carved components are apparent with respect to its placement and layout in the interior as well as exterior fabrics of the timber houses. The components were carved either: (1) in relief or non-relief, (2) perforated or non-perforated, and (3) overlapped or non-overlapped forms. Plant elements including flowers, flower buds, leaves, tendrils, fruit, and shoot were the most popular design pattern employed in the carving. They were combined to form one complete carving with a certain degree of complexity and intricacy. For example, as appeared in the carved ventilation panel on wall found in Mohamad Dobahs house (Figure 1). This relief, perforated panel is equipped with floral elements including a central flower that serves as an origin. The central flower is surrounded by the complementary motifs of other plant elements like branches, leaves, stems and tendrils in intertwining and meandering characters. In short, the depictions of plant elements are in specific characteristics with distinctive features. This motif represents the unending growth and movement of life in natural plant (Rosnawati, 2005; Norhaiza, 2008). Additionally, floral motif was acceptable in the Malay art because Islam permits the use of nonfigurative elements in the artistic work (Othman, 1995). Perhaps it is rational for craftsmen to depict the motifs of living plants in its natural state

It appears that carved ventilation panels in single rectangular layout were the commonly found in three-dimensional format that contribute to high visual intricacy and complexity. For example, the horizontal rectangular panel found at external wall of Wan Sulong house as illustrated in Figure 2 has carving in quadruple overlaps character represents the intertwining of the plant motif with complex arrangement of elements gives almost a three-dimensional look. The design qualities in the panel including depiction and composition of floral motifs in high relief and carved with perforation were contributory to probably the highest degree of visual intricacy and complexity. Several layers of elements of floral motifs such as flowers, branches, stems and leaves were intertwined by having their curvy lines to cross over or under each other in delicate movement. This delicate and complex arrangement of floral elements in threedimensional effect and with detail characteristics is certainly the most difficult carving technique applied on this panel. Certainly, it requires high level of carving skill and ingenuity in fabricating this type of panel.

Figure 2: Carved ventilation panel with the highest complexity in carving form found at external wall of Wan Sulong house

Flora motifs were manifested through the choice of several types of plants such as ketumbit, ketam

47

guri, bayam peraksi (all are weeds grown in house yards) and kekacang (climbing legume) as decorative elements utilised in the carved components. Perhaps the plant motif such as ketam guri was favored by the woodcarvers due to its flowers in vivid and striking color. Fullbloomed flowers especially those in bright colors are eye-catching living things which have become central object in the carving composition. Spiraling tendrils are also represented as the predominant theme in a few samples of carved components found in the houses as apparent in the ventilation panel. Spirals are depicted as dominant features in ventilation panels of window and door and on walls with non-relief motifs. The depiction of similar type of motif with slight different in composition signifies the craftsmen ingenuity and creativity in the fabrication of the carved components (Figures 3, 4 and 5). The central elements of the carvings probably the plant branches are depicted differently for each panel. The fabrication of the carvings with three different characters of central elements was perhaps a defining feature that characterized the form of each panel. Beauty is portrayed in these panels by its elegant and gentle movement of the spiral elements. All panels exhibit inward organic movements of the spirals which spread from the central branches within the rectangular borders. The panels with this type of floral composition serves as one of carving archetypes originated from this region and imitated by several craftsmen with individual artistic approach. Another possible reason is that these panels were produced by the same master craftsman who was originated from Terengganu and was hired by the house owners to fabricate the components with distinctive features (Abdul Halim and Wan Hashim, 1996). It appears that this type of non-relief floral motif was mostly prevalent on ventilation panels found above windows and doors as seen in the houses which were all located in Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu.

Figure 5: Another carved panel with creeping plant motif fitted above door of rumah ibu at Wan Embong house

Fabrication of carved components for house setting was not limited to the application of carving motif from floral elements alone. It also includes other types of motifs such as geometry and calligraphy which were normally produced in nonrelief and non-overlapped forms. Flora, geometry and Islamic calligraphy are the three major types of motifs used by Malay woodcarvers Zulkifli (2000). It is apparent that the woodcarvers from the states of Kelantan and Terengganu also preferred non-figurative motif like geometry as apparent in the wall ventilation panels found at Awang and Mariam houses (Figures 6a and 6b, respectively). These two perforated panels exhibit distinctive carving features which are similar in character. Motifs of vertical stripes dominate both panels. The series of vertical lines were stretched lengthwise across the horizontal bands forming rhythmic composition of strip and band pattern. The two-dimensional composition of non-relief motifs enhances the vertical rectangular layout of the two panels. The visual form of these panels which are similar in character and slightly different in compositional elements also signifies the craftsmen ingenuity and creativity in the fabrication of the carved components for the specific locations and purpose.

Figure 3: Carved panel with creeping plant motif fitted above door of rumah ibu at Mariam house

(a)
Figure 4: Carved panel with creeping plant motif fitted above door of rumah ibu at Biji Sura house

(b)

Figure 6: Carved component with geometrical motif in strip (band) pattern situated at Awang house (a) and Mariam house (b)

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Motif of Islamic calligraphy possesses aesthetic values and it is normally used in carved components to convey Islamic messages. Calligraphic elements depict the form of Arabic characters, verses from the Quran and local Arabic writing called Jawi (Abdul Halim Nasir, 1987). This motif was widely used in mosques and houses ornamentation particularly in Kelantan and Terengganu. A few prominent houses like Biji Sura house, also known as Kota Duyong, was adorned with various forms of Islamic calligraphy depicted on several carved panels. For example, the carved ventilation panel fitted above the doors of main hall and bedroom as illustrated in Figure 7 represents primarily Quranic verses enclosed by the embedded semi-circular structural frame. The symmetrical repetition of the same calligraphy motif and pattern on both sides of the panel creates a sense of balance and consistency in composition. Apparently, the unique character of the carved component is in the intertwining movement of the calligraphic elements that embrace the non-relief surface of the rectangular panel. In many cases, calligraphic elements were usually found in isolation or in complementary with the other two major kinds of motifs.

were not objects crafted in a simple way but inextricably bound up with designated function, artistic qualities and skillfulness possessed by the traditional craftsmen. The relationship between the compositional motifs, function and the layout of the carvings affects the overall visual form of the carved components. Its visual forms was crafted and subscribed by the woodcarvers to be seen or used primarily in domestic setting thus creating pleasant ambiance.

