MODINAGAR

A PROJECT REPORT ON

Wind & Solar Powered Street Lamp

Submitted for the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical & Electronics Engineering From U.P. Technical University, Lucknow
SESSION: 2009-10

SUBMITTED TO: Er. Vikas Singh

SUBMITTED BY:

Vivek Jaiswal Manish Kumar Sharma Lalit Kumar Ashutosh Dwivedi

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project entitled wind and solar powered street lamp submitted in the partial fulfillment, for the award of degree of Bachelor of technology [Electrical and Electronics] of UTTAR PRADESH TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, Lucknow; at K.N,G.D MODI ENGGINEERING COLLEGE, Modinagar, by Vivek Jaiswal Roll No. 0619521055 is carried out by him/her under my supervision. The matter embodied in this project work has not been submitted earlier for award of any degree or diploma in any university/institution to the best of our knowledge and belief.

Head of the Department (ENE)

Director (Engineering)

Date: __/__/____

College Seal

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives us a great sense of pleasure to present the report of the B. Tech Project undertaken during B. Tech. Final Year. We owe special debt of gratitude to Mr. Vikas Singh, Head, Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, K.N.G.D.Modi Engineering College, Modi Nagar, Ghaziabad for his constant support and guidance throughout the course of our work. His sincerity, thoroughness and perseverance have been a constant source of inspiration for us. It is only his cognizant efforts that our endeavors have seen light of the day. We also take the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of Er. Priyank Chaudhry ,Er Shweta Agarwal [Lecturer], Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, K.N.G.D.Modi Engineering College, Modi Nagar, Ghaziabad for their full support and assistance during the development of the project. We also do not like to miss the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of all faculty members of the department for their kind assistance and cooperation during the development of our project. Last but not the least, we acknowledge our friends for their contribution in the completion of the project. Signature: Name : Roll No.: Date :

ABSTRACT
Hybrid power system can be used to reduce energy storage requirements. The influence of the Deficiency of Power Supply Probability (DPSP), Relative Excess Power Generated (REPG), Energy to Load Ratio (ELR), fraction of PV and wind energy, and coverage of PV and wind energy against the system size and performance were analyzed. The technical feasibility of PVwind hybrid system in given range of load demand was evaluated. The methodology of Life Cycle Cost (LCC) for economic evaluation of stand-alone photovoltaic system, standalone wind system and PV-wind hybrid system have been developed and simulated using the model. The comparative cost analysis of grid line extension energy source with PV-wind hybrid system was studied in detail. The optimum combination of solar PV-wind hybrid system lies between 0.70 and 0.75 of solar energy to load ratio and the corresponding LCC is minimum. The PV-wind hybrid system returns the lowest unit cost values to maintain the same level of DPSP as compared to standalone solar and wind systems. For all load demands the levelised energy cost for PV-wind hybrid system is always lower than that of standalone solar PV or wind system. The PV-wind hybrid option is techno-economically viable for rural electrification.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction Figure Of Wind and Solar Powered Hybrid Street Lamp Wind Turbine for hybrid system History of Wind Power Small "Hybrid" Solar and Wind Electric Systems Electricity Generation from Wind Types of Wind Turbines Parts used Stepper motor Using as a Dynamo Solar panel

Figure Of a Typical Solar Panel

LED street lamp A Typical Led Panel Advantages of Wind And Solar Powered Lamp Disadvantages of Wind And Solar Powered Lamp

Application

Economic Analysis References

Declaration

INTRODUCTION
The innovative wind and solar powered hybrid street lamp concept can not only produce light by using renewable energy, also its a boost to an everyday object that can operate completely offgrid. This concept was derived from the effort of designers to create a more sustainable future that integrates a range of reusable energy technologies into everyday life objects. These lamps comprise a solar array connected with a wind turbine, and can produce up to 380W of power.

These wind/solar powered street lamps are fitted to locally made usual galvanized steel poles and can be easily swapped with previous street lamps. The turbines can be either a horizontal axis wind turbine or a 2nd generation 300W vertical axis wind turbine. Two solar panels are mounted on the side of the pole that is capable of producing up to 80W of power.

Energy is vital for the progress of a nation and it has to be conserved in a most efficient manner. Not only the technologies should be developed to produce energy in a most environment-friendly manner from all varieties of fuels but also enough importance should be given to conserve the energy resources in the most efficient way. Energy is the ultimate factor responsible for both industrial and agricultural development. The use of renewable energy technology to meet the energy demands has been steadily increasing for the past few years, however, the important drawbacks associated with renewable energy systems are their inability to guarantee reliability and their lean nature. Import of petroleum products constitutes a major drain on our foreign exchange reserve. Renewable energy sources are considered to be the better option to meet these challenges. More than 200 million people, live in rural areas without access to grid-connected power [4]. In India, over 80,000 villages remain to be un-electrified and particularly in the state of Tamil Nadu, about 400 villages (with 63% tribes) are difficult to supply electricity due to inherent problems of location and economy. The costs to install and service the distribution lines are considerably high for remote areas. Also there will be a substantial increase in transmission line

losses in addition to poor power supply reliability. Like several other developing countries, India is characterized by severe energy deficit. In most of the remote and nonelectrified sites, extension of utility grid lines experiences a number of problems such as high capital investment, high lead time, low load factor, poor voltage regulation and frequent power supply interruptions. There is a growing interest in harnessing renewable energy sources since they are naturally available, pollution free and inexhaustible. It is this segment that needs special attention and hence concentrated efforts are continually provided in implementing standalone PV, wind, bio-diesel generator and integrated systems at sites that have a large potential of either solar, wind or both. Traditionally, electrical energy for remote villages has been derived from diesel generators characterized by high reliability, high running costs, moderate efficiency and high maintenance. Hence, a convenient, cost-effective and reliable power supply is an essential factor in the development of any rural area. It is a critical factor in the development of the agro industry and commercial operations, which are projected to be the core of that areas economy. At present, standalone solar photovoltaic and wind systems have been promoted around the globe on a comparatively larger scale [7]. These independent systems cannot provide continuous source of energy, as they are seasonal. For example, standalone solar photovoltaic energy system cannot provide reliable power during non-sunny days. The standalone wind system cannot satisfy constant load demands due to significant fluctuations in the magnitude of wind speeds from hour to hour throughout the year. Therefore, energy storage systems will be required for each of these systems in order to satisfy the power demands. Usually storage system is expensive and the size has to be reduced to a minimum possible for the renewable energy system to be cost effective. Hybrid power systems can be used to reduce energy storage requirements.

