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CHAPTER
C
limate is a mean of daily weather
conditions as expressed by temperature,
precipitation, pressure, winds and
humidity taken over a long time. Temperature
is regarded as basic factor of climate as other
elements are directly or indirectly related to it.
On the basis of temperature, the world has been
divided into Torrid, Frigid and Temperate
Zones. Rainfall patterns are similarly
fundamental in establishing climatic regimes.
As such wet, humid, sub-humid, semiarid and
arid are common climatic description.
Variation in the amount, intensity, and
seasonal distribution of the elements controlling
climate give rise to a great variety of climatic
regions on the earth. A climatic region is defined
as an area on the earth’s surface, where an
approximately homogeneous set of climatic
conditions is produced by the combined effect
of climatic controls. Different sets of climatic
conditions are called climatic types.
CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE
A classification system consists of arbitrary
rules, which help, in separating, or segregating
various features and phenomena into easily
remembered groups. Hence, the objective or
purpose of grouping is the key in designating
a classification and also in the choice of
criteria.
The ancient Greeks broadly divided the
earth into winterless tropical region, the
summer less polar regions and intermediate
region having both winter and summer.
This classification is too simple to be of
much use, giving only a very generalised
picture of temperature taking no account of
precipitation.
WORLD CLIMATE
There are different schemes of classifying
climates of the world. On the basis of grouping,
climate types are: genetic and empirical. Genetic
classification emphasises causes or origin of
their formation based on weather processes. The
empirical classification, on the other hand, is
based on observations related to factors for
climatic differentiation.
Koeppen’s classification is strictly
empirical as it is neither based on weather
process (wind belts, air masses, fronts and
storms) nor does it emphasise causes of
formation of climatic type. The classification
is based upon annual and monthly means of
temperature and precipitation. Native
vegetation is considered best expression of the
totality of climate. Similarly, Thornwaite
followed Koeppen’s principle that plant is a
nature’s meteorological instrument capable of
integrating climatic elements like precipitation
effectiveness and potential evapotranspiration
(evaporation from soil surface plus transpira-
tion from plants).
The climate classification system devised
by Glen T. T rewartha represents a com-
promise between purely empirical and genetic
methods. Besides being simple and
explanatory, it combines the fundamentals of
the empirical as well as genetic classification
schemes. Trewartha, while proposing his
climatic classification, was conscious of the
fact that the classification systems of Koeppen
and Thornwaite, being based on certain
statistical parametres of a few weather
elements, were cumbersome and complex.
The empirical quantitative classification
systems as devised by these authors produced
such a large number of climatic types and sub-
types that it was rather too difficult to
98
remember them. Keeping this aspect in view,
Trewartha recognised only a limited number of
climatic types, usually under 15.
Trewartha’s Classification
The aims and objectives of T rewartha’s
climatic classification were very clear. He
opined that, people such as geographers,
biologists, or agriculturists, who need to
understand and use the climatic environment
for their own purposes, should have the facts
of climate presented realistically, and that any
preconceived genetic structure or scheme of
type location should not be forced. At the same
time he also recognised the merits of the
genetic type of climatic classification.
According to him, “genesis not only increases
interest and adds to the scientific quality of
climatic analysis, but also gives an extra-
dimension of insight to the students’
understanding of the description.”
Trewartha classified world climates in six
great climatic groups, out of which, five (A, C,
D, E, F) are based on temperature criteria, and
the sixth (B) is the dry group based on
precipitation (Table 12.1).
Table 12.1 Simplified Version of Trewartha’s Climatic Classification System
Symbol Climatic Groups
A Tropical humid climate
C Sub-tropical
D Temperate
E Boreal
F Polar
B Dry
Climatic Groups Based on
Temperature Criteria
Tropical Humid (A) Climate
The tropical humid (A) climate stretches along
the equator, in the irregular belt of 200 to 400
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
latitude in both the hemispheres. The
temperature and rainfall are high throughout
the year. In the coastal region the average
temperature of the coldest month is above 180
C. The core of the ‘A’ climatic region is
constituted by wet sub type, the tropical wet
climate (Ar). This climate extends
approximately 50 to 100 on either side of the
equator. Along eastern margins of continents,
this type of climate is under the influence of
inter-tropical convergence zone and the sub-
tropical jetstream. It is also known as tropical
rain forest.