5. REFERENCES Abdul Halim Nasir. (1987). Traditional Malay Woodcarving. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Abdul Halim Nasir and Wan Hashim Wan Teh (1996). The Traditional Malay House. Shah Alam: Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd. Emmison, M. and Smith, P. (2000). Researching the Visual: Images, Objects, Contexts and Interactions in Social and Cultural Inquiry. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Farish A. Noor, and Eddin Khoo, (2003). Spirit of Wood the Art of Malay woodcarving. Singapore: Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd. Ismail Said. (2001). Art of Woodcarving in Timber Mosques of Peninsular Malaysia and Southern Thailand, Jurnal Teknologi, 34(B) Jun. 45-56. Jackson, A. and Day, D. (2005). Collins Complete Woodcarvers Manual. London: Harper Collins Publishers. Muhaimin Hasbollah, Personal Communication: Motif of Woodcarving, Temerloh, Pahang, 2008. Muhammad Afandi Yahya. (1995). Simbolisme Dalam Seni Bina Rumah Melayu Kelantan (Symbolism in Malay House of Kelantan). Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Norhaiza Noordin, Personal Communication: The Art of Woodcarving, 2008. Othman Mohd. Yatim. (1995). Islamic Arts. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Rosnawati Othman, (2005). The Language of the Langkasukan Motif, Indonesia and the Malay World, Vol. 33, No 96, 97-111. Zulkifli Hanafi. (2000). Pola-Pola Hiasan Di Dalam Bangunan Tradisional Melayu.(Decorative Patterns in Malay Traditional Building). Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Figure7: Carved panel with a motif of calligraphy found above doors of rumah ibu and bedroom at Biji Sura house

The study found that figurative elements either in abstract or real-life image was never applied as caving motif on any type of carved component from the timber houses. This suggests that motifs of flora, geometry and Islamic calligraphy were the three principal types of compositional elements used by Malay craftsmen from the states of Kelantan and Terengganu.

4. CONCLUSION In summary, motifs in carving of Kelantan and Terengganu houses displayed distinctive visual composition. The carvings for house components

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Affordances of Orchard and Forest as Playscape for Young Children in Malaysia

Ismail Said1 and Mohd Suhaizan Shamsuddin2 Associate Professor, Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 81310, Skudai, Johor b-ismail@utm.my 2 Post-graduate student, Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 81310, Skudai, Johor msbsraw@yahoo.com
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ABSTRACT In Europe and North America, there is a plethora of studies on importance of outdoor environment on childrens functioning. Young children perceive outdoor environment such as forest, camp ground and park as playscape offering a variety of functional properties called affordances. This study presents empirical findings on a phenomenological inquiry on young childrens behavioral responses experiencing orchard and forest in Perak, Malaysia. Through a participatory investigation on 18 middle childhood boys, the authors documented sensorial and motoric actions of the children using note taking and tape recording. The behavioral data were analyzed in two ways: levels of affordances and taxonomy of affordances. The two-day experience revealed 65 affordances which was dominated by utilized affordances (n=38), followed by perceived affordances (n=23), and lastly, shaped affordances (n=4). The result suggests the children were active in performatory and exploratory activities such as hiking on trail, picking fallen durian fruits, plucking leaves, climbing slippery slopes, holding treelets and rattan climbers to climb slopes, ducking under fallen log, picking pebbles from stream bed, throwing pebbles on water surface, and many more. These motoric activities were associated or generated by perceiving the orchard and forest features including scanning trails and forest floor, hearing sound of birds and cicadas, observing water cascade and water striders, avoiding touching spiny rattans, and more. Finally, in the taxonomy of affordances, most of the childrens performances were with vegetations, examples were observing durian fruits on tree branches, searching fallen fruits, grasping fruit stalks, picking attractive yellow pods, breaking pods with fingers, and seeing marble-like seeds in the pods. The study suggests that orchard and forest were playscape for young children to perform, explore and manipulate natural elements.

Keywords: Young Children, Affordances, Forest and Orchard Environment, Functioning

1.0. INTRODUCTION There is a plethora of theories and empirical studies suggest that children contact with the natural environment is crucial to their physical, social and cognitive development (Sebba, 1991; Faber Taylor et al., 1998, Chawla and Heft, 2002; Khan, 2002; Kellert, 2002; Louv, 2006). The natural environment provides children space to play (Fjortoft, 2004), to interact with each other (Kytta, 2003), to set boundaries and to feel sense of control (Olds, 1989), and to understand the outer world (Faber Taylor et al., 1998; Sebba, 1991). Hammitt (2000), Sobel (1999; 2002), Rivkin (2000) and Gleeson and Sipe (2006) note that experiencing the forest affords people to get away from everyday places and to get privacy. The natural experience permits fascination because the forest as natural setting is compatible with what one wants such as hiking, sightseeing and climbing. Fascination is derived from the natural places because people get peace and quiet, tranquility, and moments of privacy (Hammitt, 2000). Outdoor physical experience allows active living, dexterity and mobility through participating in recreational activities. An empirical study by Fjortoft (2004) found that playing in a natural environment such as forest improved motor abilities and development of middle childhood children. Much of the play activities are functional play such as climbing rocks and trees, running and tumbling and sliding slopes. Moreover, outdoor experiences in forest by Norwegian kindergarten children allow them to develop positive attitudes to the wilderness (Borge et al., 2003). Studies on children in outdoor environment suggest children attract to outdoor features not on their forms or shapes but on the functions of the