Wind & Solar Powered Street Lamp

Wind Turbine for hybrid system 1. The hybrid.

The solar panels can only work average 3 hours a day under sunshine. In the raining day and in the night, when solar PV can not work, we can expect the wind turbine. Compare with the solar (only) street lamp, a hybrid system can reduce the expensive solar PV, and makes the battery charged in most kinds of weather.

2. How much power does an MW-400 wind turbine output?

One important thing of a wind turbine is its cut-in speed. For example: Many wind turbines cut-in speed is above 3m/s. That means it can output 0 when the wind-speed is below 3m/s. The cut-in speed of the MW-400 is 2.1m/s as it has low cogging alternator, and 6 blades makes it high torque. If the wind in that area is always 2-3m/s, it also can work and charge the battery. Sometimes it can work hours more than the above. One characteristic of the MW wind turbine is that it works well at lower wind-speed. The MW-400 can supply 35AH a day to the 24VDC battery bank in the average wind-speed of 5m/s. 3. The weight vs. the installation. The weight of the wind turbine and the solar PV is important when concerning the intensity and the rigidity of the pole. The MW-200 wind turbine is 8.5 Kg, and the MW-400 is 10 Kg. They are easy to install and light enough. As the wind turbine can supply more power, the solar PV can be reduced.

Windmill electricity
Mankind been harnessing the wind's energy for many years. From Holland to traditional farms around the world, windmills were used in the past for pumping water through primitive irrigation systems or used to grind grain. Then, the wind turned large "sails" which were connected by a long vertical shaft that was attached to a grinding machine or to a wheel that turned and drew water from a well. Today's turbines - can utilize the energy of the wind to turn large metal blades which in turn spins a generator that manufactures electric power. Windmill electricity turbines, unlike the machines of old, are mounted on very tall towers in order to capture the most wind energy available. At 100 feet (30 meters) or more above ground, wind turbines can take advantage of the faster and less turbulent wind. Turbines catch the wind's energy with their propeller-like blades. Usually, two or three blades are mounted on a shaft to form a rotor. A blade acts much like an airplane wing. When the wind blows, a pocket of low-pressure air forms on the downwind side of the blade. The low-pressure air pocket then pulls the blade toward it, causing the rotor to turn. This is called lift. The force of the lift is actually much stronger than the wind's force against the front side of the blade, which is called drag. The combination of lift and drag causes the rotor to spin like a propeller, and the turning shaft spins a generator to make power. In recent years, government have invested enormous amounts of (taxpayer) money in windmill electricity "wind farms" to generate electric power. The only problem with wind generated power is that when the wind stops, so does the generator and therefore the electric power production. Electric power cannot be produced and stored for consumption later. Therefore, wind power can only be counted on mostly when the wind is blowing at optimal speeds and only in locations where the prevailing winds are such that it makes economic sense to build these

power plants and this may not be when and where the power is needed. Stand-alone windmill electricity turbines are typically used for water pumping or communications. However, homeowners, farmers, and ranchers in windy areas can also use wind turbines as a way to cut their power bills. Small windmill electricity systems also have potential as distributed energy resources. Distributed energy resources refer to a variety of small, modular power-generating technologies that can be combined to improve the operation of the electric power delivery system.

There is an increasing focus worldwide on renewable energy sources. Wind Power is one of the best forms of creating renewable energy. In this article we explore some of the basics of wind electricity generation. A windmill is a device that converts wind energy in other forms of energy. In most cases this involves the wind energy being transformed into mechanical energy when the blades start to spin. It is this mechanical energy which is then transformed into electricity. Given that wind is a naturally occurring, free, renewable resource, the ability to make use of the wind for electricity generation makes it very useful in the current times of rising energy prices. Wind energy is best utilized in farms and rural areas. It may also work in "suburbia", but is unlikely to be much use in densely populated areas due to the increased number of obstacles preventing the free flow of the wind. There are two important prerequisites for the windmill: * Ideally the windmill should be erected on an area of not less than one hectare. Any smaller than this and it won't work as well due to there being insufficient wind energy for the windmill to work. * The average wind speed in this area should be about 11 mph. As stated above, try to avoid areas where the windflaw is distorted. And of course, it pays to install it in area where there is good consistent wind strength.

Windmill main components

To construct a windmill there are four main components :

* Blades -- responsible for the capture and utilization of wind

energy. Blades can be made of wood or plastic.

* Tower -- the basis of the system which must be high enough to

make use of the wind. It should be constructed of a rigid material, such as poly-vinyl chloride.

* The shaft -- the shaft joins the blades to the tower and
ensures that they rotate smoothly.

* The base -- the base holds everything together and ensures that
it is solid and stable

History of Wind Power

Since ancient times, people have harnessed the wind's energy. Over 5,000 years ago, the ancient Egyptians used wind to sail ships on the Nile River. Later, people built windmills to grind wheat and other grains. The earliest known windmills were in Persia (now called Iran). These early windmills looked like large paddle wheels. Centuries later, the people of Holland improved the basic design of the windmill. They gave it propeller-type blades, still made with sails. Holland's windmills are world renowned.

American colonists used windmills to grind wheat and corn, to pump water, and to cut wood at sawmills. As late as the 1920s, Americans used small windmills to generate electricity in rural areas without electric service. When power lines began to transport electricity to rural areas in the 1930s, local windmills were used less and less, though they can still be seen on some Western ranches.

