Alhasanchemistryfolio 2008

Mohd Hasanuddin b Abu Bakar B Hj Abd
Chemistry
Mukty
5 Ibnu Rusyd 2007/ IC no : 910515-02-
5681
Folio
2008m /
1428h
Evaluate This Chemistry folio is prepared for the PEKA’s
by : certificate SPM 2008. This folio is based on chapter 5 ,

Chemicals For Consumer Chemistry form 5 including
subtitle Soaps and Detergents, Food Additives, and
Mdm. Medicines .
Ranizah
Bt
Chemistry Folio Form 5 2008
Mohd Hasanuddin b Abu Bakar B Hj Abd

Chemistry
Mukty
5 Ibnu Rusyd 2007/ IC no : 910515-02-
5681
Folio
2008m /
1428h
Front page
Evaluate
by : This Chemistry folio is prepared for the PEKA’s
certificate SPM 2008. This folio is based on chapter 5 ,
Chemicals For Consumer Chemistry form 5 including
Mdm. subtitle Soaps and Detergents, Food Additives, and

Medicines .
Ranizah
Bt
[ All rights reserved ©alhasan ] Page 2

Acknowledgeme
A
nt
lhamdulillah, I would like
to extend my
gratefulness to Allah
The Almighthy for giving
me the chance to
complete the folio of Chemistry
Form 4. In the process of
completing the assignment, I had
to face a few challanges. However,
I managed to overcome all the
problems with the help of many
people.
First and foremost, I would like
to express my sincere thanks to all
my family members especially my
parents who gave me not only
financial support but also moral
support and motivation to fine the
solutions to all the questions
given.
Not forgetting, my sincere
thanks to my Chemistry teacher,
Puan Ranizah Bt Ali and En. Mohd
Ghadafi b Abd Rahim for the
guidance and time give to me to

complete this project. Last but not

least I would to thank my friends
for giving me ideas and offering
help in time of need.
Thank You For All.


Introduction
My name is Mohd Hasanuddin B Abu Bakar
from 5 Ibnu Rusyd 2007. My Chemistry
Teacher, Puan Ranizah Bt Ali had given me this
assignment that need to be completed in about
3 month. Alhamdulillah, with the help of Allah,
parents and friends I have finished this folio as
fast as I can.
This folio only involved three subtopic in

chapter 9 (Manufactured substances in
industry) . They are synthetic polymers, glass
and ceramic and also composite materials. In
order to complete this difficult task, I manage
to use internet to search the needed
information. Besides that, I also discuss with
my friend in group of 5 to find the best solution
to complete this assignment.
This folio consist of 3 subtopics from

chapter 9 chemistry form 4. Because of my
chemistry teacher, Puan Ranizah Ali will not
teach me this chapter, I manage to use this
time to learn it lonely or with my friends.
Hopefully my friend and I will learn about this
chapter in order to complete this folio.
This folio must include the 3 main

components of the subtopic, composition,
molecule structure and uses of the materials.
The composition is about what is the materials
made of or consist of. Besides that, molecule
structure of the materials is about the how the
molecule look like and also either they are
covalent bond or ionic bond. Last but not least

is the use of the substances in daily life and

maybe the research to use it more efficient and
ensure that the next generation will get
enough things for their daily life.

Objectives
The objectives of making these folio are
:

Soap and
Detergents
Soap
1. Cleansing agents are chemical substance used to remove
grease and dirt.
2. There are two type of cleansing agents :
a) Soaps
b) Detergents
3. Soaps are sodium or potassium salt of fatty acids that

contains 12 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule.
4. Soaps are cleansing agents made from animal fats or

vegetable oil by saponification.
The History of Soap Manufacturing
1. Soap have been used for more than 3000 years. It was
recorded that the Babylonians were making soaps around
2800 B.C.
2. The ‘Purifying Oils’ were recorded on Hebrew tablets in

4000 B.C.
3. In ancients time, soap made from ashes of plants which

contain sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate. The
ashes were boiled with lime (calcium oxide) to produce
caustic potash (potassium hydroxide). Caustic potash is
then boiled with the animal fats to produce soap.
a) Ash + Lime boiled Caustic Potash
(K2CO3) (CaO) (KOH)
b) Caustic Potash + Animal Fats boiled Soap

4. In 1861, the Belgian Chemist Ernest Solvay (1838-1922)

discovered the process to make soda (sodium carbonate)
from common salt (sodium chloride) and calcium
carbonate.
5. This process is known as the Solvay Process which

produces sodium carbonate cheaply for industrial use.
Sodium carbonate (often called soda or soda ash) is used
for making glass, soaps and detergents.
6. Michel Chevreul (1786-1889), a French chemist, was

noted for his research in the composition of animal fats
are composed of fatty acids and glycerol. This discovery
contributed to the rapid development of the soap and
candle industry.
Preparation of soap by saponification
1. Soap is a cleansing agents produced by the reaction

between sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide with
animal fats or vegetable oils. This reaction is known as
saponification.
2. Fats and vegetable oils are large, naturally occurring

ester molecules. When fats or oils are boiled with
concentrated alkalis, such as sodium hydroxide,
saponification occur and the ester molecules are broken
down into soap and glycerol.
Fats or vegetable oils + concentrated alkalis

soap +glycerol
3. Saponification is the alkaline hydrolysis of ester using

alkali solutions. From the chemist aspect, soaps are
sodium salts or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic
acids (with 12 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule).
4. Some examples of soaps are shown below.
a) Sodium palmitate, C15H31COONa
b) Sodium oleate, C17H33COONa
c) Sodium stearate, C17H35COONa