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features (Fjortoft, 2004; Heft, 1988). Function is the interaction of the children with the spatial elements in the ecosystem (Forman and Godron, 1986). Heft (1999) explains how children perceive the functions of the environment and utilize them for play: If a tree is climbable it affords climbing; if a stone fits the hand it is grasp-able or throw-able and thus affords grasping and throwing. In other words, the functional meanings of the elements trigger children to interact with them. Inasmuch, Ismail (2008) found that middle childhood children perceive boulders at river as climbable features that afford scaling, sitting, looking-out from and hiding. It means that natural environment such as forest can afford a variety of physical activities for children to involve in gross motor skills (Fjortoft, 2004). As such, children prefer to play to nearest wild places such as woodland (Pyle, 2002). Playing in nature means children get freedom to explore and interact with the natural element with little or no restriction or supervision. Interaction with the natural world is direct and spontaneous (Chawla, 1994; Kellert, 2002). Direct experience with natural environment such as forest permits children to conduct three functioning: cognitive, physical and social (Hart, 1999; Khan and Kellert, 2002; Moore and Young, 1978). The cognitive, physical and social experiences generates six developments: (1) increases self-esteem and confidences, (2) improves an individuals ability to work cooperatively, and increases children awareness of others, (3) increases motivation and concentration, (iv) contributes to the development of language and communication skills, (v) improves physical motor skills, and (vi) contributes to an individuals knowledge and understanding of the environment (OBrien and Murray, 2007). 2.0. MEANING OF AFFORDANCES IN CHILDREN-ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP J.J. Gibsons Theory of Affordances has been used to examine the relationship between functional properties of the environment and how environments are used (Clark and Uzzell, 2002). The affordances of the environment are what it offers the animal, what it provides or furnishes, either for good or ill (Gibson, 1979 pp.127). According to Kytta (2003) affordances are the functionally significant properties of the environment that are perceived through active detection of information (p.45). That the properties are recognized when the children encounter, traverse, construct and perceive places (Christensen, 2003). Kytta (2003) further posits that affordances include properties from both the environment and the acting individual. As such the affordances are always unique and different for each individual and each specific group of people (Kytta, 2002).

Affordance of an environment is defined by the individuals qualities, such as childrens physical skills or bodily proportions (Kytta, 2003). As such, Heft (1999) posits an object that smaller than the hand-span of a child, for example, a twig, is perceived by the child to be graspable, which is it affords grasping. The twig also affords the child to throw it away, to scratch the ground, to dig dirt, and so on. Thus the twig, as an environmental feature, has multiple functional significances understood by the child through experiencing the environment. Therefore, the concept of affordance is well suited for describing the psychologically essential qualities of childrens environment (Kytta, 2002). It seems that children take particular delight and continue to engage those affordances that give clear evidence of their efforts. According to Heft (1999), the affordances of natural environment for children activities can be categorized into a taxonomy consisting of 10 categories of environmental quality: flat, relatively smooth surfaces, relatively rough slopes, greenery and wildlife, graspable /detached objects, attached objects, non-rigid attached objects, climbable features, aperture, microclimate, moldable material, and water. A study on childrens outdoor environments by Kytta (2002) improves the taxonomy by adding category affordances for sociality and play, and subtracting category of aperture. In this study, which concerns on affordances of streams and rivers for children functioning, extends the taxonomy with environmental affordances that support vegetation and wildlife. The taxonomy tells what categories afforded the most or fewest functional properties to the children during their play and social activities. In the view of childrens perception and movement, Kytta (2003) further categorized the affordances three levels: perceived, utilized and shaped. Perceived affordance is the functional property of a feature viewed by a child and offering him for an activity. For example, an overarching tree over a stream possesses the property for a child to jump from it into the water. Utilized affordance is the property of a feature being used by a child in an activity. When a child dives into deep water, for example, his is acting on a utilized property of the water for a play activity. Shaped affordance is the property of the feature being changed by the activity of a child, for example, moulding a mound from sand.

3.0. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY This research explores on the functioning of children with the elements of forest and orchard. It examines the physical, cognitive and social interactions of middle childhood children experiencing the settings. The objectives of the

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research were: (1) to study childrens functioning and process of participation in forest and orchard towards learning and knowledge development in outdoor environment; and (2) to investigate environmental knowledge and awareness of middle childhood children on the two settings.

4.0. DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS Forest is a natural and dense jungle located far from a rural community which is composed of a variety of tall tropical trees and undergrowth (Figure 1). The forest is a place for the locals to gather wild fruits, firewood, rattan and medicinal produces. Orchard is defined as a cultivated fruit farms composed of tropical fruit trees and generally located in or near to rural settlement (Figure 2). Play activities are classified according to) into categories of functional play, construction play and symbol play (Frost, 1992). These are play forms that enhance physical activity and gross motor movements (Fjortoft, 2004). Playscape is defined by Frost (1992) as a landscape that affords children to ability to play. Performances are defined by Chawla and Heft (2002) as childrens functioning which are categorized into performatory, exploratory and productive activities (p. 206). Performatory activities are those actions directed toward some objects or other individual. The individual is making use of already known properties of environmental features that are available. Exploratory activities are actions directed toward discovering new properties. The individual is seeking to uncover new functional properties that may be latent in the surroundings. Productive activities ate those actions transform the environment features, and having particular functional properties being created (Chawla and Heft, 2002 p.206). In a forest park, for example, a performatory activity is picking acorns from the ground, and an exploratory activity is searching for edible fruits such Lansium aqueum (Langsat) and Baccaurea bracteata (Tampoi), and a productive activity is cutting treelet stems and tying them using a string to make a pole to harvest the fruits. Inasmuch, the productive activity is a manipulative action affording children to shape a product. Affordances are the functional meanings of a feature which are perceived through action, and the perception of individual affordances is part of the whole of activity (Gibson, 1979). An affordance is the property of an object in relation to the perception and activity of an individual (Kytta, 2002, 2003).