Energy from Moving Air

Wind is heating surface absorbs simply air in motion. It is caused by the uneven of the Earth's surface by the sun. Because the Earth's is made of very different types of land and water, it the sun's heat at different rates.

The Daily Wind Cycle

During the day, the air above the land heats up more quickly than the air over water. The warm air over the land expands and rises, and the heavier, cooler air rushes in to take its place, creating wind. At night, the winds are reversed because the air cools more rapidly over land than over water. In the same way, the atmospheric winds that circle the earth are created because the land near the Earth's equator is heated more by the sun than the land near the North and South Poles.

Small "Hybrid" Solar and Wind Electric Systems

According to many renewable energy experts, a small "hybrid" electric system that combines wind and solar (photovoltaic) technologies offers several advantages over either single system. In much of the United States, wind speeds are low in the summer when the sun shines brightest and longest. The wind is strong in the winter when less sunlight is available. Because the peak operating times for wind and solar systems occur at different times of the day and year, hybrid systems are more likely to produce power when you need it. Many hybrid systems are stand-alone systems, which operate "off-grid"not connected to an electricity distribution system. For the times when neither the wind nor the solar system are producing, most hybrid systems provide power through batteries and/or an engine generator powered by conventional fuels, such as diesel. If the batteries run low, the engine generator can provide power and recharge the batteries. Adding an engine generator makes the system more complex, but modern electronic controllers can operate these systems automatically. An engine generator can also reduce the size of the other components needed for the system. Keep in mind that the storage capacity must be large enough to supply electrical needs during non-charging periods. Battery banks are typically sized to supply the electric load for one to three days.

Electricity Generation from Wind

How Wind Turbines Work
Like old fashioned windmills, todays wind machines (also called wind turbines) use blades to collect the winds kinetic energy. The wind flows over the blades creating lift, like the effect on airplane wings, which causes them to turn. The blades are connected to a drive shaft that turns an electric generator to produce electricity. With the new wind machines, there is still the problem of what to do when the wind isn't blowing. At those times, other types of power plants must be used to make electricity.

Wind Power Production

In 2008, wind machines in the United States generated a total of 52 billion kilowatt-hours, about 1.3% of total U.S. electricity generation. Although this is a small fraction of the Nation's total electricity production, it was enough electricity to serve 4.6 million households or to power the entire State of Colorado. The amount of electricity generated from wind has been growing rapidly in recent years. Generation from wind in the United States nearly doubled between 2006 and 2008. New technologies have decreased the cost of producing electricity from wind, and growth in wind power has been encouraged by tax breaks for renewable energy and green pricing programs. Many utilities around the country offer green pricing options that allow customers the choice to pay more for electricity that comes from renewable sources to support new technologies.

Types of Wind Turbines

There are two types of wind machines (turbines) used today, based on the direction of the rotating shaft (axis): horizontal-axis wind machines and vertical-axis wind machines. The size of wind machines varies widely. Small turbines used to power a single home or business may have a capacity of less than 100 kilowatts. Some large commercial-sized turbines may have a capacity of 5 million watts, or 5 megawatts. Larger turbines are often grouped together into wind farms that provide power to the electrical grid.

Horizontal-axis Turbines Look Like Windmills

Most wind machines being used today are the horizontal-axis type. Horizontal-axis wind machines have blades like airplane propellers. A typical horizontal wind machine stands as tall as a 20-story building and has three blades that span 200 feet across. The largest wind machines in the world have blades longer than a football field. Wind machines stand tall and wide to capture more wind.

Vertical-axis Turbines Look Like Egg Beaters

Vertical-axis wind machines have blades that go from top to bottom. The most common type the Durries wind turbine, named after the French engineer Georges Durries who patented the design in 1931 looks like a giant, two-bladed egg beater. This type of vertical wind machine typically stands 100 feet

tall and 50 feet wide. Vertical-axis wind machines make up only a very small share of the wind machines used today.

Wind Power Plants Produce Electricity

Wind power plants, or wind farms, as they are sometimes called, are clusters of wind machines used to produce electricity. A wind farm usually has dozens of wind machines scattered over a large area. The world's largest wind farm, the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center in Texas, has 421 wind turbines that generate enough electricity to power 220,000 homes per year. Many wind plants are not owned by public utility companies. Instead, they are owned and operated by business people who sell the electricity produced on the wind farm to electric utilities. These private companies are known as Independent Power Producers.

Parts used
Vertical blades as wind turbine Dynamo for generating electricity Solar panel for generating electricity Light emitting diodes (LED) as street light

Vertical blades as wind turbine

Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. Key advantages of this arrangement are that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be effective. This is an advantage on sites where the wind direction is highly variable. VAWTs can utilize winds from varying directions. With a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, so the tower doesn't need to support it, and it is more accessible for maintenance. Drawbacks are that some designs produce pulsating torque. Drag may be created when the blade rotates into the wind.

It is difficult to mount vertical-axis turbines on towers, meaning they are often installed nearer to the base on which they rest, such as the ground or a building rooftop. The wind speed is slower at a lower altitude, so less wind energy is available for a given size turbine. Air flow near the ground and other objects can create turbulent flow, which can introduce issues of vibration, including noise and bearing wear which may increase the maintenance or shorten the service life. However, when a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the building generally redirects wind over the roof and this can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of the rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately 50% of the building height, this is near the optimum for maximum wind energy and minimum wind turbulence.

