72
CHAPTER
A
ir pressure and winds are the invisible
elements of weather that influence
other elements in a significant way.
They influence temperature and precipitation.
Even a minor change in pressure, changes the
velocity and direction of winds and this in turn
brings about changes in temperature and
precipitation. Air pressure is not readily
sensed by human body, but wind is.
Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the
column of air on the surface of the earth at sea
level. It is about 1 kilogram per cm2.
PRESSURE
Air is a mixture of several gases. Gas molecules
are in constant state of collusion and move
about freely. Pressure of air at a given place is
defined as a force exerted against surface by
continuous collision of gas molecules.
Therefore, it is the consequence of weight of all
air above it. The amount of pressure exerted
by air at a particular point is determined by
temperature and density. It follows that a
change in either temperature or density will
cause corresponding change in pressure.
The air pressure is measured as a force per
unit area. The units used by meteorologist for
this purpose are called millibars (mb). One
millibar is equal to the force of one thousand
dynes on a cm 2. The instrument used for
measuring air pressure is called a barometer.
The normal pressure at sea level is 1,013.25
mb (about 76 cm).
The distribution of atmospheric pressure
is shown on a map by isobars. An isobar is an
imaginary line drawn through places having
equal atmospheric pressure at sea level. The
spacing of isobars expresses the rate and
direction of the pressure changes and is
referred to as pressure gradients.
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
PRESSURE AND WINDS
There are two types of pressure systems;
high pressure and low pressure. Temperature
is the most common cause of pressure
differentiation. Air that is cooled at the bottom
will sink and increase pressure, whereas
warming will cause air to rise and thus, lower
the pressure. The change in temperature is
caused either by solar radiation or, induced by
some external dynamic agencies like friction
caused by rubbing or by force produced
through rotation of the earth. Thus, pressure
change takes place either by thermal or
dynamic processes.
Distribution of atmospheric pressure is not
uniform over the earth’s surface. It varies
vertically as well as horizontally.
Vertical Distribution
Air pressure varies according to temperature
and altitude. In the first few thousand metres
above the sea level, the pressure decreases at
the rate of 1millibar for every 10 metres. It
drops to half its surface value (from 1,013.2mb
to 540.4mb) at about 5 km. The rate of fall of
pressure with height is determined partly by
the rate of fall in temperature.
Horizontal Distribution of
Pressure — Global Pattern
The horizontal distribution of pressure across
the latitudes in general, presents an alternate
belt of low and high pressure areas (Fig. 11.1).
You will notice that there is a inverse relationship
between pressure and temperature. The
equatorial region having high temperature has
low pressure. While the polar regions with low
temperature have high pressure. These
pressure belts are thermally induced.
Logically, there should have been a gradual
increase in pressure from the equator towards
the poles. This is, however, not so.
PRESSURE AND WINDS
Fig.11.1 : Pressure Belts of the World
There are two intermediate zones of sub-
tropical highs in the vicinity of 300 N and S and
two sub-polar lows in the vicinity of 600 N and
S. Formation of these pressure belts may be
explained by dynamic controls: pressure
Fig.11.2 : Impact of the Rotating Earth on Pressure Distribution
73
gradient force and rotation of the earth. The
pressure gradient is defined as the decrease in
pressure per unit distance in the direction in
which the pressure decreases most rapidly.
The warm air of the equatorial low pressure
belt gradually gets cool in its ascent. Upon
reaching upper layers, it starts moving
towards the pole. It further cools and begins
to subside in a zone between 20 and 35
degrees latitudes. Two factors are responsible
for the general, subsidence of air in this belt.
First, cooling of the air results in increased
density, which accounts for its subsidence.
Second, owing to the rotation of the earth from