Additives such as perfume, colouring matter and

sometimes antiseptics are added to soaps to enhance
their marketability .
5. Glyceryl tristearates are naturally occurring esters

commonly found in animal fats and vegetable oils. When
the ester is boiled with concentrated sodium hydroxide
solution, saponification (alkaline hydrolysis) occurs and
mixture of sodium stearate (soap) and glycerol is
obtained.
CH2COOC17H35
CH2OH
CHCOOC17H35 + 3NaOH
CHOH
(heating)
CH2COOC17H35 3C17H35COONa
+ CH2OH
Glyceryl tristearate Sodium stearate

(soap) Glycerol
6. The soap produced can be precipitated by adding

common salt (sodium chloride) to the reaction mixture.
7. The sodium chloride added reduced the solubility of soap

in water. As a result, precipitation of soap occurs.
8. The properties of soap depend on :
a) The type of alkali used for saponification
b) The type of animal fats or vegetable oils used.
9. Soaps produced from sodium hydroxide are hard,

whereas soaps produced from potassium hydroxide are
soft.

10.Animal fats (tallow) from cows and vegetable oils (such as

palm oil or olive oil) ae used for making soap.
The structure of soap molecule
1. When soap is dissolved in water, it will dissociate and

produce sodium ions and carboxylate ions (RCOO-). For
example, sodium stearate dissolves in water to form
sodium ions and stearate ions.
C17H35COONa (s) + water C17H35COO- (aq)
sodium stearate stearate ions

+
+ Na (aq)
2. The active substance in soap is the carboxylate ion, for

example, stearate ion. The stearate ion consist of two
parts : the ‘head’ and the ‘tail’. The ‘head’ id negatively
O
charged and the ‘tail’ is a long hydrocarbon chain.
3. The ‘head’ contains the -C-O- ions which dissolves readily

in water (hydrophilic) but does not dissolve in oil.
Conversely, the ‘tail’ contains a long hydrocarbon chain
which is insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but dissolves
readily in oil.
4. Soaps made from palmitic acid are known as sodium

palmitate. Figure 5.2 shows the structure of the palmitate
ion in soaps.
5. The figure 5.3 9a) shows the molecular model of

palmitate ion and Figure 5.3 (b) shows the simple
representation of the structure of the palmitate ion.
(pg 548)

(a) The molecular model of the palmitate ion.
(b) The diagrammatic representation of the soap ion.
Detergents
1. Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents made from
hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum fractions. Thus,
detergents are petrochemicals.

2. Detergents can be classified into three main types,

depending on the charge on the detergent ion.
a) Anionic detergents where the head of the detergent

particle contains a negatively charged ion.
Negatively
charged ion
Example : R – O – SO3-Na+ (Sodium alkyl sulphate)
b) Cationic detergents where the head of the

detergent particle contains a positively charged
ion. Positively
charged ion
+ -
Example : R – N (CH ) BR
3 3
c) Non ionic detergents
Example : R – O – CH2CH2OH
3. There are two types of anionic detergents :
a) Detergent molecule with a benzene ring such as

sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate.
Where
R
repres
ents a
long
hydro
carbo
n
chain.

We can represent the detergent ion, alkylbenzene

sulphonate ion, more simply as :
b) Detergent molecule without a benzene ring such as

sodium alkyl sulphate.
We can represent the detergent ion, alkyl sulphate

ion as :
R – OSO3-
Preparation of detergents
1. The detergent, sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared

from alcohols with chain lengths of 12 to 18 carbon atoms
in two steps.
Steps 1: Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid

Step 2 : Neutralisation with sodium hydroxide solution.
2. An example of a long chain alcohol is didecan – 1 –ol,

CH3(CH2)10CH2OH. The detergent prepared from dodecan
-1 –ol is called sodium dodecyl sulphate (IUPAC name) or
sodium lauryl sulphate (common name). CH3(CH2)10CH2O-
SO3-Na+ .
3. Sodikum alkylbenzene sulphinates, were first used in

1940s. It can be prepared in three steps. The starting
materials for making this detergents in a long chain
alkene, RCH = CH2 , obtained from the cracking of
petroleum.
a) Step 1 : Alkylation
Alkylation is the introduction of the alkyl group to

an organic molecule.
b) Step 2 : Sulphonation
Alkylbenzene produced the react with concentrated

sulphuric acid acid to form alkylbenzene sulphonic
acid.

