Janine Ochoa Terrestrial Vertebrates From Ille Cave, Northern Palawan Philippines Conclusion: The vertebrate assemblage of Ille

has provided robust evidence for cave occupation, human subsistence and palaeocology in the dewil Valley. Long term use of the cave is signaled by substantial secondary deposits of bone in the Terminal Pleistocene and by midden accumulations in the Mid to Late Holocene. Sporadic Occupation in the early Holocene is indicated by patchy accumulations of bones that are associated with hearth remains and activity surfaces. Deer is the large prey choice in the Terminal Pleistocene but it becomes extremely rare in the Holocene sequence, at which time the pig becomes he dominant large game. Anatomical diversity of ungulate prey indicates that the site was used for meat processing and consumption. As reflected by jackknifed measures of evenness, the smaller vertebrates of Palawan were also key components of the diet of cave occupants. The case in Ille-where a shift in large mammal prey choice from deer to pig apparently coincides with the increasing scarcity of deer in archaeological assemblages- demonstrates an example of local adaptive response in the face of regional climatic fluctuations and landscape transformation. The Pleistocene- Holocene transition In Southeast Asia is particularly unique in that sea level fluctuation affected landscapes and ecosystems at such a tremendous scale due to the cyclical xposure and inundation of the massive Sunda Shelf.A more detailed palaeoenvironmental dataset for the island as a whole will fine tune our understanding of these complex responses of early Holocene foragers to their changing environment. Notwithstanding, the Ille example contributes to this growing body of data on regional adaptation of modern humans and offers a glimpse into foragers decision making. New records of large mammals such as tiger and deer further underscore the continental affinities of Palawans fauna. The absence of other indigenous rainforest mammals(e.g, orangutan, tapir, and leaf mokey) that are present in Borneo and other Sundaic Islands suggests geographic barriers for dispersal: either a land bridge did not emexarge in the late Pleistocene or that habitat types present on the land connection were not suitable for these species. Nonetheless, the presence of various endemics such as deer, pig, squirrels, and pangolin still leave the question of when open. A land connection in the Middle Pleistocene, when sea levels were ca.130m below present, could have facilitated the dispersal of some of these species and would have allowed enough time for their divergence(Heaney 1986) The presence of mammal species- the tiger and two species of deer- that are adapted to more open habitats in the deeper levels of the Ille sequence supports palaeoenvironmental studies indicating grassland or savanna expansion in Sundaland during LGM. Their terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene presence could also indicate that forest cover was not quickly re-established after the LGM, and that the grassland/savanna environment present in the Dewil Valley could have persisted into the early Holocene. The rarity of the two deer species by the Mid-Holocene and their eventual extirpation on Palawan are likely consequences of island-wide palaeogeographic, climatic and vegetational change. Human hunting would also have negatively impacted dwindling deer and tiger populations and exacerbated their rarity.

The antiquity of the islands vertebrate fauna, with both Middle and Late Pleistocene components, should warrant the attention and consideration of conservationists, local government officials and other concerned groups. Species such as deer and tiger have become extinct due to combination of natural and anthropogenic factors. Other species have shown resiliency despite extensive environmental change throughout LGM and the Pleistocene-Holocene transition, but the contemporary impacts of modern agricultural and industrial society is severely threatening the islands animal habitats ad communities. The protection of these unique living members of the only faunal region in the Philippine archipelago that has strong continental affinities cannot be overemphasized.