Closer inspection of tropical wet climate
reveals that it widely extends (150 to 200 N and
S) on the eastern margins of continents
because trade winds blow on shore from
northeast and southeast.
The tropical wet and dry climate (Aw)
exhibits winter dry season. It is dominated by
dry trade winds. In this region average
precipitation is less than the one in tropical wet
climate. This type of climate is called savanna
climate because tall grasses that grow between
trees and thor ny bushes, dominate the
vegetation cover.
Climatic Types
Tropical wet (Ar)
Tropical wet and dry/Savana (Aw)
Sub-tropical humid (Cfw)
Sub-tropical dry summer (Cs)
Temperate marine (Do)
Temperate continental (Dc)
Tundra (Ft)
Ice cap (Fi)
Arid/Desert type (BW)
Semi-arid/steppe (BS)
Sub-Tropical (C) Climates
Sub-tropical climates are found between
tropical and temperate climatic zones. In this
type of climate, the temperatures are generally,
above 180 C for nearly 8 months. Winters are
WORLD CLIMATE
mild and short. The coastal areas have rainfall
throughout the year while continental areas
receive less rainfall. On the basis of seasonal
distribution of precipitation, sub-tropical
climates have two sub-types: sub-tropical
humid (Cfw) and sub-tropical dry summer
(Cs).
The sub-tropical humid climate is found on
the eastern sides of continents. In this type,
the rainfall is throughout the year. During
summer, it is under the influence of sub-
tropical anticyclone and in winter under
temperate cyclones. The summer months
receive more rainfall than winter.
Sub-tropical dry summer climate is
characterised by moderate to scanty rainfall.
Rainfall occurs in winter while summers are
dry. This type of climate is found in the interior
of ‘C’ climate region along the tropical margin
of mid latitudes.
Temperate (D) Climates
The micro ther mal (D) climates receive
relatively small amount of heat. It is found in
the vast landmasses of middle latitudes (400
and 650). This climatic band of severe winters
is found between sub-tropical and boreal types
of climate. The two sub types of temperate
climates are temperate marine (Do) and
temperate continental (Dc). They are primarily
demarcated on the bases of summer
temperatures.
Temperate marine climate has mild
winters and fairly war m summers.
Throughout the year, the average temperature
is above 0 o C. The rainfall is experienced
throughout the year. This type of climate is
found on the western sides of continents in
temperate zone.
Temperate continental climate is found in
the interiors of the continents in middle
latitudes. The impact of land is visible as it is
characterised by harsh winters and cool
summers. The extreme cooling of the ground
is associated with anticyclone. Annual
precipitation is low, though it takes place
throughout the year. This type of climate is
found in northeastern Asia, eastern Canada
and Eurasia.
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Boreal (E) Climates
Boreal climate is found in the higher middle
latitudes. In this climate, summers are short
and cool, winters are long and cold with a very
short frost-free season. Annual temperature
ranges between 0 0 and 10 0 C. Annual
precipitation is meager and most of it occurs
during summers. This type of climate is
noticed in the coniferous forest of the world.
Polar (F) Climates
Polar climates are found in the high latitudes
and higher reaches of the Himalayas and the
Alps. These climates are confined to the
norther n hemisphere only. The average
temperature does not exceed 10 0 C in any
month. There is no summer season. On the
basis of temperature the polar climates are
classified into two types: (i) tundra (Ft); and
(ii) ice cap (Fi).
The tundra climate on land is found only
in the northern hemisphere where it occupies
the coastal fringes of the Arctic Ocean, the ice-
free shores of the northern Iceland, southern
Greenland and higher reaches of the
Himalayas and the Alps. This climate is
characterised by extreme cold in which the
average temperature of the warmest month
does not normally rise above 00 C, but never
above 100 C. It is associated with permanent
frost formation leading to frozen sub-soil.