Dynamo for generating electricity

Oil may be the world's favorite fuel, but not for much longer. Modern homes are powered mostly by electricity and it won't be much longer before most of us are driving electric cars as well. Electricity is superbly convenient. You can produce it in all kinds of different ways using everything from coal and oil to wind and waves. You can make it in one place and use it on the other side of the world if you want to. And, once you've produced it, you can store it in batteries and use it days, weeks, months, or even years later. What makes electric power possibleand indeed practicalis a superb electromagnetic device called an electricity generator: a kind of electric motor working in reverse that converts ordinary energy into electricity. Let's take a closer look at generators and find out how they work! Where does electricity come from? The best way to understand electricity is to start by giving it its proper name: electrical energy. If you want to run anything electrical, from a toaster or a toothbrush to an MP3 player or a television, you need to feed it a steady supply of electrical energy. Where are you going to get that from? There's a basic law of physics called the conservation of energy that explains how you can get energyand how you can't. According to this law, there's a fixed amount of energy in the universe and some good news and some bad news about what we can do with it. The bad news is that we can't create more energy than we have already; the good news is that we can't destroy any energy either. All we can ever do with energy is convert it from one form into another. If you want to find some electricity to power your television, you won't be making energy out of thin air: the conservation of energy tells us that's impossible. What you'll be doing is using energy converted from some other form into the electrical energy you need. Generally, that happens in a power plant some distance from your home. Plug in your TV and electrical energy flows into it through a cable. The cable is much longer than you might think: it actually runs all the way from your TVunderground or through the airto the power plant where electrical energy is being prepared for you from an energy-rich fuel such as coal, oil, gas, or atomic fuel. In these eco-friendly times, some of your electricity will also be coming from wind turbines, hydroelectric power plants (which make power using the energy in dammed rivers), or geothermal energy (Earth's internal heat). Wherever your energy comes from, it'll almost certainly be turned into electricity with the help of a generator. Only solar cells make electricity without using generators.

How generators work

An electric motor is essentially just a tight coil of copper wire wrapped around an iron core that's free to rotate at high speed inside a powerful, permanent magnet. When you feed electricity into the copper coil, it becomes a temporary, electrically powered magnetin other words, an electromagnet and generates a magnetic field all around it. This temporary magnetic field pushes against the magnetic field that the permanent magnet creates and forces the coil to rotate. By a bit of clever design, the coil can be made to rotate continuously in the same direction, spinning round and round and powering anything from an electric toothbrush to an electric train. So how is a generator different? Suppose you have an electric toothbrush with a rechargeable battery inside. Instead of letting the battery power the motor that pushes the brush, what if you did the opposite? What if you turned the brush back and forth repeatedly? What you'd be doing would be manually turning the electric motor's axle around. That would make the copper coil inside the motor turn around repeatedly inside its permanent magnet. If you move an electric wire inside a magnetic field, you make electricity flow through the wirein effect, you generate electricity. So keep turning the toothbrush long enough and, in theory, you would generate enough electricity to recharge its battery. That, in effect, is how a generator works. (Actually, it's a little bit more tricky than this and you can't actually recharge your toothbrush this way, though you're welcome to try!) In practice, you need to put in a huge amount of physical effort to generate even small amounts of electricity. You'll know this if you have a bicycle with dynamo lights powered from the wheels: you have to pedal somewhat harder to make the lights glowand that's just to produce the tiny amount of electricity you need to power a couple of torch bulbs. A dynamo is simply a very small electricity generator. At the opposite extreme, in real power plants, gigantic electricity generators are powered by steam turbines. These are a bit like spinning propellers or windmills driven using steam. The steam is made by boiling water using energy released from burning coal, oil, or some other fuel. (Note how the conservation of energy applies here too. The energy that powers the generator comes from the turbine. The energy that powers the turbine comes from the fuel. And the fuelif it's coal or oil originally came from plants powered by the Sun's energy. The point is simple: energy always has to come from somewhere.)

generation of electricity by rotation of axis

Stepper motor Using as a Dynamo

1. Stepping Motor Types

Introduction Variable Reluctance Motors Unipolar Motors Bipolar Motors Bifilar Motors Multiphase Motors

Introduction
Stepping motors come in two varieties, permanent magnet and variable reluctance (there are also hybrid motors, which are indistinguishable from permanent magnet motors from the controller's point of view). Lacking a label on the motor, you can generally tell the two apart by feel when no power is applied. Permanent magnet motors tend to "cog" as you twist the rotor with your fingers, while variable reluctance motors almost spin freely (although they may cog slightly because of residual magnetization in the rotor). You can also distinguish between the two varieties with an ohmmeter. Variable reluctance motors usually have three (sometimes four) windings, with a common return, while permanent magnet motors usually have two independent windings, with or without center taps. Center-tapped windings are used in unipolar permanent magnet motors. Stepping motors come in a wide range of angular resolution. The coarsest motors typically turn 90 degrees per step, while high resolution permanent magnet motors are commonly able to handle 1.8 or even 0.72 degrees per step. With an appropriate controller, most permanent magnet and hybrid motors can be run in half-steps, and some controllers can handle smaller fractional steps or microsteps. For both permanent magnet and variable reluctance stepping motors, if just one winding of the motor is energised, the rotor (under no load) will snap to a fixed angle and then hold that angle until the torque exceeds the holding torque of the

motor, at which point, the rotor will turn, trying to hold at each successive equilibrium point.

Variable Reluctance Motors

If your motor has three windings, typically connected as shown in the schematic diagram in Figure 1.1, with one terminal common to all windings, it is most likely a variable reluctance stepping motor. In use, the common wire typically goes to the positive supply and the windings are energized in sequence. The cross section shown in Figure 1.1 is of 30 degree per step variable reluctance motor. The rotor in this motor has 4 teeth and the stator has 6 poles, with each winding wrapped around two opposite poles. With winding number 1 energised, the rotor teeth marked X are attracted to this winding's poles. If the current through winding 1 is turned off and winding 2 is turned on, the rotor will rotate 30 degrees clockwise so that the poles marked Y line up with the poles marked 2. An animated GIF of figure 1.1 is available. To rotate this motor continuously, we just apply power to the 3 windings in sequence. Assuming positive logic, where a 1 means turning on the current through a motor winding, the following control sequence will spin the motor illustrated in Figure 1.1 clockwise 24 steps or 2 revolutions: Winding 1 1001001001001001001001001 Winding 2 0100100100100100100100100 Winding 3 0010010010010010010010010 time ---> The section of this tutorial on Mid-Level Control provides details on methods for generating such sequences of control signals, while the section on Control Circuits discusses the power switching circuitry needed to drive the motor windings from such control sequences. There are also variable reluctance stepping motors with 4 and 5 windings, requiring 5 or 6 wires. The principle for driving these motors is the same as that for the three winding variety, but it becomes important to work out the correct order to energise the windings to make the motor step nicely. The motor geometry illustrated in Figure 1.1, giving 30 degrees per step, uses the fewest number of rotor teeth and stator poles that performs satisfactorily. Using more motor poles and more rotor teeth allows construction of motors with smaller step angle. Toothed faces on each pole and a correspondingly finely toothed rotor allows for step angles as small as a few degrees.