Sulphonation is the introduction of the sulphonic

acid group, -SO3H to an organic molecule to form
sulphonic acid.
c) Step 3 : Neutralisation
Alkylbenzene sulphonic acid produced is the

reacted with sodium hydroxide to form sodium
alkylbenzenesulphonate, the detergent
The structure of detergent molecule
When a detergent is dissolved in water, it dissociates to form

sodium ions (Na+) and detergent ions. The detergent ions have
the same basic structure as the soap ions, that is consist of two
parts :
a) The ‘ head’ is the sulphate group (-OSO3-), which is

negatively charged and hydrophilic (dissolves
readily in water but not in oils and grease).
b) The ‘tail’ is the long hydrocarbon chain, which is

neutral and hydrophobic (dissolves readily in oils
and grease, but not in water).
alkyl sulphate ion

Alkylbenzene sulphonate ion
The cleansing of soap and detergent
1. The cleansing action of soap or detergent depends on

their chemical bonding and structures.
a) The ionic ‘head’ (negatively charged) is soluble in

water (hydrophilic) but insoluble in oily layer.
b) The long hydrocarbon ‘tail’ (neutral) is insoluble in

water (hydrophobic) but soluble in oily layer.
2. Oil cannot be washed away from clothing with water

because oil (a covalent molecult0 is insoluble in water.
3. Lifting greasy dirt from the surface cloth. When soap or

detergent is added to the dirty surface of a piece of cloth
covered with a layer of oil or grease.
a) The negatively charged ‘head’ (hydrophilic) of soap

ions or detergent ions dissolves in water.
b) The hydrocarbon ‘tail’ (hydrophobic) of soap or

detergent ions dissolves in the layer of grease.
4. I the water is agitated slightly, the grease begins to be

lifted off the surface. This cause by the forces of
attraction between the water molecules and the
negatively charged heads.

The cleansing action of soap
5. On further agitation during washing, the greasy dirt is

lifted from the surface.
6. Emulsifying dirt in water
a) Soaps and detergents can act as emulsifying

agents to emulsify oils and grease.
b) The process of emulsification breaks large drops of

grease into smaller droplets that floats in water.
The greasy droplets repel on another because they
carry the same charge. As a result, the grease is
suspended in the solution.
c) When the cloth is rinsed with the water, the droplet

will be carried away.

d) The cleaning process become more efficient in the

water containing the soap or detergent solution is
stirred
Additives in detergents
1. Modern detergents used for washing clothes usually

contains a few types of additives to :
a) Increase their cleaning power.
b) Make them attractive and saleable.
2. Only about 20% of the substances in a detergent are

cle4ansing agents (sodium alkyl sulphate or sodium
alkylbenzene sulphonate). The other substances are
additives. The examples of addictives and their functions
are described as follows :
3. Builders : Sodium tripolyphosphate (Na5P3O10)
a) Sodium tripolyphospathe is usd to soften hard

water. In the presence of sodium tripolyphosphate,
Ca2+ ions and Mg2+ ions are removed.
b) Sodium tripolyphosphate increases the pH value of

water. In this way, muddy dirt can be removed.
4. Whitening / bleaching agents : sodium perborate
a) Bleaches (bleaching agents) remove coloured

stains by oxidation process. When coloured stanis
are oxidized, the colour will disappear.
b) The whitening (bleaching) agents commonly used

in detergent is sodium perborate (NaH2BO43H2O).
Sodium perborate decomposes in hot water to
release oxygen (an oxidising agents) which is
responsible for the whitening (bleaching) action.
c) Unlike chlorine, oxygen does not bleach the colour

of dyes are not damaging to fabrics. When properly
used, the perborate bleaches make fabrics whiter
than chlorine bleaches and the colourful dyes of
the fabrics do not fade when dirty stains are
removed.
d) Besides sodium perborate, sodium hypochlorite,

(NaCIO) can also be used as bleaches in
detergents. The IUPAC name of sodium
hypochlorite is sodium chlorate (I).

e) Sodium hypochlorite releases chlorine that

bleaches with dirty stains. However, high
concentrations of chlorine can be quite damaging
to fabrics. These bleaches do not work well on
synthetic fabrics (polyster fabrics), often causing a
yellowing rather than the desire whitening. Also
chlorine causes the dyes on fabrics to fade.
5. Biological enzymes : Amylase, lipase, and protease
a) Protein stains such blood, milk, and tomato sauce

cannot be removed by the ordinary detergents
because these types of stains are insoluble in
water.
b) Biological enzymes in detergents can break down

fat and protein molecules in food stains. The fatty
acids, glycerol and amino acids produced are
soluble in water and are removed during washing.
6. Brighteners
a) Figure below shows the action of brighteners. The

brighteners absorb the invisible ultra-violet and re-
radiate it as blue light.
Brightener
Cloth
b) Brighteners make fabrics appear whiter and

brighter because the blue light can hide any
yellowing on the fabrics. Blue light added to the
yellow light reflected on old fabrics make them look
white.
7. Drying agents ; Sodium sulphate and sodium

silicate

Anhydrous sodium sulphate and sodium silicate (Na2S2O3)

are used as drying agents to ensure that the detergent in
powdered firm is always in a dry condition.
8. Stabilisers
a) The functions of stabilizers is to prevents the