west to east, poleward directed winds are
deflected eastwards.
On the rotating earth, a point on the equator
moves fastest. As we go towards the poles, the
speed decreases, reaching almost zero at the
poles. It is because of this difference in speed
that any moving body such as winds and ocean
currents get deflected when they move towards
the equator or away from the equator (Fig. 11.2).
The force of deflection was first discovered by
Coriolis, a French mathematician, and hence,
called Coriolis force. It was later elaborated by
74
Ferrel and is known as Ferrel’s law. It states that
all moving bodies like wind and ocean currents
get deflected from their normal paths towards
right in the northern hemisphere and towards left
in the southern hemisphere. The rate of deflection
increases with the distance from the equator. As
a result, by the time the poleward-directed winds
reach 25 degrees latitude, they are deflected into
a nearly west to east flow. It produces a blocking
effect and the air piles up aloft. This causes a
general subsidence in the areas between the
tropics and 350 N and S. They develop into high-
pressure belts. The winds coming from the sub-
tropics and polar areas converge and rise in a
zone between 450 N and S and the Arctic and the
Antarctic circles, respectively. These are the areas
of sub-polar lows. This is well explained in (Figs.
11.2 and 11.3)
Thus, there are seven pressure belts in all as
shown in Fig.11.1. They are:
• Equatorial trough of low pressure;
Fig.11.3 : Pressure Belts and Arrangement of Cells
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
• Subtropical high pressure belt (northern
hemisphere);
• Subtropical high pressure belt (southern
hemisphere);
• Subpolar low pressure belt (northern
hemisphere);
• Subpolar low pressure belt (southern
hemisphere);
• Polar high (northern hemisphere); and
• Polar high (southern hemisphere).
Equatorial Trough of Low Pressure
This belt is located on either side of the equator
extending between 0 0 and 10 0 N and S. Its
outer margins shift north and south of the
Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn
respectively, due to apparent movement of the
sun. it is thermally produced low pressure
belt. Here, the pressure is more uniform than
that in other parts of the world. Surface winds
are generally absent since winds approaching
this region begin to rise vertically near its
margin. It is, therefore, a region of extremely
calm air and is called the doldrums.
Subtropical High Pressure (Horse Latitude)
The subtropical high pressure is located
between the tropics (25 0 N and S) and 35 0
north and south latitudes. This belt is broken
into a number of high pressure cells. The high
pressure is caused due to the subsidence and
piling of the air. A calm condition with variable
and feeble winds is created in this region.
These regions are often referred to as ‘horse
latitudes’ because in the early days, the sailing
vessels with the cargo of horse found it difficult
to sail under such calm conditions. The sailors
used to throw the horses in the sea to make
the vessels lighter for smooth sailing and
hence, the name.
Subpolar Low Pressure Belt
The subpolar low pressure belt is located
between 450 north and south latitudes and the
Arctic and the Antarctic circles respectively.
These low pressure cells are well developed in
the north Atlantic and north Pacific regions.
The low pressure is caused by converging and
rising air. Due to a great contrast between the
temperature of the winds from subtropical and
PRESSURE AND WINDS
polar source regions, cyclonic storms are
produced.
Polar Highs
At the poles, there are well developed high
pressure zones. These zones are the result of
persistent low temperature that makes the air
cold and heavy. This gives rise to a cap of
high pressure in polar region. The prevailing
polar easterly winds blow out of these caps of
high pressure to subpolar low pressure areas.
Seasonal Distribution of Pressure
Despite a broad, generalised patter n of
pressure distribution on the earth, pressure
conditions vary considerably on the basis of
prevailing weather conditions in different
parts of the world. The horizontal distribution
of pressure on the earth surface is shown by
Fig.11.4 : Horizontal Distribution of Pressure and Winds (July and January)
75