Unipolar Motors
Unipolar stepping motors, both Permanent magnet and hybrid stepping motors with 5 or 6 wires are usually wired with a center tap on each of two windings. In use, the center taps of the windings are typically wired to the positive supply, and the two ends of each winding are alternately grounded to reverse the direction of the field provided by that winding. The motor cross section is of a 30 degree per step permanent magnet or hybrid motor -- the difference between these two motor types is not relevant at this level of abstraction. Motor winding number 1 is distributed between the top and bottom stator pole, while motor winding number 2 is distributed between the left and right motor poles. The rotor is a permanent magnet with 6 poles, 3 south and 3 north, arranged around its circumfrence. For higher angular resolutions, the rotor must have proportionally more poles. The 30 degree per step motor in the figure is one of the most common permanent magnet motor designs, although 15 and 7.5 degree per step motors are widely available. Permanent magnet motors with resolutions as good as 1.8 degrees per step are made, and hybrid motors are routinely built with 3.6 and 1.8 degrees per step, with resolutions as fine as 0.72 degrees per step available. As shown in the figure, the current flowing from the center tap of winding 1 to terminal a causes the top stator pole to be a north pole while the bottom stator pole is a south pole. This attracts the rotor into the position shown. If the power to winding 1 is removed and winding 2 is energised, the rotor will turn 30 degrees, or one step. To rotate the motor continuously, we just apply power to the two windings in sequence. Assuming positive logic, where a 1 means turning on the current through a motor winding, the following two control sequences will spin the motor illustrated in Figure 1.2 clockwise 24 steps or 2 revolutions: Winding Winding Winding Winding Winding Winding Winding Winding 1a 1b 2a 2b 1a 1b 2a 2b 1000100010001000100010001 0010001000100010001000100 0100010001000100010001000 0001000100010001000100010 time --->

1100110011001100110011001 0011001100110011001100110 0110011001100110011001100 1001100110011001100110011 time ---> Note that the two halves of each winding are never energized at the same time. Both sequences shown above will rotate a

permanent magnet one step at a time. The top sequence only powers one winding at a time thus, it uses less power. The bottom sequence involves powering two windings at a time and generally produces a torque about 1.4 times greater than the top sequence while using twice as much power. The section of this tutorial on Mid-Level Control provides details on methods for generating such sequences of control signals, while the section on Control Circuits discusses the power switching circuitry needed to drive the motor windings from such control sequences. The step positions produced by the two sequences above are not the same; as a result, combining the two sequences allows half stepping, with the motor stopping alternately at the positions indicated by one or the other sequence. The combined sequence is as follows: Winding Winding Winding Winding 1a 1b 2a 2b 11000001110000011100000111 00011100000111000001110000 01110000011100000111000001 00000111000001110000011100 time --->

Bipolar Motors

Bipolar permanent magnet and hybrid motors are constructed with exactly the same mechanism as is used on unipolar motors, but the two windings are wired more simply, with no center taps. Thus, the motor itself is simpler but the drive circuitry needed to reverse the polarity of each pair of motor poles is more complex. The schematic in Figure 1.3 shows how such a motor is wired, while the motor cross section shown here is exactly the same as the cross section The drive circuitry for such a motor requires an H-bridge control circuit for each winding; these are discussed in more detail in the section on Control Circuits. Briefly, an Hbridge allows the polarity of the power applied to each end of each winding to be controlled independently. The control sequences for single stepping such a motor are shown below, using + and - symbols to indicate the polarity of the power applied to each motor terminal: Terminal 1a +---+---+---+--++--++--++--++--

Terminal 1b --+---+---+---+-

--++--++--++--++

Terminal 2a -+---+---+---+-Terminal 2b ---+---+---+---+ time --->

-++--++--++--+++--++--++--++--+

Note that these sequences are identical to those for a unipolar permanent magnet motor, at an abstract level, and that above the level of the H-bridge power switching electronics, the control systems for the two types of motor can be identical. Note that many full H-bridge driver chips have one control input to enable the output and another to control the direction. Given two such bridge chips, one per winding, the following control sequences will spin the motor identically to the control sequences given above: 1010101010101010 1111111111111111 1x0x1x0x1x0x1x0x 1100110011001100 0101010101010101 1111111111111111 x1x0x1x0x1x0x1x0 0110011001100110 time ---> To distinguish a bipolar permanent magnet motor from other 4 wire motors, measure the resistances between the different terminals. It is worth noting that some permanent magnet stepping motors have 4 independent windings, organized as two sets of two. Within each set, if the two windings are wired in series, the result can be used as a high voltage bipolar motor. If they are wired in parallel, the result can be used as a low voltage bipolar motor. If they are wired in series with a center tap, the result can be used as a low voltage unipolar motor. Enable Direction Enable Direction 1 1 2 2

Bifilar Motors
Bifilar windings on a stepping motor are applied to the same rotor and stator geometry as a bipolar motor, but instead of winding each coil in the stator with a single wire, two wires are wound in parallel with each other. As a result, the motor has 8 wires, not four. In practice, motors with bifilar windings are always powered as either unipolar or bipolar motors. Figure 1.4 shows the alternative connections to the windings of such a motor.

