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CHAPTER
S
oils are products of a complex mixture
of weathered and eroded rock materials
on the one hand and organic residues
on the other. Weathering changes consolidated
mass (rock) to an unconsolidated (loose)
material. The decomposition of plants and
microorganisms releases organic chemicals
(humus) that interact with the loose material,
giving rise to various kinds of soils. These
changes involve addition, loss, transformation
and translocation. Additions are made by
water (rainfall, irrigation), nitrogen from
bacterial fixation, energy as sunlight, sediment
from wind and water, salts and organic
residues. Losses result from chemicals soluble
in soil water, eroded small-sized fractions,
nutrients removed in grazed and harvested
plants, water losses, carbon losses as carbon
dioxide and denitrification loss of N 2 .
Transformations happen because of many
chemical and biological reactions that
decompose organic matter. Water and
organisms move within the soil causing
translocation of substances at dif ferent
depths. Organic soils develop from an
accumulation of plant residues that are
preserved by the low oxygen environment of
shallow and stagnant waters. Non-soils are
surface material that do not support plant life,
such as the salt flats of Great Salt Lake and
rock barrens.
SOIL FORMING FACTORS
All soil forming processes involve weathering,
There are, however, several other factors that
influence the end product of weathering. Five
of them are primary factors. They singly or
jointly are responsible for the development of
various types of soils. These factors are:
SOILS
Parent Material
Soils from weakly cemented sandstone will be
sandy and soils from shales will be shallow
and fine-textured. Similarly clay formation is
favoured more by a high percentage of
decomposable dark minerals and less by
quartz. The parent material, thus, influences
the soil formation by their different rates of
weathering.
Climate
Acidic soils are formed in humid areas due to
intense weathering and leaching. Alkaline
soils are formed in areas of low rainfall due to
the accumulation or retention of lime. The
climate is an increasingly dominant factor
in forming varied type of soils especially
because of the effects of temperature and
precipitation. It also plays an indirect role in
the formation of soil by way of its influence on
vegetation.
Biota
The decomposition of organic wastes and
residues and the activities of living plants and
animals have marked influence on the soil
development. Burrowing animals, such as
moles, prairie dogs, earthworms, ants and
termites help soil development slowly by
decomposing organic matters and forming
weak acids that dissolve mineral faster. The
roots of living plants and decomposed plant
material releases weak organic acids that help
in weathering and soil development.
Topography
Steep hillsides have thin soil cover because of
40
surface runoff that results in the erosion of
surface. On the other hand, gentle hillsides
preserve appreciable soil cover due to the
luxuriant vegetation and sufficient water
passing in vertically to deeper levels. The
landlocked depressions receive high amount
of runoff water that favours appreciable
vegetation cover but slower decomposition
because of oxidation deficiency. This results
in the formation of soil that is rich in organic
matter. The topography influences the soil
formation through its relationship with water
and temperature.
Time
Under ideal conditions, a recognisable soil
profile may develop in 200 years and under
less favourable circumstances, it may extend
to several thousand years. The rate of soil
development is determined by the effects of
time and other distinct factors – climate,
parent material, topography and biota.
Soil Forming Processes
Several processes are involved in soil
formation and may, to some extent, affect the
soil profile. These processes are:
Eluviation
It is the mechanical translocation of clay or
other fine particles down the profile.
Illuviation
It is the accumulation of the washed down
(eluviated) material in the lower horizons of the
soil profile.
Cheluviation
It is the downward movement of material,
similar to leaching but under the influence of
organic complex compounds.
Leaching
It is the removal and downward movement of
material from a horizon in solution.
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
SOIL HORIZONS
Horizons are soil layer that are approximately
parallel to the soil’s surface. Each horizon is
different from other. Boundaries between
horizons range from indistinct to abrupt and
clear. Horizons are for med because of
differences in the degree of depth, amounts of
humus accumulated, translocation of colloids
by water and loss of colloids. Capital letters,
A,B,C,E,O and R are used to designate master
horizons. Lowercase letters are used as
suffixes to indicate specific characteristics of
the master horizon.
SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT NUTRITION
Plant nutrition is the process of absorption
and utilisation of essential elements by plants
for growth and reproduction. Most plants need
at least 16 essential elements — carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium,
nitrogen, sulphur, calcium, iron, magnesium,
boron, manganese, copper, zinc, molybdenum
and chlorine. Plants utilise hydrogen, oxygen
and carbon from air and water. Nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium are absorbed from
soil and fertilisers. Chlorine, copper, boron,
iron, manganese, molybdenum and zinc are
micronutrients that are absorbed in lesser
quantity. Nitrogen is most often the limiting
element in plant growth. It is utilised by plants
as ammonium or nitrate. The fertility of soil
depends upon the presence of essential
elements as well as the organic matter in
sufficient amount.
SOIL TAXONOMY OR CLASSIFICATION
Soil taxonomy or classification of soils, is the
grouping of soils on the basis of their
morphology (texture and structure),
appearance, for m and fertility. The first
complete US taxonomic classification was
published in 1938 and modified in 1949.
Although the US system has application
worldwide, many countries — France,
Canada, China, India, Brazil and Russia use
their own systems. The present US
classification organises all soils into 11 orders,
SOILS
54 sub-orders, 238 great groups, 1,922
subgroups and then families and series.
In traditional classification, the major
divisions of soil are Zonal, Intrazonal and
Azonal.
Zonal Soils
These soils reflect climate and vegetation to a
large degree, hence, their name. They are
formed on well drained sites on non-extreme
parent material. Polar desert soils, Podzols,
Brown earths, Prairie soils, Chernozem,
Chestnut soils, Brown and gray semi-arid
soils, Grumusols, Red earths, and Lateritic
soils fall under zonal category.
Intrazonal Soils
These are well developed soils formed where
some local soil forming factor is dominant.
Soils in this category belong to four main
groups, namely saline, hydromorphic,
calcareous and organic. Each group consists
of a variety of soil types.
Azonal Soils
These have poorly developed profiles because
some factor of soil formation has inhibited soil
formation. Lithosols, alluvial soils and dry
sands fall in this category.
SOILS OF INDIA
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR) classified Indian soils into eight groups
— alluvium, black, red and yellow, laterite, arid,
saline, peaty and organic, and forest soils. This
classification is based on genesis, colour,
composition and location.
Alluvial Soil
Alluvial soil is the most productive one in India
though, low in nitrogen content. It is fertile
enough to support crops for good yield. It is a
depositional soil transported by streams and
winds. Its colour varies from light gray to ash
gray. It is found in the Great Indian Plain, river
valleys, coastal plains and deltas.
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Black Soil
It is popularly known as black cotton soil and
is developed on basaltic rocks of Deccan
Plateau. Cotton being the major crop of the
soil, hence, it is called black cotton soil. The
colour of soil ranges from deep black to gray.
It swells when wetted and shrinks when dried.
Because of this characteristic the soil develops
wide cracks. Black soils are well developed in
Maharashtra, western Madhya Pradesh, parts
of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and
Tamil Nadu.
Red and Yellow Soil
This soil is relatively sandy and reddish in
colour. Red colour is essentially due to the
presence of iron oxides. It is derived from the
old crystalline and metamorphic rocks. Wheat,
millet, cotton, potatoes and coarse grains are
widely grown in this soil. Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa have
large extent of land with red sandy soils. Yellow
and red soils are found in parts of Orissa and
Madhya Pradesh and southern part of the
Gangetic Plain.
Laterite Soil
The warm climate with seasonal rainfall helps
remove fast the humus content from the soil.
This makes the soil more acidic and rich in
aluminium and iron oxide. This soil is known
as laterite. Laterites are not naturally fertile
enough for growing food crop. Application of
fertilisers and manures are required to make
it crop worthy. Laterite soil can be cut into
blocks that are used as bricks for house
construction. It is well developed in coastal
margins and plains of southern peninsula
from West Bengal to southern Maharashtra.
Arid Soil
Arid soil ranges from red to brown in colour.
It is well developed in western Rajasthan. It is
generally, sandy and alkaline. High
temperature and accelerated evaporation
decreases the moisture and humus content in
it. Because of the concentration of calcium
42 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