formation of foam.
b) In an automatic washing machine, excessive foam

can stop the pump working. So, washing powders
for automatic washing machine are made using
detergents that are good at removing and
emulsifying grease, but do not produced foam.
9. Perfumes
Perfumes are added to make clothes smell fresh and

clean.
The effectiveness of soaps and detergents as cleansing agents
Advantages of soaps
1. Soaps are effective cleansing agents in soft water, that is

water does not contain Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions.
2. Soaps do not cause pollution problems to the

environment. This is because soaps are made from
chemical found in animals and plants. This means that
soaps are biodegradable, that is they can be composed by
the action of bacteria.
Disadvantages of soaps
1. Soaps are ineffective in hard water, that is, water that

contains magnesium and calcium salts.
2. In hard water, soaps will react with Mg2+ and thus, soaps
do not lather in hard water.
3. Scum is grey solid that is insoluble in water. It consists of

magnesium stearate and calcium stearate.
4. Soaps are not also effective in acidic water, for example

rainwater containing dissolves acids. H+ ions from acids
will react with soap ions to produce carboxylic acids
molecular size that are insoluble in water.

5. Stearic acids and other carboxylic acids do not act as

cleansing agents because they exist mainly as molecules
and do not anionic hydrophilic ends (’head’) that dissolves
in water.
Advantages of detergents
1. Detergents are cleansing agents that are effective in soft

water as well as hard water. This is because detergents do
not form scum with Mg+ and Ca2+ ions found in hard
water.
2. The detergents ions (R –O – SO3- and R – SO3- )react with

Mg+ and Ca2+ ions in hard water. However, the magnesium
salts and calcium salts which are formed are soluble in
water. Hence, the scum is not formed and the detergents
are still active in hard water and lathers easily.
3. Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents. This means

that the structure of the hydrocarbon chain can be
modified to produce detergents with specific properties.
Nowadays, different types of detergents have been
synthesised for specific uses such as shampoos and dish
cleaner.
4. Furthermore, detergents are also effective in acidic water

because H+ ion is acidic water do not combined with
detergents ions.
Disadvantages of detergents
1. Most detergents have branched hydrocarbon chains and

are non-biodegradable, that is, they cannot decomposed
by bacteria. As a result, non-biodegradable detergents
cause water pollution.
2. Phosphates in detergents act as fertilizers and promotes

the growth of water plants and algae. When the plants die
and decay, they will used up the oxygen dissolves in
water. This will decrease the oxygen content in water and
kill fishes and other aquatic lives.
3. Detergents produce a lot of foam in water. The layer of

foam that covers the water surface will prevents oxygen
from dissolving in water. This condition will cause fish and
other aquatic life ti die from oxygen starvation.
4. Additives such as sodium hydrochlorite (bleaching agents)

releases chlorine gas in water that is acidic. Chlorine gas
is highly toxic and kills aquatic life.

Uses of food
Additives
Types of additives and examples
1. Food preservative have been used since ancient times.

Ancient civilization used salt to preserve meat and fish,
herbs and spices to improve the flavor of food.
2. Food additives are chemicals that are added to food in

small quantities for specific purposes such as protection
against bacterial attack or restoring the colour of food
destroyed during food processing.
3. Food additives are used :
a) To retard food spoilage and to preserve food

(longer shelf life).
b) To make food taste better or smell better.
c) To add colouring to food so that the food looks

fresher, more interesting or more appealing.
4. There are two main groups of food additives :
a) Preservatives and antioxidants to protect food from

being spoiled by bacterial attact or atmospheric
oxidation. In this way, the food can be kept longer.
b) Flavouring agents, stabilizers, thickening agents

(thickeners), and dyes (colouring agents) to
enhance the taste, smell and appearance of the
food.
5. Table below show a list of different types of food additives,

their functions and examples of each types.
Type of food Examples of food additive

additive
Preservatives Sodium nitrite ; sodium nitrate ; benzoic acid ; sodium
benzoate ; sulphur dioxide ; sodium sulphite ; sorbic acid
; sodium sorbate
Antioxidants Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) ; BHA (butylated
hydroxyanisole) ; BHT (butylated hydrixitoluene) ; citric

acid ; sodim citrate

Flavouring agents Monosodium glutamate (MSG) ; aspartame
Stabilisers and Gelatin ; acacia gum (agar)
thickening agents
Dyes (colouring Azo compounds ; tripheny compounds
agents)
Functions of food additives
Preservatives
1. Preservatives are chemicals that are added to food to

retard or to prevent the growth of microorganism such as
bacteria, mould or fungus, so that the food can be stored
for a long time.
2. In ancient times, food additives from natural sources such

as salt, sugar and vinegar were used to preserve food and
to make the food taste better.
3. Nowadays, synthetic preservatives are used, table below

shows the types of preservatives commonly used. Many of
the preservatives are organic acids and salts of organic
acids.
Preservative Molecular formula Uses