means of isobars. Just as there is a daily range
of temperature on the surface of the earth, so is
there diurnal rhythm of pressure. The direction
and rate of change in pressure is called pressure
gradient. It is at right angles to isobars, just as
the slope of land surface is at right angles to
contour lines. The rate of change or steepness
of gradient is shown by spacing of isobars.
Closely spaced isobars show steep pressure
gradient; and widely spaced isobars show gentle
gradient.
The zonal distribution of pressure is
modified by continents and oceans. In
summer, the relatively hot continents intensify
the low pressure cells and weaken or destroy
high pressure cells. In similar manner, the
corresponding cooler oceans weaken the
low pressure cells and intensify the high
pressure cells. In winter, the situation is
reversed (Fig.11.4).
76
Change in the pressure distribution
over the earth’s surface could be analysed
from isobar maps of winter and summer
(Fig.11.5 A and B). These distributions reflect
the influence of landmass in the northern
hemisphere and predominant control of ocean
surface in the southern hemisphere. The winter
chill of northern landmasses enhances high
pressure. The impact of high pressure cells of
subtropical belt is subdued. In summer, great
heating of the interior of northern continents
produces low pressure, which causes
weakening of subtropical high pressure cells.
The extensive ocean surface of the southern
hemisphere has fairly uniform pressure
throughout the year. But continental areas in
this hemisphere do experience some variation
in pressure during July. Following inferences
may be drawn from isobaric maps.
January Isobars
Northern Hemisphere (Winter)
• The polar high is in the form of ridges
extending from northeastern Eurasia to
Yukan area of North America. The isobars
have developed very deep and extensive high
pressure cells.
• Subpolar low pressure belt is represented
by individual oceanic cells developed in
north Atlantic and north Pacific ocean. These
are known as Aleutian low and Icelandic low
respectively.
• The subtropical high is well developed over
the cold continents as a continuous belt. The
high pressure cells are well developed over
Northeast Asia, Siberia and Canadian
highlands. The highest pressure is centred
on central Asia where large mountain basins
are located. The high pressure cells are fairly
weak over the oceans.
Southern Hemisphere (Summer)
• The equatorial low pressure is mainly south
of the equator. It extends over considerable
distance over warm continents of the
southern hemisphere.
• The subtropical high over southern oceans
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
is broken into three cells over Pacific, Atlantic
and Indian oceans.
• The subpolar low pressure cell over
Antarctica is weak.
July Isobars
Northern Hemisphere (Summer)
• The polar high pressure gets weakened
substantially and it separates Asiatic low.
• The subpolar low pressure is also
weakened and only subdued Icelandic low
exists. The Aleutian low has disappeared
and there is continuous low pressure over
Asia almost extending to the equator.
• The subtropical high pressure belt in
summer is well developed over the oceans.
The Pacific high, Azore high and Indian high
are well developed in July than in January.
• The equatorial low pressure lies north of the
equator in July. The centre of low pressure
is well developed over the ocean between
10 0 and 15 0 North Latitudes over Asia,
north Africa and southwest United States.
Southern Hemisphere (Winter)
• The subtropical high pressure is strongly
developed over oceans than over cold
continents.
• The subpolar low is a continuous belt over
650 to 750 south latitudes.
• The polar high is weak and extends to
smaller degree over oceans.
WINDS
Air moving parallel to the ground is called
wind; while vertical air movements is called
current. Air movement is caused by differences
in air pressure. Wind moves from high
pressure to low pressure region, following
barometric slope or pressure gradient. The
steeper the pressure gradient, the greater is
the velocity of wind. Air flowing down the
pressure gradient follows the law of gravitation
in the same manner as water does flowing
down the hill.
The wind once set in, flows from high
pressure to low pressure. But it follows
PRESSURE AND WINDS 77