During the summer, precipitation occurs in
the form of snow and rain.
Icecap climate has average temperature
below freezing point. It is associated with the
phenomena of permanent ice and snow. The
winter and summer are windy and chilly and
precipitation is very meagre. This type of
climate is confined to icecaps of Greenland and
Antarctica.
Climatic Group Based on
Precipitation Criteria
Dry (B) Climates
The dry climates are found on the poleward
margins of ‘A’ group climates on the western
sides of the continents. The most important
100
feature of a dry climate is the higher rate of
moisture-loss through evaporation and
evapotranspiration in relation to the annual
receipt of water gain from precipitation. This
climate is characterised by dry weather with
a high range of temperature –250 to 300 C.
Dry B1 climates are associated with
subsiding air of sub-tropical high pressure zone
which, results in intrusion of arid climate into
continents of both north and south
hemispheres. The extreme seasonal
temperatures cause large annual range of
temperature. The average annual precipitation
is meagre (nearly 0 to 50 cm) and is highly
variable.
On the basis of annual average range of
precipitation, dry climates are sub-divided into
desert (BW) and semiarid (BS) type of climate.
The capital letters ‘S’ and ‘W’ indicate the
degree of aridity in dry (B) climates, with ‘S’
and ‘W’ designating semi arid and fully arid
conditions respectively. The boundaries of
these two sub-climates are set at one half of
the annual rainfall separating dry (arid) from
the semi arid type.
Desert or arid type of climate has driest
climatic variety in sub-tropical belt between
200 and 300 north and south latitudes. This
type of climate is found in coastal deserts of
Peru and Chile in South America, Kalahari
deserts of coastal Angola, south west Africa,
Great Australian desert, Sahara and Arabian
deserts, Thar desert of Pakistan and India and
deserts of northern Mexico. In these regions
stability of air mass leads to extreme dryness
with no rainy days. The influence of cold ocean
currents is also there. These areas receive
lowest annual rainfall in the world despite
their location adjacent to the oceans. This type
of climate is associated with xerophytic
(thorny/spiny) type of vegetation.
The semi arid or steppe type of climate
borders ‘A’ and ‘C’ type of climate and has an
annual rainfall range of 30 to 60 cm. These
areas lie in the heart of the grasslands of
western North America and Eurasia. That is
why they are called steppe type of climate. The
lands of this climatic type are away from the
oceanic influence. It is found in both north and
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
south tropical deserts from Morocco to Tunisia
and from Dakar in Senegal to Ethiopia, deserts
of Afghanistan, large strip of land adjoining Thar
Desert and rain shadow area of peninsular
India.
The arid and semi arid climates are further
divided into tropical to sub-tropical hot desert
(BWh), temperate-boreal cold desert (BWk),
tropical sub-tropical steppes (BSh) and
temperate-boreal-steppe (BSk). BWh and BWk
are constantly dry and are under the influence
of sub-tropical high and dry trades. BSh
climate is characterised by short moist season
both in summer and winter. The BSk type of
climate receives most of the meagre
precipitation during warmer season.
GLOBAL CLIMATIC CHANGE
Atmosphere is well structured and fairly
dynamic in nature. The dynamism is more
complex near the earth’s sur face where
changes take place both spatially and
temporally. These changes may be induced
internally within the earth’s atmospheric
system or externally by extra-terrestrial
factors. Some of these changes are the
results of human intervention and hence,
may be slowed down by human ef forts.
The global warming is one of the changes
caused by man’s continual and growing
introduction of carbon dioxide as well as some
other so called green house gases, like
methane and chlorofluorocarbon into the
atmosphere. It is a cause of concern for the
humankind today.
Global Warming
The atoms and molecules of atmospheric
gases cause absorption and back radiation of
sun light, by the green house gases (discussed
in later part of this chapter) especially water,
carbon dioxide, and methane. The
concentration of water in the atmosphere is
controlled by evaporation from oceans.
Carbon dioxide is introduced in the
atmosphere by volcanism. Equivalent amount
of carbon dioxide is removed by precipitation
as calcium carbonate in oceans. Methane,
WORLD CLIMATE
which is twenty times more effective than carbon
dioxide, is produced by metabolisation of
bacteria in wood/grass eating animals. The
methane rapidly gets oxidised into carbon
dioxide.