Sodium nitrite NaNO2  To preserve meat, cheese and dried
Sodium nitrate NaNO3 fish.
 To prevent food poisoning in canned
foods.
 To maintain the natural colour of meat
and to make them look fresh
Benzoic acid C6H5COOH  To preserve sauce (olyster, tomato or
Sodium C6H5COONa chilli), fruit juice, jam and margarine
benzoate
Sulphur dioxide SO2  Used as bleaches and antioxidants to
Sodium sulphite Na2SO3 prevent browning in fruit juices.
 Maintain the colour and freshness of
vegetables.
 To prevents the growth of yeast
Antioxidants

1. Antioxidants are chemicals that are added to foods to

prevent the oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in the air.
2. Foods containing fats or oils are oxidized and become

rancid when exposed to air.
3. When the fats and oils are oxidized, rancid product are
formed. This makes the food unpalatable. The rancid
product are volatile organic compound with foul odours
(for example , butanoic acid, C3H7COOH).
4. Antioxidants are added to fats, oils, cakes, sausages,

biscuits and fried foods to slow down the oxidation
process so that these foods do not become rancid.
Flavouring agents
1. There are two types of flavouring agents : artificial flavours

and flavour enhancer. They are added to foods to make
them taste better.
2. Flavour enhancer have little or no taste of their own. They

are chemicals that are added to food to bring out the
flavours or to enhance the taste of food.
3. An example of a flavour enhancer is monosodium

glutamate (MSG). MSG is used to enhance the flavours of
other foods.
4. Artificial flavour includes sweeteners and other flavours

such as peppermint or vanilla. Aspartame and saccharin
are examples of artificial sweeteners.
5. Both aspartame and saccharin can be used as a substitute

for sugar to enhance the sweetness in food and drink.
However, the used of saccharin is banned in many
countries because it is carcinogenic. Aspartame has
largely replaced saccharin as the artificial sweetener or
choice.
6. Many esters have fruity odours and tastes and are used as
artificial flavours. Table below shows some examples of
esters that are used in making drinks.
Ester Benzyl Octyl Ethyl

ethanoate ethanoate butanoate
Flavour Strawberry Orange Pineapple
Stabilisers and thickening agents

1. Stabilisers and thickening agents improve the texture and

the blending of foods.
2. Stabilisers are chemicals that are used to enable oil and

water in the food to mix together properly in order to form
an emulsion of oil and water. Examples of stabilizers are
gelatin and acacia gum.
3. Stabilisers are added to improve the texture of foods. For

examples, stabilisers are added to ice-cream and peanut
butter to keep them smooth and creamy.
4. In the presence of stabilisers, the emulsion of oil does not

separate from water. This means that the stabilisers
improves the stability of some foods such as ice-cream
and salad dressings (mayonnaise).
5. Without stabilisers, ice crystals would form in ice-cream,

particles of chocolate would settle out of chocolate milk,
oil and vinegar in salad dressing will separate as soon as
mixing is stopped.
6. Thickening agents are chemicals that are added to foods

to thicken the liquid and to prevent the foods from
becoming liquid. Thickening agents (also called
thickeners) absorb water and thicken the liquid in foods to
produce a jelly-like structure.
7. Most thickening agents are natural carbohydrates. Gelatin

and pectin are added to help jams and jellies to set.
Dyes
1. Dyes (colouring agents) are chemicals that are added to

foods to give them colour so as to improve their
appearance.
2. Some foods are naturally coloured, but the colour is lost

during food processing. The foods industry uses synthetic
food colours to :
a) Restore the colour of food lost during food

processing.
b) Enhance natural colours, so as to increase the

attractiveness of foods.
c) Give colour to foods that do not have colour.
3. Some dyes are naturally plant pigments while others are

synthetically prepared. The synthetic colours used in

foods are azo and triphenyl compounds. Both these

compounds are organic compounds.
4. The synthetic dyes , brilliant blue, is an example of

triphenyl compound. The synthetic dye, tartrazine and
sunset yellow are examples of azo compounds.
5. Azo compounds are organic compounds containing the

diazo group, - N = N -, and are usually yellow , red, brown,
black in colour. Triphenyl compounds are organic
compounds containing three phenyl groups, -C6H5, and
are usually green. Blue or purple in colour.
Effect of food additives on health
1. The types of food additives allowed and the quantity

permitted are controlled by the 1983 Food Act and the
1985 Food Regulation.
2. The permissible quantity depends on the type of food and

the food additives. For example, benzoic acid added must
not exceed 800 mg per kg in cordial drinks, whereas
sodium nitrite must not exceed 100 mg per kg in meat
product.
3. The excessive intake of food additives for a prolonged

period of time will ruin our health. The side effects arising
from taking food additives are allergy, cancer, brain
damage and hyperactivity.
4. Allergy
a) Food additives such as sodium sulphite