Figure 1: Tropical forest is naturally dense with trees, shrubs and undergrowth

Figure 2: Orchard is a farm planted with fruit trees and it is located near to settlement

5.0. STUDY DESIGN AND ANALYSIS The study was carried out with middle childhood children from an orphanage in Perak, Malaysia, using a phenomenological approach. The orphanage was located in a small town, Chemor, 80 kilometers from the study site. Eighteen boys, aged 5 to 12, were brought to the site by the caregivers of the orphanage. They stayed for two days in timber chalets of a camp located in an orchard. Each chalet sheltered four children and it was situated along a hill stream. In other words, the children were staying in a forest-

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like environment shaded by fruit trees and riparian tree species. The site was a virgin forest and a composite of orchards located on a hilly landform in Kampong Cheh, Perak, approximately 550 meters above sea level. The orchards were composed of matured fruit trees including durian, rambutan, garcinias and parkia planted by villagers of Kampong Cheh. Some of the trees reaching 40 meters high with large boles and wide buttresses. In general, the undergrowth of the forest was dense causing some difficulties for the children to traverse along existing trails. Hence, depth of visibility was short. In contrast, the undergrowth of the orchard was thin and low allowing the children to view far distance. Moreover, the gradients of landform in the orchard were less steep than the forest. The journey into forest and orchard began walking on trails from the chalet area located in an orchard and walked into several orchards and ending in the forest. The children were guided by a villager from Kampong Cheh. The guide made random stops at point of interest including footbridge crossing a fast stream, a cluster of durian trees bearing young fruits, a tall and high buttress tree, on a hilltop overlooking the orchards, on steep slope for resting and at a stream for rest and swimming. Both researchers participated in the two days outdoor experience recording the sensorial, motoric and social activities of the children in tape recorder, photography, and field journals. The sensorial activities were word and phrases mentioned by the children during conversion with peers, guide and researchers. These were their perceptual responses suggesting their preference or dislike on elements or conditions of the settings and their scanning behavior to maneuver themselves along the trails. Motoric activities were physical actions of the children such as walking, hiking, climbing and sliding on steep slopes. And, social activities were interaction or transaction with each other including taking, holding hands to climb slope or tree, sharing drinks or food, splashing water to others and searching shrimps in steam and search pebbles from stream bed. At each stop, the researchers causally interviewed the children while sharing drinks and food with them. In other words, data of the children performances was elicited by participatory mode. The data of childrens activities were considered as phenomena and were interpreted using Denzin (2001) interpretative process. The first step of the process was bracketing the childrens behavorial responses into two categories, at orchard and at forest. At the orchard, the responses were further categorized into three types: (1) activities at stream, (2) hiking in orchard, and (3) resting on hilltop. In the forest, there was only one category, which is, hiking and resting. The responses were considered as

affordances which were later bracketed into two categories: (1) levels of affordances, and (2) taxonomy of affordances (Heft, 1999; Kytta, 2003). The second step of the process is explanation on the levels of affordances and taxonomy of affordances put back the childrens phenomena into their functioning (performances) and their knowledge on the outdoor environments. Accordingly, it means that the research is contextualizing the phenomena into the children physical and social worlds (Denzin, 2001). 6.0. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 6.1. Levels of affordances The performances of the children were categorized in three levels of affordances: utilized (n=38), perceived (n=23) and shaped (n=4)see Figure 3. It means that the children were active in performing motoric activities such as hiking on trail, picking fallen durian fruits, plucking leaves, climbing slippery slopes, holding treelets and rattan climbers to climb slopes, ducking under fallen log, picking pebbles from stream bed, throwing pebbles on water surface, and throwing stones to tree trunk, and many more. Inasmuch, the utilized affordances were associated with perceived ones such as feeling cold while swimming in the stream, seeing bulbuls and magpie robins while swimming in the stream, watching peers searching for shrimps in the stream, and scanning and avoiding thorny rattan while climbing down the slopes. The results suggest that the forest and orchard afforded a variety of functional properties to engage their attention (Kytta, 2003) and to permit physical movement and competency (Kellert, 2002). Notwithstanding, the children only managed to manipulate three properties on the elements found in the forest and orchard: making camp fire from fallen branches and logs, making clothline from a bamboo pole to dry their clothes, and making a fishing rod by cutting a small branch from a tree. Low amount of shaped affordances means the children perceive low opportunity to practice hands-on experience with the elements of the forest and orchard. Possibly, this was due to the short span of time the children experience in the outdoor settings.
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 38 Quantity of affordances

23

perceived

utilized Levels of Affordances

shaped

Figure 3: Levels of affordances in the forest and orchard settings

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6.2. Taxonomy of affordances Figure 4 shows the taxonomy of affordances the forest and orchard offered to the middle childhood children. As can be seen, vegetation provided the highest number of affordances (n=13). Examples of activities with the vegetation were picking young durian fruits, plucking young garcinia leaves, hurdling over fallen logs, holding treelets to climb slippery slope, and touching moss with feet and hands. The result suggests that the forest and orchard possessed a variety of elements for the children to play. Not only the children recognized the parts of the vegetation, they also able to identified the difference branching character of the trees. Sixty per cent of them recognized the monopodial tree over the sympodial ones. We speculate that they were familiar with the sympodial trees found in their home garden and thus able to differentiate the unfamiliar and uncommon one, the monopodial type (Figure 5). This perception is somewhat consistent with the idea of Summit and Sommer (1999) that vertical slender trunks attract childrens visual response.

to recognize loose parts of the elements and used as play tool. The result also suggests that the forest and orchard offered plenty of loose parts for the children to grasp and use them in their play activities.