Fig.11.5 (A); and (B) : Seasonal Distribution of Pressure (in Millibars)

(A) January; (B) July
78 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

somewhat a devious course due to the Coriolis

force. It is deflected to right in the northern
hemisphere and to left in the southern
hemisphere. It was Ferrel, who stated that all
moving bodies like winds and ocean currents
get deflected from their normal path towards
right in the northern hemisphere and towards
left in the southern hemisphere. That is why the
wind takes a curved course.
The wind is known by the direction from
which it blows: a wind blowing from west to east
is westerly and the one blowing from east to
west is called an easterly. The direction of wind
is known by an instrument known as wind
vane. The wind velocity is measured by an
instrument called as anemometer. The speed
of the wind is expressed in kilometres per hour
on the land and per hour on the sea.

Types of Winds
As noted earlier, the general circulation of winds
is governed by pressure systems, which differs
spatially as well as periodically. We have already
learnt about the global pressure belts in summer
and winter seasons. Pressure varies from place
to place in response to local temperature and
wind conditions, and distribution of land and sea.
In fact, it is from a global and permanent pressure
pattern that local and semi permanent pressure
cells are evolved. Fig.11.6 : Generalised System of Primary Winds
Three different air circulation systems (Planetary Winds)
are : primary; secondary; and tertiary. The
primary circulation pattern, prepares the broad winds on an rotating earth’s surface. It ignores
framework for other circulatory patterns. The seasonal heating and land water contrast on
primary winds are also known as planetary the earth’s surface. The primary winds
winds. They include trade winds, westerlies and comprise trade winds, westerlies, and polar
polar winds. The secondary winds include easterlies.
monsoon, cyclones and anticyclones. Tertiary Doldrum is a Zone of calmness in the
winds include local winds. They affect only local vicinity of equator on its both sides. Here winds
weather and climate. are feeble and have least surface movement.
(Fig. 11.6)
Primary Winds or Planetary Winds
These winds constitute large scale motion of Trade Winds
atmosphere under the influence of pressure The trade winds blow between 5 0 and 30 0
gradients, Coriolis effect, and frictional force. latitudes in both the hemispheres. In the
It is related to general circulatory pattern of northern hemisphere the prevailing winds are
PRESSURE AND WINDS 79

northeasterly and are called northeast trades.
In the southern hemisphere the prevailing
winds are southeasterly and are called
southeast trades. The two wind belts converge
near the equator, which is called Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
Westerlies
Westerlies blow in the middle latitudes between
350 and 600 north and south latitudes. The
westerlies, unlike trades, are variable in
direction and are violent in speed. At times
specially in winter, they acquire gale force. They
can also take the form of mild breeze. In the
southern hemisphere, beyond 40 0 latitude
stormy westerlies are observed both in summer
as well as in winter. Hence, they were given names
by early mariners as ‘roaring forties’, ‘furious
fifties’ and ‘shrieking sixties’.
In January strong Siberian high over
interior of Asia produces northeasterly surface
winds for most of south Asia. This cold
continental air contains very little moisture, so
precipitation during winter is at a minimum. But
during summer the Siberian high disappears
and the Inter Tropical Conver -gence Zone
(equatorial low) shifts northward to a position
over the Tibetan plateau. As a result the air flows
from the southeast, crosses the equator and is
curved into a southwesterly flow. This air passes
over most of the warm tropical Indian Ocean and
therefore, is highly saturated. The arrival of this

Polar Easterlies
At poles there are well developed high pressure
zones. The cooling effects of Antarctica and
permanently frozen Arctic sea induce thermal
highs. Air chilled at base sinks and flows
towards the equator, veering rapidly to the
west from east. These are called polar
easterlies.

Secondary or Periodic Winds

The winds that change their direction
periodically with the change in season, are called
secondary or periodic winds. Monsoon, air
masses and fronts, cyclones and anticyclones,
land and sea breezes and mountain and valley
breezes are the wind system that periodically
change their courses diurnally or seasonally.