Figure 1.4
To use a bifilar motor as a unipolar motor, the two wires of each winding are connected in series and the point of connection is used as a center-tap. Winding 1 in Figure 1.4 is shown connected this way. To use a bifilar motor as a bipolar motor, the two wires of each winding are connected either in parallel or in series. Winding 2 in Figure 1.4 is shown with a parallel connection; this allows low voltage high-current operation. Winding 1 in Figure 1.4 is shown with a series connection; if the center tap is ignored, this allows operation at a higher voltage and lower current than would be used with the windings in parallel. It should be noted that essentially all 6-wire motors sold for bipolar use are actually wound using bifilar windings, so that the external connection that serves as a center tap is actually connected as shown for winding 1 in Figure 1.4. Naturally, therefore, any unipolar motor may be used as a bipolar motor at twice the rated voltage and half the rated current as is given on the nameplate. The question of the correct operating voltage for a bipolar motor run as a unipolar motor, or for a bifilar motor with the motor windings in series is not as trivial as it might first appear. There are three issues: The current carrying capacity of the wire, cooling the motor, and avoiding driving the motor's magnetic circuits into saturation. Thermal considerations suggest that, if the windings are wired in series, the voltage should only be raised by the square root of 2. The magnetic field in the motor depends on the number of ampere turns; when the two half-windings are run in series, the number of turns is doubled, but because a well-designed motor has magnetic circuits that are close to saturation when the motor is run at its rated voltage and current, increasing the number of ampere-turns does not make the field any stronger. Therefore, when a motor is run with the two halfwindings in series, the current should be halved in order to avoid saturation; or, in other words, the voltage across the motor winding should be the same as it was.

For those who salvage old motors, finding an 8-wire motor poses a challenge! Which of the 8 wires is which? It is not hard to figure this out using an ohm meter, an AC volt meter, and a low voltage AC source. First, use the ohm meter to identify the motor leads that are connected to each other through the motor windings. Then, connect a low-voltage AC source to one of these windings. The AC voltage should be below the advertised operating voltage of the motor; voltages under 1 volt are recommended. The geometry of the magnetic circuits of the motor guarantees that the two wires of a bifilar winding will be strongly coupled for AC signals, while there should be almost no coupling to the other two wires. Therefore, probing with an AC volt meter should disclose which of the other three windings is paired to the winding under power.

Multiphase Motors Figure 1.5

A less common class of permanent magnet or hybrid stepping motor is wired with all windings of the motor in a cyclic series, with one tap between each pair of windings in the cycle, or with only one end of each motor winding exposed while the other ends of each winding are tied together to an inaccessible internal connection. In the context of 3-phase motors, these configurations would be described as Delta and Y configurations, but they are also used with 5-phase motors, as illustrated in Figure 1.5. Some multiphase motors expose all ends of all motor windings, leaving it to the user to decide between the Delta and Y configurations, or alternatively, allowing each winding to be driven independently. Control of either one of these multiphase motors in either the Delta or Y configuration requires 1/2 of an H-bridge for each motor terminal. It is noteworthy that 5-phase motors have the potential of delivering more torque from a given package size because all or all but one of the motor windings are energised at every point in the drive cycle. Some 5-phase motors have high resolutions on the order of 0.72 degrees per step (500 steps per revolution). Many automotive alternators are built using a 3-phase hybrid geometry with either a permanent magnet rotor or an

electromagnet rotor powered through a pair of slip-rings. These have been successfully used as stepping motors in some heavy duty industrial applications; step angles of 10 degrees per step have been reported. With a 5-phase motor, there are 10 steps per repeat in the stepping cycle, as shown below: Terminal Terminal Terminal Terminal Terminal 1 2 3 4 5 +++-----+++++-----++ --+++++-----+++++--+-----+++++-----++++ +++++-----+++++--------+++++-----+++++time --->

With a 3-phase motor, there are 6 steps per repeat in the stepping cycle, as shown below: Terminal 1 Terminal 2 Terminal 3 +++---+++----+++---++++---+++---++ time --->

Here, as in the bipolar case, each terminal is shown as being either connected to the positive or negative bus of the motor power system. Note that, at each step, only one terminal changes polarity. This change removes the power from one winding attached to that terminal (because both terminals of the winding in question are of the same polarity) and applies power to one winding that was previously idle. Given the motor geometry suggested by Figure 1.5, this control sequence will drive the motor through two revolutions. To distinguish a 5-phase motor from other motors with 5 leads, note that, if the resistance between two consecutive terminals of the 5-phase motor is R, the resistance between nonconsecutive terminals will be 1.5R. Note that some 5-phase motors have 5 separate motor windings, with a total of 10 leads. These can be connected in the star configuration shown above, using 5 half-bridge driver circuits, or each winding can be driven by its own fullbridge. While the theoretical component count of half-bridge drivers is lower, the availability of integrated full-bridge chips may make the latter approach preferable.

Stepper Motor Control

A stepper motor is a motor controlled by a series of electromagnetic coils. The center shaft has a series of magnets mounted on it, and the coils surrounding the shaft are alternately given current or not, creating magnetic fields which repulse or attract the magnets on the shaft, causing the motor to rotate.

This design allows for very precise control of the motor: by proper pulsing, it can be turned in very accurate steps of set degree increments (for example, two-degree increments, halfdegree increments, etc.). They are used in printers, disk drives, and other devices where precise positioning of the motor is necessary.

There are two basic types of stepper motors, unipolar steppers and bipolar steppers.

Unipolar Stepper Motors

The unipolar stepper motor has five or six wires and four coils (actually two coils divided by center connections on each coil). The center connections of the coils are tied together and used as the power connection. They are called unipolar steppers because power always comes in on this one pole.

Bipolar stepper motors

The bipolar stepper motor usually has four wires coming out of it. Unlike unipolar steppers, bipolar steppers have no common center connection. They have two independent sets of coils instead. You can distinguish them from unipolar steppers by measuring the resistance between the wires. You should find two pairs of wires with equal resistance. If youve got the leads of your meter connected to two wires that are not connected (i.e. not attached to the same coil), you should see infinite resistance (or no continuity).