Figure 5: Slender trunk of huge monopodial tree attracted visual response

vegetation environm ental opportunities for sociality

13 8 1 9 10 9 2 9 4
0 2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2 1 4

Taxonomy of affordances

shelter attachedobjects graspable/detachedobjects animals climablefeature w ater slopeandrelativelyrough

Water, attached objects and animals afforded nine functional properties each. Interestingly, in the stream, apart from swimming, the children searched shrimps and scooped the crustacean using plastic sieve, threw pebbles into water, scooped sand with both hands from stream bed, splashed water over peers, rested on boulder, felt cold after staying long in the water and felt water moving around their body. This finding is partially paralleled with study by Ismail (2008) that forest stream forest affords 87 functional properties.

Q uantity of affordances

Figure 4: Taxonomy of affordances of children experience in forest and orchard setting

The second highest of affordances was offered by graspable or detached objects (n=10) such as pebbles, fruit stalks, sand and dried leaves. At the chalet site, the elements of the orchard afforded the children watching pebbles jumping on water surface, scooping sand from stream bed, throwing stone to a tree trunk, collecting branches for firewood and making fire (Figure 6). While hiking in the hill forest, the children performed pulling garcinia leaves with stick, picking yellow pods from the forest floor, cracking the pods to see red seeds, picking dried branches, grapping stalk of durian fruits, throwing dried leaves into rapid and watching the leaves drifting on the water. In other words, through scanning the natural elements, the children able

Figure 6: Searching and scooping shrimps, bathing and resting on boulder, moulding sand were performatory and exploratory affordances at stream

The affordances were balancing on boulders, sitting on boulders to eat lunch, cutting bamboo poles, making a cloth line from bamboo pole, feeling irritation after cutting bamboo, standing on footbridge, observing huge tree and ducking under fallen logs. Each affordance involved sensorial and motoric actions, simultaneously. For example, sitting on boulder begun with scanning and selecting suitable boulder to sit; two sensorial actions. The actions triggered a child to climb and then sat on the boulder; two motoric actions. In

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other words, through active detection of information and movement (Kytta, 2003), a boulder in a forest stream offered four properties for a child to experience. Perception and dexterity in the natural settings allowed the children to exploit nature and knew the utilitarian value of elements (Kellert, 2002). Additionally, the direct experience in nature permitted the children to value the functional properties of naturalness of the forest and orchard; scanning, hearing (Figure 7), climbing, cutting, sitting, manipulating, standing, observing and ducking.

70 Quantity of affordances 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

61

4 Positive Types of affordances Negative

Figure 8: Types of affordances in the forest and orchard

7.0. CONCLUSION In this study, the natural environment of a tropical woodland area is a suitable playscape for children. Most of the play activities involved performatory and exploratory performances including climbing and sliding down slippery slopes, picking fallen fruits, plucking leaves from trees, collecting pebbles from stream bed and throwing the pebbles of stream surface, and many more. However, only a few activities were productive that is creating play tools from the natural elements that the children recognized their properties for play. In sum, experiencing in natural environment allowed children to express their cognitive, physical and social skills. 8.0. REFERENCES 1. Borge et al. (2003). Children in The Environment: Forest day-care Centers Modern day care with Historical Antecedents. Journal of the History of the Family, 8: 605-618. Chawla, H and Heft, H. (2002), Childrens competence and the ecology of communities: a functional approach to the evaluation of participation, Journal of Environmental Psychology,22: 201-216. Christensen, P., (2003). Place, Space and Knowledge: Children in The Village and The City In: Christensen, P. and OBrien, M.: Children in The City: Home, Neighbourhood and Community: The Future of Childhood Series, Routledge Falmer, Taylor & Francis Group, London and NY, 13-28. Fjortoft, I., (2004). Landscape as Playscape: The Effects of Natural Environments on Childrens Play and Motor Development, Telemark University College, Faculty of Arts, Folk Culture and Teacher Education Norway. (2004 Children, Youth and Environment). Journal of Children, Youth and Environments.14(2):21-44 Gleeson, B. and Sipe, N. (2006). Creating Child Friendly Cities: Reinstating Kids in the City, Routledge New York.

Figure 7: In the forest children hear sounds of animals such cicadas and birds

6.3. Types of Affordances As can be seen in Figure 8, the forest and orchard offered 15 times more positive affordances (n=61) than negative ones (n=4) to the children. The positive affordances overwhelmed the negative ones suggesting the functional properties of the forest and orchard were effectively perceived and utilized by the children. In other words, the children perceived the orchard and hill forest as places that afford a variety of functional properties for play and learn about nature. The four negative affordances were fear of leeches, fear of thorny rattan, tired to proceed hiking the forest hill and tired after climbing down the slope. However, the negative were contemporary stimuli attention because the positive ones overwhelmed the childrens fear and anxiety. The vast difference between the positive and negative affordances suggests that children have recognized the forest and orchard as play spaces offering fascinating sensorial and motoric activities.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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6. 7.

8.

9.