Human activities add methane, and
carbon dioxide to the atmosphere by burning
fossil fuels and by various agricultural
activities. The carbon dioxide contents of
atmosphere play a dominant role in causing
world wide climatic change. The gas is
transparent to incoming solar radiation, but
absorbs outgoing long-wave terrestrial
radiation. The absorbed terrestrial radiation is
radiated back to the earth’s surface. Thus, it
is clear that any appreciable change in carbon
dioxide content would bring about changes in
the temperature in lower layers of the
atmosphere.
Rapid industrialisation and technological
changes, revolution in agriculture and
transport sectors has resulted in large
supplies of carbon dioxide gas, methane and
chlorofluorocarbon gases to the atmosphere.
Some of these gases are consumed by
vegetation and part of it is dissolved in ocean.
However, about 50 per cent is left over in the
atmosphere. During past 100 years the
concentration of methane has more than
doubled (from 7.0 × 10-7 to 15.5 × 10-7) and
carbon dioxide has increased by 20 per cent
(from 2.90 × 10-4 to 3.49 × 10-4). In 1880-1890
the carbon dioxide content was about 290
parts per million (ppm). It rose to about 315
ppm in 1980, 340 ppm in 1990 and 400 ppm
in 2000. This means that proportion of carbon
dioxide had increased by 9 per cent by 1950
and nearly 17 per cent by 1990. The rate of
increase has become still greater during last
one decade.
Of the many climatic parametres,
temperature is the most affected one due to
urbanisation and industrialisation. The
thermal characteristics of urban areas are in
marked contrast to those of surrounding
countryside. The analysis of temperature data
for last fifty years reveals that there is an
increase of 0.7 o C in winter and 1.4 o C in
summer in India.
101
Man is considered an engine of climatic
change. In support of this, rice farmers, coal
miners, dairy farmers and shifting agriculturists
contribute their mite in global warming.
According to some estimates, rice cultivation in
the world is responsible for 20 per cent methane
being added to atmosphere, and the coal mining
accounts for 6 per cent of methane. The
deforestation is responsible for 20 per cent of the
carbon dioxide gas being added to the
atmosphere. Similarly, industrialisation is
adding 25 per cent of chlorofluorocarbon to the
aerosol of the atmosphere. Consequently, global
temperature increase is by about 1.5oC.
Today, there is much concer n that
continuing addition of carbon dioxide and
methane gases to the atmosphere will increase
atmospheric temperature to an extent that it
will cause ice to melt in the Arctic Ocean and
in Antarctica. As a result, sea level will rise
causing drowning of coastal lowlands and
islands, altering rainfall and evaporation
patterns, creating new plant diseases and pest
problems and enlarging the ozone hole.
With a view to get a dependable picture of
climatic changes in the past, ice-coring
programmes have been undertaken in several
countries particularly in Antarctica and
Greenland Ice caps to analyse the trapped
gases during the last 1,00,000 years. The
results have been fascinating and of fer
glimpses of the earth’s recent history going
beyond the phenomena of global warming.
During last 10,000 years of the earth’s history,
climate regime has been exceptionally stable
compared to earlier history. Study of oxygen
isotope records in Greenland ice core suggests
that cooling trend in the northern hemisphere
started from 1725 to 1920. These were
associated with emissions of volcanic dust at
a regular interval of two to three decades but
after 1945 there has been increase in
temperature globally leading to warming
without any major volcanic eruption and
increase in level of carbon dioxide
concentration in the atmosphere. Scientists
predict that by 2020, temperature all over the
world, would be higher than ever during the
last 1,000 years. As such, it is evident that
102
increasing carbon dioxide content would lead
to rise in global temperature.