(preservative), BHA and BHT (antioxidants), MSG
(flavouring) and some food colours (e.g, Yellow No.
5) can cause allergic reactions in some people.
b) The symptoms of MSG allergy are giddiness, chest

pain and difficulty in breathing. This condition is
called the ‘Chinese restaurant syndrome’
c) The presence of sodium nitrate or sodium nitrite in

food can cause ‘blue baby’ syndrome that is fatal
for babies. This syndrome is due to the lack of
oxygen in the blood. Hence, the use of nitrate and
nitrite is allowed in baby foods.
5. Cancer

a) Chemicals that cause cancer are called

carcinogens. Sodium nitrite (a preservative) is a
potent carcinogen.
b) The nitrite react with the amines in food to produce

nitrosamine which can cause cancer.
6. Brain damage
Excessive intake of nitrites for a prolonged period of time

can cause brain damage. In this condition, the supply of
oxygen to the brain is disrupted and this cause brain
damage.
7. Hyperactivity
a) Food additives such as tartrazine can cause

hyperactivity.
b) Children who are hyperactivity become very

active, find it difficult to relax or sleep and are very
restless.
The rationale for using food additives
Advantages
1. To prevent food spoilage
a) Oxidation and microorganism (bacteria, fungi) are

the main causes in the decomposition of food. In
hot climate, meat and fish rot easily. The use of
preservatives is an effective way to prevent food
spoilage and to ensure that foods can be supplied
throughout the year.

b) If preservative are not used, food spoilage might

drastically reduce the food supply, making foods to
cost more.
c) Few deaths are associates with the use of food

additives. However, many people die due to food
poisoning caused by bacterial toxins.
2. To improve nutritional value
During food processing, vitamins and minerals may be

destroyed. Thus, additives that improve nutrition can be
added. These additives include vitamin B, C and D, and
minerals such as iron. The addition of these additives
increase the nutritional value of foods.
3. For medical reasons
a) Aspartame and sorbitol are used to make foods and

drinks sweet without using sugar. These food
additives are particularly useful as artificial
sweeteners for diabetic patients.
b) Artificial sweeteners give the sweet taste but

without adding calories to the food. Thus, they can
be used to reduce obesity.
c) Potassium iodide is added to table salt to reduce

the incidence of goitre.
d) Vitamin C is added to friut juices to prevent scurvy.

Vitamin D is added to margarine to prevent rickets.
Disadvantage
1. Eating food additives such as preservatives, antioxidants

and flavour enhancers is excess quantities over a long
period of time is detrimental to health.
2. Some food additives are used to make foods look more

appealing. These additives have little nutritional value.
Eating such foods increases the risk of health hazard.
3. Some foods are fortified with excess amounts of

nutrients, such as vitamins A and D, or of trace elements,
such as copper and zinc. Eating foods with excessive
amounts of nutrients can ruin our health.

Medicines
Sources and uses of traditional medicines
1. A medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure

diseases or to reduce pain and suffering due to illnesses.
2. Traditional medicines are medicines derived from natural

sources such as plants and animals without being
processed chemically.
3. Since ancients, mankind had used various types of plants

and roots, animals and animal part to cure diseases.
4. Medicines obtained from plants are known as herbal

medicines. The sources and uses of some herbal
medicines are shown in table below :
Plant Part of the plant Uses

used
Garlic Corm  For preventing flu attack
 For reducing high blood
pressure
Ginger Rhizome  For treating stomach pain
(horizontal due to wind in the stomach
underground stem)  For supplying heat energy to
and leaves keep the body warm
 For preventing flu attack
Aloe vera Leaves  For preventing itchy skin
 For treating burns (scalding)
on the skin
Lemon (lime) Fruits  For treating boils or
abscesses on the skin
 For preventing flu attack
 For treating skin diseases
Quinine Bark of Chinchona  For treating malaria
tree  For preventing muscle
cramps

Ginseng Roots  As a tonic to improve the

overall health of human
beings
 For increasing energy,
endurance and reducing
fatigue
Lemon grass Stem/leaves  Has antibacterial and
antifungal properties
 For treating cough
Tongkat Ali Roots  As a tonic for after a birth
and general health
Modern medicines
1. Before the 20th century, most medicines were extracted

from plants (herbal medicines). Since 1900. Thousands of
modern drugs have been synthesised from organic
compound.
2. Modern medicines can be classified as follows based on

their effects on the human body.
3. Some examples of modern medicines are analgesics,

antibiotics, psychotherapeutic drugs.
4. Modern drugs have a trade name and a generic name. For

example, the analgesic aspirin (generic name) is sold
under different brand names such as Caprin and Disprin.
Similarly, paracetamol (generic name) is sold under the
trade name of Panadol.
5. Modern medicines usually contain a mixture of active

ingredients prepared in different forms, such as capsules,
pills, solutions or suspensions. For example, Alka-Seltzer
(used as an antacid) contains sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCO3), citric acid and aspirin. It is the sodium
bicarbonate then neutralizes the excess stomach acid.
Fucntion of each type of modern drug
Analgesics
1. Analgesics are medicines that relieve pain. Examples of

analgesics are aspirin, paraccetamol, and codeine.
Analgesics are sometimes called painkillers.

2. Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas

codeine is powerful painkillers.
3. Analgesics relive pain but do not cure the disease.
4. Aspirin : pain relief and anti-inflammatory action
a) The IUPAC name of aspirin is acetyl aslicylec acid.