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Gibson, J. J. (1979). The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Heft, H. (1999). Affordances of Children's Environments: A Functional Approach to Environmental Description, In Directions in Person-Environment Research and Practice, Vol. (Eds, Nassar, J. J. and Preiser, W. F. E.), Aldershot: Ashgate, 44-69. Heft, H., (1988). Affordances of Childrens Environments: A Functional Approach to Environmental Description, Childrens Environments Quarterly, Vol. 5, 29-37. Ismail, Said (2008). Evaluating Affordances of Streams and Rivers Pertaining to Childrens Functioning in Natural Environment, Journal of King Saud UniversityArchitecture and Planning Division, Vol. 20, pp.20-32 Khan and Kellert R. Stephen, (2002). Experiencing Nature: Affective, Cognitive and Evaluative Development in Children In: Kellert, S. R. and Kahn, P. H., Children and Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary Investigations, The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England. Kytta, M. (2003). Children in Outdoor Contexts: Affordances and Independent Mobility in the Assessment of Environment Child Friendliness, Doctoral Thesis, Centre for Urban and Regional Studies, Helsinki University of Technology.

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Moore, R. and Young, D. (1978), Childhood Outdoors: Toward a Social Ecology of the Landscape In: Altman, I and Wohlwill J, Children and The Environment: Human Behavior and Environment, Advances in Theory and Research, Volume 3, Plenum Press, New York and London. O Brien, L. and Murray, R. (2007). Forest School and Its Impacts On Young Children: Case Studies in Britain, Journal of Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. Olds, A. R. (1989). Psychological and Physiological Harmony In: Child Care Center Rivkin, Mary S., (2000). Outdoor Experience for Young Children, ERIC. Sebba, R., (1991). The Landscape of Childhood: The Reflection of Childhoods Environment in Adult Memories and in Childrens Attitudes: Journal of Environment and Behavior 23; 395-422. Sobel, D., (1999). Beyond Ecophobia: Adapted from volume one of Beyond Ecophobia: Reclaiming the Heart in Nature Education, Antioch New England Graduate School. Sobel, D., (2002). Childrens Special Places: Exploring the Role of Forts, Dens, and Bush Houses in Middle Childhood, Wayne State University Press, Detroit. Sommer, R. and Summit, J. (1995). An Exploratory Study of Preferred Tree Form, Journal of Environment and Behavior, 27:540-557.

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WORKABILITY OF BASIN MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN JAPAN

Appropriate Water Resources Management under Rapid Urbanization

Jun Matsushita Department of Systems Engineering, Shibaura Institute of Technology

ABSTRACT This paper intends to examine the workability of basin management systems which were urgently needed in Japan for proper water resources management during high economic growth period (1960s-70s) under due rapid urbanization with fast growing water demand: (1) regarding domestic water, save-our-water policy package to combine non-structural measures for demand-side control together with structural measures for supply-side control has been useful to stabilize water consumption, (2) regarding industrial water, regulation on free-riding groundwater use has been highly enhancing of in-house water recycling, up to some 80% out of total water consumption. As a result, workability of basin management systems is verified for streamlining of water resources management under rapid urbanization through incorporation of private initiatives into public water works. In addition, it is suggested that they should be also workable to create sustainable society models taking into consideration would-be ever-tighter water resources in the future. 1. INTRODUCTION Needless to say, infrastructure-building is essential both to boost economic growth and to enhance public well-being. However, the impact imposed by rapid expansion of Densely Inhabited District (DID) has been far exceeding the capacity of public works due to weak governance during the so-called high economic growth period (1950s-60s) in Japan as shown in Fig. 1. The previous study analyzes the necessity and workability of basin management systems, hereinafter referred as BMS, which combined (1) non-structural measures based on private initiatives or cause-pay- principle with (2) structural measures based on public works in this particular socioeconomic context for the following objectives: namely urban-flood control, pollution- control and Fig. 1 DID expansion in water-demand control. Tokyo Metropolis (1960-95)

In case of urban-flood control, the city planning act stipulated installation of on-site stormwater run-off reduction units based on developer-pay- principle when flood damage became apparent due to delayed river works against rapid urbanization. Such non-structural measures have been verified soon to be workable in mitigating urban flood damages effectively. (Jun Matsushita, 2006) The comparative study on pollution-control method among three countries Japan, the Netherlands and Indonesia analyzes how BMS has been needed highly in Japan and concludes that Grow Now, and Clean-up Later like strategy commonly seen at that time resulted in introduction of anti-pollution acts in the basis of bitter lessons from pollution-related heavy health hazards. The anti-pollution acts have been workable in promoting non-structural measures such as on-site wastewater treatment units based on polluter-pay- principle to effectively supplement insufficient sewerage works. (Suharyanto, 2008) Further, regarding water-demand control, BMS has been introduced for creating proper water resources management on condition of interstate water transfer due to rapidly increasing water consumption in urbanized areas. The process of BMS development during Japans post war era (1940s-2000s) is to be classified into the following four phases: Phase-1: economic rebuilding (1940s-50s) when concentrated investment had to be made into main-stay infrastructure-building such as dams and power lines for prompt economic recovery, Phase-2: high economic growth (1950s-60s) when costly interstate water transfer implementation correspondent to increasing water demand in the metropolis became inevitable and due revision of charging schemes was made based on cause-to-pay principle, Phase-3: aftermath of oil-crisis (1970s-80s) when newlyintroduced save-our-water policy package has been effectively contributing to reduce water consumption on per-capita basis. Phase-4: new era toward sustainable society creation (1900s-present-future) when creation of carbonemission-less and recycle-oriented society models become urgent due to global warming and tighter world resources market. BMS with private initiatives together must be the key platform to realize these models and to save our common water resources in the future.