Greenhouse Effect
This concept of heating the atmosphere
indirectly from the earth’s surface is called
greenhouse effect or commonly known as
atmospheric effect. Obviously the effect of
atmosphere is analogous to that of a
glass-pane, which lets through most of
incoming short wave solar energy but greatly
retards the outgoing long-wave earth
radiation, thus maintaining sur face
temperatures considerably higher than they
otherwise would be (Fig.13.1). You can build
Fig.13.1 : Trapping of Heat in a Glasshouse
an instantaneous greenhouse. Park your car in
the sun for two hours with the windows closed.
Now, observe the interior temperature. It will be
more than outside temperature. Growing
tomatoes in winter can be accomplished by
capitalising on transparency of glass roof in
greenhouse to short wave.
The Carbon Cycle and Greenhouse Effect
Three of the principal greenhouse gases —
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and the
chloroflorocarbon (CFC) — contain carbon,
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
one of the most common elements in the
environment, and one which plays a major role
in the greenhouse effect. It is present in all
organic substances, and is a constituent of a
great variety of compounds, ranging from
relatively simple gases to very complex
derivatives of petroleum hydrocarbons. The
carbon in the environment is mobile, readily
changing its affiliation with other elements in
response to biological, chemical and physical
processes. This mobility is controlled through
a natural bio-geochemical cycle, which works
to maintain a balance between the release of
carbon compounds from their sources and
their absorption in sinks.
The natural carbon cycle is normally,
considered to be self regulated, but in a time
scale of thousands of years. Over shorter
periods, the cycle appears to be unbalanced,
but that may be a reflection of an incomplete
understanding of the processes involved or
perhaps an indication of the presence of sinks
or reservoirs still to be discovered. The carbon
in the system moves between several major
reservoirs. The atmosphere contains more
than 750 billion tonnes of carbon at any given
time, while 2,000 billion tonnes are stored on
land, and close to 4,000 billion tonnes are
contained in the oceans. Living terrestrial
organic matter is estimated to contain between
450 and 600 billion tonnes, somewhat less
than that stored in the atmosphere.
World fossil fuel reserves also constitute an
important carbon reservoir of some 5,000
billion tonnes. They contain carbon, which has
not been active in the cycle for millions of
years, but is now being reintroduced as a
result of the growing demand for energy in
modern society. The burning of fossil fuel adds
more than 5 billion tonnes of CO 2 to the
atmosphere every year, with more than 90 per
cent originating in North and Central America,
Asia, Europe and the Central Asian Republics.
The use of fossil fuel remains the primary
source of anthropogenic (human) CO 2. It is
augmented by the destruction of natural
vegetation, which reduces the amount
recycled CO 2 during photosynthesis. Such
processes are estimated to be responsible for
WORLD CLIMATE 103

5-20 per cent of current anthropogenic CO2
emissions. This is usually considered a modern
phenomenon, particularly prevalent in the
tropical rainforests of South America, Southeast
Asia, North America, Australia and South
Africa. Between 1850 and 1950 some 120
billion tonnes of carbon were released into the
atmosphere as a result of deforestation and the
destruction of other vegetation by fire.

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) What is a climatic region?
(ii) Into how many regions was the earth divided by the ancient Greeks?
(iii) What criteria was followed by Koeppen to classify climates?
(iv) Why did Trewartha use only a limited number of climatic types?
(v) How human activities add methane and carbon dioxide to the atmosphere?
(vi) What is ice-coring programme? How do they help us know about the climate of the earth
in the past?
(vii) What is ‘greenhouses effect’ of the atmosphere?
2. Distinguish between:
(i) Genetic and empirical classifications of climate;
(ii) ‘Ar’ and ‘Aw’ climates;
(iii) Boreal and polar climates.
3. Write short notes on:
(i) Koeppen’s classification of climate;
(ii) Sub-tropical (C) climate;
(iii) Global climatic changes.
4. Describe the broad climatic groups framed by Trewartha. What are the bases of his
classification?
5. Describe the advantages of Trewartha’s climatic classification over the Keoppen’s
classification.
6. Explain why the tropical humid climate is found in an irregular belt of 200 to 400 latitudes.
7. Describe the atmospheric distribution of carbon and the relationship between the carbon
cycle and the Greenhouse effect.
8. What is global warning? Discuss its causes.