Monsoons
Monsoon (derived from Arabic word, mausim
for season) is a regional wind that reverses
its direction on seasonal basis (Fig.11.7 (a); and
11.7 (b)). The monsoon over south and south
east Asia is typical. These wind systems override
the expected pattern of primary atmospheric Fig.11.7 (a); and (b) : Monsoon Winds and Upper
circulation. Air Circulation (a) Winter; and (b) Summer
80
saturated air over the Indian subcontinent
marks the onset of wet summer monsoon. The
precipitation is frequently high and heavy
(Mawsynram 11,873 mm and Cherrapunji
11,314 mm rainfall). The southwest monsoon
consists of two main branches. One branch
penetrates the Bay of Bengal and Northeastern
India. It is pushed westward along the Indus-
Ganga plains. The other branch arrives from the
Arabian Sea arm of the Indian Ocean and enters
the country from western side. The rains from
both the branches gradually spread across the
sub continent and bring heavy showers over
India. During the winter months monsoon
causes very little precipitation (2 to 4cm).
Tertiary or Local Winds
Tertiary winds are generated by immediate
influence of the surrounding terrain. They are
of environmental importance in various ways
and exert powerful stress on animals and plants
when winds are dry and extremely hot. The
land and sea breezes, as well as mountain and
valley breezes are also one class of local winds.
These winds respond to local pressure
gradients set up by heating or cooling of the
lower atmosphere.
Land and Sea Breezes
Daily temperature contrasts between land and
water produce small diurnal monsoon called
land and sea breezes. Along the coast there is
often drift of cool, heavy air from land to water
at night and early morning when land has cooled
to lower temperature than water. During the
heat of the day, when the land becomes warmer
than the adjacent water, the wind direction is
reversed and a breeze comes in from the sea.
These daily land and sea breezes are shallow
winds and penetrate only a few kilometres in
land or sea. Along tropical coasts and also in
middle latitudes in summer the cool sea breeze
is very important in making coastal location
more pleasant than the interiors.
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Mountain and Valley Breezes
Diurnal winds similar to land and sea breezes
occur in mountainous regions. During day time
the slope of the mountain facing the sun is
heated more than the valley floor. The hot air
rises and the cool air in the valley floor flows up
the slope. This is known as the valley breeze.
After sunset the pattern is reversed. Rapid loss
of heat through terrestrial radiation along the
mountain slopes results in sliding of cold dense
air from higher elevation to valley. This is known
as mountain breeze.
Another group of local winds are known
as air drainage winds in which cold dense
air in winter flows under the influence of
gravity from higher to lower region, and
accumulates over high interior valleys. Snow
winds are locally named as ‘bora’ in northern
Adriatic coast and mistral in southern
France.
The other types of local winds are ‘loo’, ‘foehn’
and ‘chinook’. They are warm and dry winds.
Loo
In the plains of northern India and Pakistan,
sometimes a very hot and dry wind blows from
the west in the months of May and June, usually
in the afternoons. It is known as loo. Its
temperature invariably ranges between 450C
and 500C. It may cause sunstroke to people.
Foehn and Chinook
Foehn is a hot wind of local importance in
the Alps. It is a strong, gusty, dry and warm
wind. It develops on the leeward side of a
mountain range. Due to regional pressure
gradient, stable air is forced to ascend the
windward side causing precipitation on the
mountains. As it descends the leeward side,
it is warmed and becomes dry. Its
temperature varies from 15 0 to 20 0C. A
similar wind moves down the Rockies and is
known as ‘chinook’. The word ‘chinook’
literary means ‘snow eater’. It keeps the
grasslands clear from snow during much of
the winter.
PRESSURE AND WINDS
Mistral
During winter, areas adjacent to highlands may
experience a local cold wind, which originates
over the snowcapped mountains or highlands
and blows down the valley. These winds have been
given local names. The most famous is the
‘mistral’ that blows from the Alps over France
towards the Mediterranean Sea. It is channeled
through the Rhone Valley. It is a very cold and
dry wind with high velocity. Even though the skies
are clear, the ‘mistral’ brings down the
temperature below freezing point. Its speed is so
Fig.11.8 (a) : Distribution of Tropical and Polar Air Masses and Fronts
81
great that orchards and gardens have to be
protected from it by thick hedges of cypress trees.
Many small houses have their doors and
windows only on the southeastern side.
AIR MASSES AND FRONTS
The air masses and fronts are migratory
atmospheric disturbances, which generate
secondary type of winds all over the world. They
are associated with stormy weather conditions.
As indicated earlier, most precipitation results
from the condensation of moisture contained
82 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

in rising and expanding masses of warm and
moist air. Storms provide effective mechanisms
for raising large quantities of air aloft.
Air Masses
Air mass is a large body of air with fairly uniform
properties of temperature and humidity. It
acquires its properties by remaining stationary
over a given area for long period, enough to
come to equilibrium with the surface below. The
properties of air masses (temperature,
humidity, stability and abundance of minor
components) are determined by nature of
underlying surface.
The air masses extend through many
latitudes and cover thousands of square
kilometres. The complete horizontal homoge-
neity of air mass is, therefore, rarely achieved.
Small differences in the physical properties,
such as temperature and humidity exist from
one part to another at the same level.
The air mass derives its characteristics
mainly from its source region. As it moves
away from the source region, it is modified by
weather conditions prevailing along the route.
As such the classification of air mass is based
upon the nature of the source region and
subsequent modifications to which it is
subjected.