RESULTS: Taphonomy An intial taphonomic analysis was conducted with the primary aim of distinguishing anthropogenic bone accumulations and describing a variety of factors that have contributed to the deposition and transformation of the animal bones in the assemblage. Six major taphonomic processes are described. The first section outlines the arguments supporting the hypothesis of an anthropic origin of most of the bone accumulations in the assemblage. Burning is a major activity observed in the assemblage, and the second section describes the distribution of burnt bones in the assemblage. The recovery section details the effects of the degree of fragmentation and preservation of various bone accumulations throughout the sequence. Calcareous concretions on the bones, which have largely limited this initial taphonomic analysis, are also described. Lastly, cutmarks, bone tools and other forms of bone surface modifications are described and illustrated in the final section. >Accumulation and Deposition In summary, the diversity and abundance of non-cavernicolous macrovertebrates, especially large mammals, suggest that these animals were brought to the cave by humans. The presence of fish and molluscan remains throughout the sequence point remains may also have been part of the human diet. Lastly, burning, processing marks, and artifact associations clearly indicate an athropogenic origin for most macrovertebrate bone aggregates >Burning Charred and calcined >Recovery Recovery of bone in the excavations was conducted through several means: handcollecting, dry and wet sieving through 2-mm screens, and water floatation.

>Fragmentation and Preservation

A total of 12, 704 bone fragments were sorted and recorded from the East Mouth trench. The assemblage is dominated by highly fragmented macrovrtebrate bone fragments, with 41% of bones in the 0-20 mm category and 35% in the 20-50 mm category. Microvertebrate bones, which mostly consist of shaft and rib fragments, account for 23% of the whole assemblage. >Calcareous Concretions Calcareous Concretions on bone are attributed to the precipitation of the calcium carbonate content of ground water in caves and its subsequent accretion to bone fragments. In documenting degrees of concretion, three qualitative categories were used and these defined below: Slight Concretion- bones are thinly covered by calcareous concretions in small areas (>50) Meedium Concretion- bone fragments are partially (50%to70%) covered by thin calcareous coating. Heavy Concretion-bones are partially to wholly(75%-100%)coated by calcium carbonate, often with thick(<1mm). concentrated patches

>Bone Surface Modification and Bone Tools A few one tools were alsofound in the assemblage. One particular specimen, a distal fibula of a pig, has been ground and smoothed along the longitudinal axis of the shaft in order to produce sharp point. Biometricscaca >Bats Insectivorous bats are represented by four taxa. Genera are mainly differentiated by morphology of teeth and tooth sockets, as described by Cranbrook(1966,1968) and species are distinguished based on size comparison with modern comparative material. >Macaques

>Squirrels Two squirrel taxa were found in the assemblage. The two extant members of this genus that reside in Palawan, S.juvencus and S. steerii, overlap in size and morphological characteristics of teeth do not reveal structural differences bet. The two species >Rats Two murrid taxa were identified based on tooth morphology and measurements of mandible remains. >Canid

Two elements belonging to a canid were found in the Terminal Pleistocene contexts 866 and 1306, and six more from two Early Holocene contexts. >Tiger >Pigs >Deeer

Acounts of Species Of over 12,700 fragments analysed, 10% were identified to at least genus level, 16% to family, 20% to order. A total of 9 orders, 20 families, 28genera and 27 species were identified, including new record of carnivores and cervids.

Class Mammalia,Order Insectivora, Family Soricidae Order Chiroptera Suborder Megachiroptera, Family Pteropodidae Suborder Microchiroptera Family Rhinolophidae Family Vespertilionidae Myotis cf. macrotarsus Order Primates, Family Cercopithecidae Macaca fascicularis philippinensis Family Homidae Homo Sapien Order Pholidota, Family Manidae Manis Culionensis Order Rodentia Family Sciuridae Hylopetes nigripes

Sundasciur sp. Family Muridae Rattus cf. tiomanicus Sundamys muelleri Family Hystricidae Hystrix pumila Order Carnivora, Family Canidae Family Felidae Panthera tigris Prionailirus bengalensis Family Mustelidae Amblonyx cinereus Family Mephitidae Mydaus marchei Family Herpestidae Herpestes brachyotis Family Viverridae Order Artiodactyla, Family Suidae Family Cervidae Class Reptilia, Order Squamata, Suborder Serpentes Family Varanidae Order Chelonia Family Geoemydidae Class Aves Class Pisces

Specimen Counts