Like other motors, stepper motors require more power than a microcontroller can give them, so youll need a separate power supply for it. Ideally youll know the voltage from the manufacturer, but if not, get a variable DC power supply, apply the minimum voltage (hopefully 3V or so), apply voltage across two wires of a coil (e.g. 1 to 2 or 3 to 4) and slowly

raise the voltage until the motor is difficult to turn. It is possible to damage a motor this way, so dont go too far. Typical voltages for a stepper might be 5V, 9V, 12V, 24V. Higher than 24V is less common for small steppers, and frankly, above that level its best not to guess.

To control the stepper, apply voltage to each of the coils in a specific sequence. The sequence would go like this: Step wire 1 1 High 2 low 3 low 4 high wire 2 low high high low wire 3 high high low low wire 4 low low high high

To control a unipolar stepper, you use a Darlington Transistor Array. The stepping sequence is as shown above. Wires 5 and 6 are wired to the supply voltage.

To control a bipolar stepper motor, you give the coils current using to the same steps as for a unipolar stepper motor. However, instead of using four coils, you use the both poles of the two coils, and reverse the polarity of the current.

Solar panel
Solar energy begins with the sun. Solar panels, also known as photovoltaics, are used to convert light from the sun, which is composed of particles of energy called "photons", into electricity that can be used to power elecrical loads. Light from the sun is a renewable energy resource which provides clean energy, produced by solar panels. Solar panels can be used for a including remote power systems equipment, remote sensing, and electricity by residential and wide variety of applications for cabins, telecommunications of course for the production of commercial solar panel systems.

On this page, we will discuss the history, technology, and benefits of solar panels. We will learn how solar panels work, how solar panels are made, where you can buy solar panels, and how solar panels create electricity.

How Do Solar Panels Work ?

Solar panels collect clean renewable energy in the form of sunlight and convert that light into electricity which can then be used to provide power for electrical loads. Solar panels are comprised of several individual solar cells which are themselves composed of layers of silicon, phosphorous (which provides the negative charge), and boron (which provides the positive charge). Solar panels absorb the photons and in doing so initiate an electric current. The resulting energy generated from photons striking the surface of the solar panel allows electrons to be knocked out of their atomic orbits and released into the electric field generated by the solar cells which then pull these free electrons into a directional current This entire process is known as the Photovoltaic Effect. An average home has more than enough roof area for the necessary number of solar panels to produce enough solar electricrity to supply all of its power needs. Assisted by an inverter, a device that converts the direct current (or DC current), generated by a solar panel into alternating current (or AC current), solar panel arrays can be sized to meet the most demanding electrical load requirements. The AC current can be used to power loads in your home or commercial building, your recreational vehicle or your boat (RV/Marine Solar Panels), your remote cabin or home, and remote traffic controls, telecommunications equipment, oil and gas flow monitoring, RTU, SCADA, and much more.

The Benefits of Solar Panels

Using solar panels is a very practical way to produce electricity for many applications. The obvious would have to be off-grid living. Living off-grid means living in a location that is not serviced by the main electric utility grid. Remote homes and cabins benefit nicely from solar power systems. No longer is it necessary to pay huge fees for the installation of electric utility poles and cabling from the nearest main grid access point. A solar electric system is potentially less expensive and can provide power for upwards of three decades if properly maintained.

Besides the fact that solar panels make it possible to live off-grid, perhaps the greatest benefit that you would enjoy from the use of solar power is that it is both a clean and a renewable source of energy. With the advent of global climate change, it has become more important that we do whatever we can to reduce the pressure on our atmosphere from the emission of greenhouse gases. Solar panels have no moving parts and require little maintenance. They are ruggedly built and last for decades when porperly maintained.

Last, but not least, of the benefits of solar panels and solar power is that, once a system has paid for its initial installation costs, the electricity it produces for the remainder of the system's lifespan, which could be as much as 15-20 years depending on the quality of the system, is absolutely free! For grid-tie solar power system owners, the benefits begin from the moment the system comes online, potentially eliminating monthy electric bills or, and this is the best part, actually earning the system's owner additional income from the electric company. How? If you use less power than your solar electric system produces, that excess power can be sold, sometimes at a premium, to your electric utility company!

There are many other applications and benefits of using solar panels to generate your electricity needs - too many to list here. But as you browse our website, you'll gain a good general knowledge of just how versatile and convenient solar power can be.

A TYPICAL SOLAR PANEL

LED street lamp

Amidst all the hubbub about tackling global warming and cultivating green energy, one subject receives little coverage: streetlights. While an important public service, streetlights are expensive to maintain and taken together, suck down a lot of energy. So when a city like Los Angeles announces that it's converting 140,000 streetlights to light emitting diodes or LEDs, and Pittsburgh states that it's considering doing the same with 40,000 lights, it's time to take notice. LEDs are gaining traction as a great alternative to traditional lighting because they are relatively environmentally friendly, don't consume much electricity and have long life spans. Some of the world's biggest electronics firms are now touting LEDs as the next big thing in lighting, whether in a small appliance or the biggest skyscrapers. By 2013, the LED market, which covers anything from holiday lights to those on the Empire State Building, is expected to be worth $1 billion In the past, LED lights had been seen in devices like indicator lights in appliances, calculators or in large sports scoreboards. But now, many large cities around the world -Los Angeles, San Francisco, Toronto and Tianjin, China, to name a few -- are now switching to LED streetlights. Portugal is in the midst of a massive conversion program that is expected to encompass all of its streetlights. In this article, we'll take a close look at why LED streetlights are taking off. We'll also maintain a critical eye as we discuss some of the lights' disadvantages.