Typology of Air Masses

P

cP mP

cPk m Pw

t t t t
cPks cPku mPws mPwu
cPw m Pk

t t t t

cPws cPwu mPks mPku

cT mT

cTk m Tw

t t t t
cTks cTku mTws mTwu
cTw m Tk

t t t t
cTws cTwu mTks mTku

Fig.11.8 (b) : Typology of Air Masses

P-polar m-maritime s-stable
T-tropical k-heated from below u-unstable
c-continental w-cooled from below
PRESSURE AND WINDS
There are two basic air masses-Polar (P) and
Tropical (T) (Fig.11.8(a) and (b)) with strong
differentiation of temperature. They are in turn
sub-divided into continental (c) and maritime
(m) in terms of humidity. A continental air mass
is relatively less humid. The conveniently used
symbols are as follows:
cP — Polar continental
mP — Polar maritime
cT — Tropical continental
mT — Tropical maritime.
The properties of above air masses are
modified by transfer of heat from the bases of
air mass and the surface over which, it flows.
Heating from below expands the air mass thus,
leading to rapid cooling. The mechanical
changes in air mass also cause changes in
physical properties of air masses substantially,
producing unstability in the system. In all,
there are sixteen types of air masses (Fig. 11.8
b). The principal types are as under :
Polar continental (cP) : The air is confined
in broad high latitudinal stretches of Siberia
and Canada. Typically frozen and dusted with
snow throughout winter season, the air
masses located over this region are chilly, cold,
and slightly modified in summer.
Polar maritime (mP) : These air masses are
located over warmer high latitude oceans of
North Pacific (Bering sea), North Atlantic
(Norwegian Sea) and entire sweep of southern
hemisphere oceans fringing Antarctica. The air,
overlying these unfrozen seas with frequent
probing warmer currents, is a highly efficient
evaporator of readily available moisture. So mP
air is less cold and more moist than cP air. North
America and Northern Europe experience
these types of air masses during winter season.
The west coast is normally protected from
invasion by generally, prevailing westerly
circulations and cascade barrier.
Tropical continental (cT): This air mass is
basically hot and dry. Heat may vary a bit in
the season but dryness remains immutable.
These air masses develop over greater Sahara
area. Hot dry winds invade Mediterranean
Europe, Norther n Mexico and Souther n
California in the form of scorching Sirocco.
Tropical maritime (mT): It is considerably
83
wider than cT because of greater size. Pacific
ocean, North and South Atlantic and Indian
Ocean are extensive source areas for mT air.
These air masses overlying the tropical seas are
moist and saturated universally. They are
pushed beyond the source areas and cause
heavy precipitation and high temperature
condition.
Fronts
The contact line between air masses of different
properties is called a front. A cold front develops
where the cold air mass moves under warm air
mass and lifts it up. On the other hand, the
trailing edge of a cold air mass that is followed
by warm air is called a warm front. In each case
precipitation is likely to occur, because warm air
is rising over cold air. The duration and intensity
of the precipitation along the two fronts are quite
different. The cold front is steep and produces
showery, and sometimes violent precipitation
for a longer period of time. If the cold front moves
faster than the warm front in such a trap, part
or all of the pocket of warm air may be lifted from
the surface, thus, producing an occluded front.
After occlusion, the air masses loose earlier
characters and form new fronts.
Cyclones
Cyclones constitute the most fundamental
and climatically the most significant
atmospheric disturbances af fecting the
weather (Fig. 11.9 and 11.10). On the basis of
the areas of their origin, cyclones are classified
broadly into two types: temperate and tropical.
Temperate Cyclones
Temperate Cyclones are concentrated in the
middle latitudes between 350 and 650 in both
hemispheres (Fig.11.11). They are generally,
extensive having a vertical thickness ranging
from 9 to 11 km and a diameter of about 1,000
km. It is just like a spearhead, having the
shape of an upturned ‘V’. The approaching
temperate cyclones are noticed by the
appearance of dark clouds in the background
of white clouds.
84 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Fig.11.9 : Anticyclones and Cyclones

The most accepted hypothesis for the origin
of mid latitude cyclone is Polar front theory,
advanced by Bijerknes, a Norwegian
meteorologist. According to him the highs and
lows of the westerly wind belts result from the
interactions and alternations of two contrasting
types of air masses, one originating in the polar
regions and the other in the subtropics. Cold air
from polar highs moves equatorwards and is
deflected westward, forming the northeast