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2. HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY The hypothesis built-up herein is as follows: (1) BMS, as shown in Fig. 2, combining non-structural measures based on private initiatives with structural measures or public works should be urgently needed to bridge the gap between fast urbanization and delayed public works during the high economic growth period and (2) BMS would be further needed to create sustainable society models in the basis of private initiatives. In any phases, there have been the stable functions by the main-stay infrastructure-building such as construction of dams and interstate water transfer mains. These works should be under responsibility of national government through developing platforms for socio-economic start-ups in the short-term and enhancing eco-economic sustainability on the long run. On the contrary, there have been functions by the local infrastructure-building such as water supply systems in each urbanized area. These works should be under responsibility of municipal governments which need particular measures to off-set their weak governance in the basis of private initiatives . In case of water-demand control, the weight between structural/non-structural measures differs by phases as follows: Phase-1 as of economic rebuilding period (1940s-50s), the notion of BMS itself had not been so strongly needed, since the impact of urbanization is rather small, Phase-2 as of high economic growth period (1950s-60s), the functions by non-structural measures weigh much stronger than the ones by structural measures, since the governance was not enough strong to fully implement water supply systems in urbanized areas needed to meet rapidly increasing water demand while main-stay water resources developments including dams and interstate water transfer mains were rather smoothly implemented, Phase-3 as of oil crisis aftermath period (1980s-90s), promotion of save our water package became needed further based on non-structural measures such as cumulative charging system, in-house water recycling units and water-saving appliances to reduce per-capita water consumption, Phase-4 as of new era toward sustainable society creation (1990s-present-future), there should be sustainable functions by the non-structural measures to enhance carbon- emission-less and recycle-oriented society models in the future, since materializing these tasks must need due socio-economic platforms to enhance public involvement in the basis of the save our water policy package introduced in the previous phase. In the following chapters, focusing is made on the workability of BMS for appropriate water resources management for both domestic/industrial water resources in Japan. The Japans BMS is verified to be applicable to Bangkok (Matsushita, 2008) and to be worthy of examination for Selangor, metropolis of Malaysia (Nafisah Abdul Rahiman, 2008). 3. WORKABILITY OF BASIN MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS FOR WATER-DEMAND CONTROL 3-1 Domestic Water Resources The development process of BMS during Japans post

Common Background among Asian Countries Rapid Industrialization and Urbanization Monsoonal Climate, Weak Governance

Grow Now, Clean-up Later

Strategically Appropriate Approach?

Basin Management Systems

Flood-Control, Pollution-Control, Water-Demand Control

Structural Measures (Public Works) Non-Structural Measures (Private Initiatives)

Water-Demand Control
Structural Measures Multi-Purpose Dams Interstate Water Transfer Water Supply Systems Leakage Prevention Non-Structural Measures In-house Water Recycling Rainwater Harvesting Save-water Type Appliance Cumulative Water Charge

Cause-Pay-Principle Creation of Sustainable Society Fig. 2 Composition of Basin Management Systems for Water-Demand Control war era (1940s-2000s) is analyzed for water-demand control by phases as follows: Phase 1: economic rebuilding period (1940s-50s) National government had enacted Multi-purpose Dam Construction Act in 1957 to meet increasing demand of water supply for the industrial developments during the economic rebuilding period. However, necessity of BMS had not been so strong in this economic rebuilding period. Phase-2: high economic growth (1950s-60s) To meet rapidly increasing water demand, Water Resources Development Promotion Act was established in 1961. Under this act, national government proposed Basin-wide Comprehensive Water Resources Development Plan, where many multi-purpose dam projects were developed for interstate water transfer to meet rapidly increasing water demand in metropolitan regions. In addition, national government had to obtain alternative water resources by converting excess of traditionally-allocated agriculture irrigation water onto newly-demanded domestic water during non-cultivation seasons through tough negotiations between domestic and agriculture sectors. Meanwhile, higher cost for the interstate water transfer development urged major municipalities to revise water charging schemes to make their balance sheet in black. Such administrative movement led to creation of socio-economic platform toward comprehensive save our water policy package in the next phase. Phase-3: aftermath for oil crisis (1970s-80s) The oil crisis gave Japan the turning point to reshape our previous free-riding style resources consumption mode. In accordance, some major municipalities introduced the save our water policy package which consisted of the following elements: (1) supply-side control such as leakage prevention to reduce non-paid water portion and

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(2) demand-side control such as cumulative water charging scheme with bigger unit price for bigger consumers, water-saving type domestic appliances, in-house wastewater recycling and rainwater harvesting systems for demand-side control. In particular, major municipalities introduced their own ordinances in order to stipulate installation of in-house wastewater recycling and/or rainwater harvesting units for large-scale developments as shown in Fig. 3. In case of Tokyo Metropolitan Government (TMG), the target is 2 the developments with total floor area of 30,000 m or 2 more (recently up-graded to 10,000 m or more). Simultaneously, our national government introduced subsidiary schemes to enhance basin-wide treated wastewater recycling. In addition, many municipalities, some 200 or more have their own subsidiary schemes to boost rainwater harvesting and/or rainwater storage/infiltration systems. As a result, the number of recycling units and annual recycling amount are counted by approximate 3,050 units and 280 million m3 in total, respectively, although their locations are very limited: mainly within Tokyo metropolitan regions and Northern Kyushu Island where population density is quite high and/or per-capita annual rainfall amount is relatively small. (Hiroyuki OKui, 2008)

In-house Wastewater Recycling Water Resources Development (Dams, Inter-state Water Transfer)

Wastewater Management

Rainwater Harvesting

On-site Rainwater Storage & Infiltration Flood Mitigation Surface Stormwater Runoff Flood Water Management