Advantage of LED Streetlights

Chief among the advantages of LEDs is that they have extremely long lives -- they don't have filaments that can quickly burn out -- and they don't contain toxic chemicals like mercury, unlike traditional high-pressure sodium lamps or mercury-vapor lamps. An LED light can last 100,000 hours [source: Rosenthal and Barringer]. These lights also have reduced maintenance costs because of their long lives, and they give off less heat than other bulbs. Because they last so long, LEDs are suitable

for places where replacing light bulbs is expensive, inconvenient or otherwise difficult. LEDs are highly energy efficient. While compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) recently have been touted as the standard in green lighting, LEDs actually have double their energy efficiency [source: Rosenthal and Barringer]. They use 15 percent of the energy of an incandescent bulb while generating more light per watt [source: Taub]. LEDs produce 80 lumens per watt; traditional streetlights can only muster 58 lumens per watt [source: Bailey]. Because of their energy efficiency and long lifespan, LED streetlights are advocated as a means for reducing carbon emissions. According to one estimate, converting all American light fixtures to LEDs would halve the amount of energy used for lighting in the country [source: Rosenthal and Barringer]. By integrating solar panels, the lights can become selfsufficient and even send excess energy back to the grid, with the adoption of so-called "smart" energy grids. So what else do these lights have going for them? For one, there's no warm up needed -- they're quick to turn on. They don't produce ultraviolet light, which is what attracts bugs. Because they produce "directional" light -- light emitted in one direction, rather than a diffused glow -- they can be used to direct light on specific areas. Unlike compact fluorescent lamps, they can be dimmed, allowing for more flexibility in controlling light levels. Some cities have harnessed LED lights to create clever effects, such as increasing in brightness when a pedestrian walks by or integrating systems that alert officials when a particular light needs maintenance. They can also be used to blink rapidly to signal to emergency responders where they are needed.

A TYPICAL LED PANEL

Advantages of Wind And Solar Powered Lamp

A massive tower structure is less frequently used, as wind and solar powered lamp are more frequently mounted with the lower bearing mounted near the ground.

Designs without yaw mechanisms are possible with fixed pitch rotor designs.

A wind and solar powered lamp can be located nearer the ground, making it easier to maintain the moving parts.

wind and solar powered lamp have lower wind startup speeds than HAWTs. Typically, they start creating electricity at 6 m.p.h. (10 km/h).

wind and solar powered lamp may be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited.

wind and solar powered lamp situated close to the ground can take advantage of locations where mesas, hilltops, ridgelines, and passes funnel the wind and increase wind velocity.

wind and solar powered lamp may have a lower noise signature.

Disadvantages of Wind And Solar Powered Lamp

Most wind and solar powered lamp produce energy at only 50% of the efficiency of HAWTs in large part because of the additional drag that they have as their blades rotate into the wind. Versions that reduce drag produce more energy, especially those that funnel wind into the collector area.

A wind and solar powered lamp that uses guy-wires to hold it in place puts stress on the bottom bearing as all the weight of the rotor is on the bearing. Guy wires attached to the top bearing increase downward thrust in wind gusts. Solving this problem requires a superstructure to hold a top bearing in place to eliminate the downward thrusts of gust events in guy wired models.

While wind and solar powered lamp parts are located on the ground, they are also located under the weight of the structure above it, which can make changing out parts nearly impossible without dismantling the structure if not designed properly.

APPLICATIONS
wind and solar powered lamp can be used in many places like:

In our cities in place of street light polls we can use this wind and solar powered lamp with lights attached to it so that it can generate electricity any time or any season and give light.

It can be used in village also.

It can be used in our houses also

It can be used in many other places where there is problem in reaching sun light or the area is covered with high buildings and does not got much area to to put horizontal wind turbines.

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
It is pertinent that economic justification should be made while attempting to optimize the size of integrated power generation systems favouring an affordable unit price of power produced. The economic analysis7 of the hybrid system has been made and the cost aspects have also been taken into account for optimization of the size of the systems. Using the model developed various costs namely, LEC, LUC and LCC have been computed considering the life period and replacement costs of the individual systems. Life cycle cost analysis is a tool used to compare the ultimate delivered cost of technologies with different cost structures the pay back analysis method for PV wind hybrid system depends on the various parameters such as investment, replacement cost, annual operation and maintenance cost, income etc. Table-1 shows the cost values of the economic parameters and components for the base case.

References

greenterrafirma.com www.alvestaenergy.com www.vawtmuce.com www.reuk.co.uk www.petersonpower.com www.envirotekpower.co.uk www.solarpanelinfo.com www.tatabpsolar.com www.greenpower4less.com www.energysavers.gov

CONCLUSION

In the present scenario standalone solar photovoltaic and wind systems have been promoted around the globe on a comparatively larger scale. These independent systems cannot provide continuous source of energy, as they are seasonal. The solar and wind energies are complement in nature. By integrating and optimizing the solar photovoltaic and wind systems, the reliability of the systems can be improved and the unit cost of power can be minimized. A PV wind hybrid systems is designed for rural electrification for the required load at specified Deficiency of Power Supply Probability (DPSP). A new methodology has been developed to determine the size of the PV wind hybrid system using site parameters, types of wind systems, types of solar photovoltaic system, number of days of autonomy of battery and life period of the system. A primary model was developed to optimize PV-wind hybrid system for any specific location, by considering the parameters DPSP and REPG. The developed model processes the input parameters pertaining to the wind velocity, solar insolation, environment temperature, load distribution, wind and PV system parameters like cut-in-speed, cut-off-speed, rated speed, rotor diameter, hub height, peak module power, capacity of the PV panel and wind systems. It computes the output parameters like PV capacity, array configuration, number of modules, tilt angle, inverter capacity, battery capacity, charge controller capacity and wind machine capacity. The optimal size of the hybrid system is determined based on the calculated values of REPG for a specified DPSP. Thus the model suggests the optimum combination of the capacity of wind, PV and battery units of a chosen type that can generate power with a minimum REPG by implementation of iterative technique. A secondary model developed for optimizing techno economic aspects like LCC, LEC or LUC considering the parameters like life period of solar system, wind system, battery discount rate, escalation rate, cost of the module, wind machine, battery, inverter BOS components and CO2 mitigation cost for solar photovoltaic wind hybrid system.

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgment has been made in the text.

Signature Name Roll No. Date