Fig.11.10 : Distribution of Cyclones and Fronts in the Northern Hemisphere

PRESSURE AND WINDS
Fig.11.11 : Formation of Temperate Cyclones and Polar Fronts
and southeast polar winds. Warmer air from the
subtropical highs moves poleward and, by
eastward deflection, forms the westerly winds.
The contact between these contrasting air
masses is the polar front. Eddies, or waves,
develop along this contact and the front
becomes highly irregular, consisting of
interlocking tongues of the two types of air
masses.
As soon as the cyclone approaches, there
is drizzle, followed by heavy rainfall. The
velocity of the wind increases. On the
approach of warm front, the fall in the
pressure stops; and the sky becomes clear.
This gives the clue that the centre of the
cyclone is reached. Immediately after this,
temperature begins to fall and the sky
becomes cloudy and rainy again. This
indicates the approach of cold front. Sky is
clear once again.
85
PR
EC
IPI
TA
TIO
N
Tropical Cyclones
Tropical Cyclones are notorious for their violence
and for causing wide spread destruction. These
develop over oceans, particularly in tropical
regions. Hence, their major climatic significance
is in causing widespread rainfall. Most of the
tropical cyclones develop in a belt of 80 to 150 north
and south latitudes.
Tropical Cyclones are characterised by
circular and asymmetrical isobars. They have
very low pressure at the centre, and the pressure
gradient is very steep and winds are very strong;
their velocity ranges between 120-200 km per
hour. Rainfall is torrential and is evenly
distributed around the centre. Area covered is
relatively small in the range of 150-500 km
diameter. They move from east to west with the
trades. They are most prominent in the Pacific
ocean, (eastern coast of China, Taiwan,
southern part of Japan). In India,
86 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

intensity is felt more in the Bay of Bengal along
the eastern coast. In Africa, they are recorded in
Ethiopia and Kenya. In North America, they are
prominent in Texas, coastal parts of Mexico and
Florida and West Indies where they are known
as Hurricanes. In Australia, they occur as Willy-
Willies and in China and Japan as Typhoons.
Cyclones are symbolic of atmospheric
dynamism and are of crucial importance in
determining the well being of man and his
society. Much is being studied about them but
still we lack precision in forecast and in assessing
their intensity. Availability of satellite imageries
in coordinating data and information for
analysis at the regional and global levels has
helped in better understanding of the
mechanism of weather.

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) How do air pressure and winds influence the weather?
(ii) What is a millibar?
(iii) What are the two types of pressure systems?
(iv) What is Coriolis force and who discovered it first?
(v) What is pressure gradient?
(vi) Name the seven pressure belts of the earth.
(vii) What are isobars?
(viii) Why does pressure decrease with altitude?
(ix) What are tertiary winds?
(x) What is an air mass?
2. Distinguish between:
(i) Wind and air current;
(ii) Planetary and periodic winds;
(iii) Land and sea breezes;
(iv) Mistral and foehn;
(v) Tropical and polar airmasses;
(vi) Temperate and tropical cyclones.
3. Describe the global pattern of the horizontal distribution of pressure.
4. Discuss the seasonal variation in the pressure distribution over the earth’s surface.
5. Describe the major types of winds.
6. ‘The monsoons override the expected pattern of primary wind system’. Explain.
7. Discuss the major types of air masses and how do they influence the area over which they move?
8. Give one term for the following:
(i) A large body of air with uniform properties of temperature and humidity.
(ii) The contact line between air masses of different properties.
(iii) A zone of calmness in the vicinity of equator on both the sides.
(iv) Winds blowing over south and south east Asia that are characterised by the reversal in
wind direction with change in season.
(v) A hot wind of local importance in the Alps.
(vi) A warm and dry wind moving down the Rockies and commonly called ‘snow eater’.
(vii) A very cold and dry wind with high velocity blowing from the Alps towards the
Mediterranean sea.
(viii) An airmass originating over tropical oceans.

Finding Out
Collect information about some other local winds.