Fig. 4 Integrated basin management systems

Fig. 3 In-house wastewater recycling system model

Phase-4: new era toward sustainable society creation (1900s-present-future) In this stage, we should create carbon-emission-less and recycle-oriented society models in the basis of international commitment to fight with global warming. In addition, taking would-be tighter international resources market into consideration, we could also justify the necessity of implementing such hard tasks. And this is surely true in the most of Asian countries. In the creation of these advanced society models, much more integrated systems would be desired. As shown in Fig. 4, we should incorporate on-site systems of various types the comprehensive system. However, it would be relatively smooth, since most of these on-site type systems have been already implemented within the save our water policy package in the previous BMS development process mentioned-above. Evaluation of BMS: Herein, the analysis is made on the chronological change on total water supply amount and per-capita water supply amount during 1950s-1990s to evaluate the sustainability

of Japans water resources. As shown in Fig. 5, it is recognized that the annual water supply amount has been increasing sharply during 1950s-90s in Japan mainly due to population growth and life-style change. However, if seen from per capita basis, daily water supply amount has become stabilized steadily at around 400l since 1970s. Regarding the effect of the save our water policy package, the previous analysis on Fukuoka-shi case verifies the contribution by each policy element and concludes as follows: (1) per-capita amount of 80l/day equivalent to 22% out of total 363l/day could be decreased with this policy during 17 years (1977-93) under water shortages due to heavy urbanization and (2) out of 80l/day, 33.5l/daya (42%) by supply-side control such as leakage prevention, 33l/day (41%) by demand-side control such as save-water type appliance plus in-house water recycling, etc. and 13.5l/day (17%) by peoples consciousness change. (Toshiharu Fujii, 2002) In addition, authors preliminary study reveals as follows: (1) per-capita amount of 135l/day equivalent to 26% out of total 528/day has been saved with this policy during recent 37 years (1971-2007) and (2) out of 135l/day, 8l/day (6%) by leakage prevention, and 7l/day (5%) while remaining is under investigation. As a result, it is apparent that BMS introduced in the wake of the oil crisis in 1970s has been workable to reduce water consumption some 20-30% level at major municipalities in Japan. 3-2 Industrial Water Resources In this paper, analysis is made on the ground use mainly for industrial water resources in Japan. In the Kanto Plain where Tokyo metropolis is located, groundwater use had been developed in full-scale since the beginning of 1900s to boost industrial production. No appropriate regulations to control groundwater up-take have been introduced for so long time, since groundwater use was admitted as a legal right of each land owner. As a result, disorderly exploitation of groundwater continued for nearly a century to trigger groundwaterrelated hazards including strict land subsidence and sea water intrusion in the region. Such tendency has been continued until Japans economic growth period in 1950s-60s and resulted in appearance of so-called ground-zero areas with 4-5 meters below MSL.

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20

600

10

300

200

Fig. 5 Chronological cange of domestic water supply amount in Japan (1950s-2000s)

In this wake, serious social issues have been brought-in such as necessity of extensive flood-control measures. In accordance, Industrial Water Law was enacted in 1956 to control extraction of groundwater in designated urban areas including Tokyo metropolis. Therefore, piped water supply was ensured for industrial sectors. In addition, Building Water Law was enacted in 1962 to completely restrict new abstractions of groundwater. Evaluation of BMS: With these various measures combined, the land subsidence has been mitigated steadily since 1960s. In addition, oil crisis in 1970s has accelerated water consumption reduction and conversion to in-house water recycling among industrial sectors. The recycled water ratio has risen remarkably to nearly 80% by 2000s, some 30% increase in recent 30 years. If evaluated per GDP of million Yen basis, total water in-take in industrial sectors is counted by 350 m3 and reduced to 70 m3 in 1965 and 2000, respectively. (Jun Matsushita, 2007) As a result, it is verified that BMS based on the regulations for free-ride-style underground water use in 1960s has been workable so far in promoting in-house water recycling systems through stimulating cost-cut incentives among industrial sectors. 4. CONCLUSIONS This paper examined the workability of basin management systems (BMS) with structural/ non-structural measures combined for water-demand control under rapid urbanization during Japans high economic growth period. As a result, the followings are clarified: Domestic water resources: BMS has been workable in supplementing public works during high economic growth period (1950s-60s) as well as in highly reducing water consumption in oil crisis aftermath (1970s). In addition, BMS could be workable further in creation of the sustainable society models in the future. Industrial water resources: BMS has been workable in shifting water resources promptly from low-cost groundwater to alternative in-house recycled water. Out of total water consumption, 80% is allocated by in-house

water recycling today likely due to cost-cut incentive among industrial sectors. Future Tasks: The future tasks are suggested as follows (Jun Matsushita, 2007): (1) Study on BMS application to advanced sustainable society model creation based on private initiative, the key notion of the BMS (2) Study on BMS application to Asian cities where rapid urbanization tend to exceed infrastructure-development REFERENCES Jun Matsushita: Applicability of Japanese-style Basin Management Systems to Bangkok, Journal of Shimanto Policy and Management, Vol.1 No.1, pp13-22, 2007 Jun Matsushita: Evaluation on Japanese Basin Management Systems, Journal of Shimanto Policy and Management, Vol.6 No.1, pp11-18, 2008 Hiroyuki Okui, Present Conditions on Water Recycling and Rainwater Harvesting in Japan, Database of Association of Rainwater Storage and Infiltration Technology in Japan, 2008, (in Japanese) Nafisah Abdul Rahiman: Comparative Study on Water Resources Management from Supply-side/ Demand-side Control between Tokyo and Selangor, Proceeding of 4-th SETUC Conference, 2008 Suharyanto: Comparative Study on Wastewater Management Systems among Japan, NL and Indonesia, Proceeding of Social Management Systems Conference, 2008 Toshiharu Fujii: Evaluation on Save Our Water Policy Package of Fukuoka-shi, Journal of Japan Water Supply Systems, Vol.71, No. 7, 2002, (in Japanese)
Jun Matsushita received the B.E. (1973) from Kyoto University, and D.E. (1998) in Urban Engineering from Tokyo University. He is a professor, Faculty of Systems Engineering, Shibaura Institute of Technology. His current interests include Basin Management System and Sustainability.

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