downward, its lower layers become Forest Soil

impermeable. Irrigation increases the soil
moisture and makes the soil crop worthy.
Saline Soil
Because of dry climate and poor drainage
conditions, this soil acquires more salt. It is
widespread in wester n Gujarat (Rann of
Kuchch), deltas of East Coast and Sunderban
areas of West Bengal. Gypsum diminishes the
salinity of soil and makes it useful for crops.
Peaty and Organic Soils
Area of high rainfall are marked with good
growth of vegetation. As the organic matter
accumulates and decomposes, it gives rise to
humus rich soil. The high content (40-50 per
cent) of organic matter gives the name to soil.
The soil is normally black in colour and
alkaline. It occurs widely in northern part of
Bihar, Almora area of Uttaranchal, coastal
areas of West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.
Forest soils are formed in forested areas where
sufficient rainfall is available. In this soil too
organic matter is high and pH value is low. It
is mostly for med in the forest areas of
mountains.
Some Facts About Soil
• The branch of science that deals with the
study of soil is called as pedology.
• Based on the study of palaeosols in India,
Pakistan and Nepal, onset of Indian
Monsoon in Asia has been established at
about 8 million years ago.
• Enrichment of water with nutrients,
primarily phosphorus, causing abundant
aquatic plant growth is called
eutrophication.
• A vertical section of the soil through all its
horizons and extending into the parent
material is called soil profile.

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) What are soils?
(ii) How is soil different from a rock?
(iii) What is humus?
(iv) How do organic soils develop?
(v) Name the primary factors responsible for the development of soils.
(vi) What is leaching?
(vii) How many essential elements are required by plants?
2. Distinguish between:
(i) Eluviation and illuviation;
(ii) Cheluviation and leaching;
(iii) Intrazonal and azonal soils;
(iv) Arid soil and saline soil.
3. Discuss the factors responsible for soil formation and also the processes involved.
4. What are the bases of classifying soils of India, as used by the ICAR? Describe the distribution
of major soil types in our country.

Finding out
Collect soil samples from different areas. Find out their main characteristics and write a brief
note.