Aspirin contains two functional groups, a carboxylic
acid group and the ester group. Thus, aspirin is
aicidc in nature.
b) Uses of aspirin
Aspirin reduces fever and inflammable as well as

relives pain. Aspirin is used to :
(i) Reduce fever
(ii) Relieve headaches, muscle aches and joint

aches
(iii) Treat arthritis, a disease caused by

inflammation of the joints
(iv) Act as an anticoagulant. It prevents the

clotting of blood and reduce the risk of the
heart attack and strokes.
5. Paracetamol
a) Paracetamol have the following structural formula.

Thus, unlike aspirin, paracetamol is neutral in
nature.
Pic pg 561
b) Paracetamol is similar to aspirin in its effects (that

is, reduces fever and relieves pain) but it does not
reduce inflammation.
c) Paracetamol also reduces or relieves flu symptoms

such as fever, bone aches and runny nose.
6. Codeine

a) Codeine is an organic compound that contains the

elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen.
b) Codeine is an analgesics and is used to relive

mirror to moderate pain. Codeine is more powerful
than morphine. Codeine and morphine are narcotic
drugs
c) Codeine is also used in cough mixtures for

suppressing coughs.
Antibiotics : antibacterial medicine
1. Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy or prevent the

growth of infectious microorganism.
2. Two examples of antibiotics are penicillin and

streptomycin.
3. Antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by bacteria.
4. Antibiotics are not effective against diseases caused by

viral infections such as influenza, measles, or small pox.
5. Penicillin
a) Penicillin is derived from the mould Penicillium

notatum.
b) Penicillin are used to treat diseases, caused by

bacteria, such as pneumonia, gonorrhea and
syphilis.
c) Penicillin is only effective on certain bacteria. For

example, it cannot be used to treat tuberculosis.
6. Streptomycin is the antibiotic that is effective in treating

tuberculosis.
7.
Psychotherapeutic medicines
1. Psychotherapeutic medicines are a group of drugs for

treating mental or emotional illnesses.
2. Psychotherapeutic drugs can be divided into a few groups

as shown in table below :

Types of Example
psychotherapeutic
drugs
a) Stimulants Caffeine, amphetamine
b) Antidepress Prozac
ant
c) Antipsychot Chloropromazin
ic agents
3. Stimulants
a) Stimulants are naturally occurring or synthetic drugs

that stimulate (excite) the activity of the brain and
central nervous system.
b) Adrenaline is a stimulant that the body produces

when it needs to prepare for demanding or
energetic activities.
c) Stimulants make a person more alert, more

energetic, less tired and more cheerful.
d) Examples of stimulants are caffeine and

amphetamines. Caffeine is a week, naturally
occurring stimulant and is found on coffee, tea and
Cola drinks.
e) Amphetamines are strong synthetic stimulants and

increase alertness and physical ability.
f) Amphetamines increase the heart and respiration

rates, as well as the blood pressure. As a result, it
causes the body to postpone the need of sleep and
can reverse, partially and temporarily, the
symptoms of fatigue.
4. Antidepressants
a) Depression is a chronic illness. Most cases of

depression are caused by a chemical imbalance in
the brain.
b) People experiencing depression feel hopeless. They

experience a loss of interest in everyday activities
such as work or hobbies.

c) There is a strong correlation between the amounts

of special chemicals (called neurotransmitters) in
the brain and a person’s mood. If these chemicals
get too low, the person may feel depressed.
d) Antidepressants are medicines that increase the

brain’s level of neurotransmitters, thus improving
mood.
e) Antidepressants make a person feel calm and

sleepy.
5. Antipsychotic medicines
a) Psychosis is the serious mental illness in which

people lose touch with reality. People with psychosis
may,
 Hear voice and see things that are not really

there (hallucinations)
 Have belief that are not based on reality

(delusions)
b) In psychiatry, there are a number of disorders that

are classified under ‘ psuchosis’, such as
schizophrenias (madness), psychotic depression,
mania and so on.
c) Psychotic patients have extreme mood swings. Their

mood changes rapidly from high spirit to deep
depression.
d) Antipsychotic medicines do not cure symptoms to

help the person live a more normal life.
e)
Side effects of traditional medicines
1. It is generally believed that traditional medicines have

little side effects compared to modern medicines. In fact,
traditional medicines are sometimes used to counteract
the side effects of some modern medicines.
2. However, taking high doses of quinine for a prolonged

period may cause hearing loss. German health officials
recently reported 40 cases of liver damage which were
linked to the herbal medicine containing kava-kava.

3. While the use of traditional medicine is rising globally,

health experts have insufficient data about how it affects
patients.
4. The World Health Organisation( WHO) hopes to set up a

global monitoring system to monitor the adverse side
effects of traditional medicines.
Side effects of modern medicines
Type of modern
Side effects
drug
 Can cause bleeding in the stomach because aspirin is vey
acidic.
Aspirin
 Can cause allergic reactions, skin rashes and asthmatic
attacks
 People who abuse amphetamines are excitable and talkative.
 Psychologically additive and can cause heart attack.
Amphetamines  Can cause anxiety, sleeplessness, aggressive behavior and
decrease appetite.
 Can cause enlarged pupils, heavy perspiration and trembling
hands.
Codeine  Can cause addiction.
 Can cause allergic reactions.
Penicillin
 Can cause death for people who are allergic to it.
 Can cause nausea, vomiting, dizziness, rashes and fever.
Streptomycin
 Can cause loss of hearing following long-term use.
Stimulants  Can cause addiction.
Antidepressant  Can cause addiction.
s  Can cause headaches, grogginess and loss of appetite.
 Can cause dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention,
Antipsychotic constipation.
drugs  Can cause tremor and restlessness.
 Sedation (make people calmer, or to make people sleepy)
Correct ways of using medicines
In taking any medicine, we should know why the medicine is

prescribed, how the medicine should be used, what special

precautions should be followed, what special diet should be

followed, what are the side effects, and what storage conditions
are needed. In addition, we should note the following points :
1. Self-medication
Do not prescribe medicines for yourself (self-medication)

or for other people. Discuss with your doctor and listen to
him concerning the medicine to be taken.
2. Follow the instructions given
Follow the instructions given by your doctor or pharmacist

concerning the dosage and method of taking the
medicine.
3. Medicines for adult and children
Medicines for adult should not be given to children and

vice versa.
4. Side effects
Visit the doctor immediately if there are symptoms of

allergy or other effects of the drugs.
5. Expiry date
Like foods, medicines also have expiry date. Do not take

medicines after their expiry dates.
Appendage 1

Appendage 2
The summary of chapter 9

About the author
Reference
Book :
1. Chemistry Form 4 Text
Book by Abadi Ilmu
Sdn. Bhd.
2. Chemistry Form 5 Text
Book Abadi Ilmu Sdn. Mohd
Bhd. Hasanuddin B
3. Success Chemistry Abu Bakar
SPM by Oxford Fajar was born in
Sdn. Bhd. Sikney, M’Sia
4. A Chemistry SPM by in 15 May
Sasbadi Sdn. Bhd. 1991 in a
shiny 12.30
p.m..This
young man
still studying
Internet :
1. www.chemguide.co.uk
at SMK
Agama Islam
Sikney, K-Dah
Drol Peace.
Before this, he
studied at Five
Stone Primary
School not far
away from his
lovely
hometown.
Now he still
live at Town
Banggol Kiat,
Sikney. His
favourite foods
are Mee
goreng and
Char kuey
teow and his
favourite drink
are ‘milo ais’.
2. www.ausetute.com/haberpro.htm
3. www.nasaexplorer.com
4. www.glassonweb.com
5. en.wikipedia.org
6. www.telcite.fr/fibre.htm
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Mohd Hasanuddin b Abu Bakar B Hj Abd

Evaluate This Chemistry folio is prepared for the PEKA’s

by : certificate SPM 2008. This folio is based on chapter 5 ,

Mohd Hasanuddin b Abu Bakar B Hj Abd

Mdm. subtitle Soaps and Detergents, Food Additives, and

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complete this project. Last but not

Thank You For All.

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This folio only involved three subtopic in

This folio consist of 3 subtopics from

This folio must include the 3 main

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is the use of the substances in daily life and

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2. There are two type of cleansing agents :

3. Soaps are sodium or potassium salt of fatty acids that

4. Soaps are cleansing agents made from animal fats or

The History of Soap Manufacturing

2. The ‘Purifying Oils’ were recorded on Hebrew tablets in

3. In ancients time, soap made from ashes of plants which

a) Ash + Lime boiled Caustic Potash

(K2CO3) (CaO) (KOH)

b) Caustic Potash + Animal Fats boiled Soap

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4. In 1861, the Belgian Chemist Ernest Solvay (1838-1922)

5. This process is known as the Solvay Process which

6. Michel Chevreul (1786-1889), a French chemist, was

Preparation of soap by saponification

1. Soap is a cleansing agents produced by the reaction

2. Fats and vegetable oils are large, naturally occurring

Fats or vegetable oils + concentrated alkalis

3. Saponification is the alkaline hydrolysis of ester using

4. Some examples of soaps are shown below.

a) Sodium palmitate, C15H31COONa

b) Sodium oleate, C17H33COONa

c) Sodium stearate, C17H35COONa

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Additives such as perfume, colouring matter and

5. Glyceryl tristearates are naturally occurring esters

Glyceryl tristearate Sodium stearate

6. The soap produced can be precipitated by adding

7. The sodium chloride added reduced the solubility of soap

8. The properties of soap depend on :

a) The type of alkali used for saponification

b) The type of animal fats or vegetable oils used.

9. Soaps produced from sodium hydroxide are hard,

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10.Animal fats (tallow) from cows and vegetable oils (such as

The structure of soap molecule

1. When soap is dissolved in water, it will dissociate and

C17H35COONa (s) + water C17H35COO- (aq)

sodium stearate stearate ions

2. The active substance in soap is the carboxylate ion, for

3. The ‘head’ contains the -C-O- ions which dissolves readily

4. Soaps made from palmitic acid are known as sodium

5. The figure 5.3 9a) shows the molecular model of

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(a) The molecular model of the palmitate ion.