Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Energy Maneuverability Diagram Puts all of the maneuver information in one compact diagram
Flight velocity, turn rate, turn radius, & load factor
Lateral stability
Stability about the roll axis: bi-lateral symmetry, wing design (dihedral), ailerons, keel effect,
Directional stability
Stability about the yaw axis: vertical stabilizer
Note on axes:
Aircraft 1
Trim Pt. Cm cg = 0
Cmcg
A B C
(nose down)
Aircraft 2
Balance
The moment about the c.g. is the sum of these moments
M cg = M c / 4 L(x c / 4 x cg ) + Lt (x t x cg )
cg
=0
Static Margin & CG Travel By looking at CL and Cm we can define the static margin
=
=
Cm CL x c / 4 x cg c
This is a measure of an aircrafts stability - this value should be between 0.03 (low) to 0.1 (high); 0.05 is a good value to aim for
Pitch Stability From these we can determine the limits for c.g. (forward, XF, and aft, XR) - note that a larger tail provides a larger range of c.g. travel
Pitching Tendencies in Stall Low-tail aircraft pitch down in stall; recovery easier T-tail aircraft pitch up in stall; tail in stalled wake, recovery more problematic cruciform T-tail
Effect of Sweep on Stall Angle Sweep reduces drag, but also increases stability at the expense of lower lift
For example,
Phugoid The phugoid is the traditional pitch behavior of an aircraft responding to a disturbance
Crosswind landings
To maintain alignment with the runway during a crosswind landing the pilot must fly at a non-zero sideslip angle. The rudder must be powerful enough to permit the pilot to trim the airplane for specified crosswinds. Max. crosswind design value typically 15.5 m/s (51 fps).
Swept wing
Stall outboard; tail available but ailerons may not be
Dorsal Fin
Addition of dorsal fin delays tendency of tail to stall at high sideslip angles w/ reduced parasite drag
Fuselage Contributions High wings more stable due to stabilizing roll moment; low wings typically include dihedral to counteract the destabilizing moment
Dihedral & Roll Stability Dihedral angle denoted by , typically +3-5o for a low wing plane, 0 or slightly negative for a high wing
Dihedral Effect
When an airplane is disturbed from wings level attitude it will begin to sideslip. During sideslip, an additional velocity component is present The leading wing experiences an increased angle of attack, hence increased lift. The trailing wing experiences a decreased angle of attack, hence decreased lift.
10
Cl a = =
dCl d a 2Cl w Sb
y2
cydy
y1
Common Coupled Dynamics Spiral divergence (graveyard spiral); occurs when static directional stability is large compared to static lateral stability - solved with addition of dihedral Directional divergence; sideslip coupled with yaw Dutch roll; occurs when dihedral effect is large compared to directional stability
11
Dutch Roll Commonly seen in low speed flight or with too much dihedral
Slipstream Rotation
Slipstream rotation from prop yaws aircraft; most critical at high power/low speed scenarios (landing and takeoff)
12
Wing Rock
All Coefficients Each coefficient (3 forces, 3 moments) has a derivative in each direction and each angle, plus a derivative with each rate (such as d/dt or q) In general, a handful of these may be important for any particular aircraft usually determined by software (including numerical models) See Phillips (Mechanics of Flight) or Etkin & Reid (Dynamics of Flight) for more details
13
Control
14
Control Surfaces
CL = CL =
dCL e d e
dCL dC + L e d d e = a + CL e e
15
CL =
dCL dCL d t = = CL t d e d t d e
Trim AoA
Hinge Moments & Trim To size a servo, we need to note the required moment 1 to move a control surface 2
H e = Ch e
U Sc
16
Stick Forces Servo motors on control surfaces easily sized once hinge moments are determined. Use moment balance (even if modern control system is used).
Flss = H ee F=
e He lss
1 U 2 Sc 2
= GH e = GChe
Can get flap forces from Xfoil
Stick Fixed v. Stick Free When the elevator is set free, the stability and control characteristics change. Typically, when the AoA is increased, the elevator floats upwards. Regardless, the location of the stick fixed and stick free neutral points sets an aft limit to the center of gravity travel for the plane.
17
Fixed vs. Free Static Margin Static margin is a way of measuring the static stability of an aircraft
Neutral point is location of c.g. where stability goes to 0 (neither + nor -) Neutral point (NP) is usually the aerodynamic center (AC), or where the lift vector acts
Stick Force or Speed Stability Negative stick force gradient provides pilot with speed stability; once trimmed, the velocity will return to trimmed speed if perturbed
18
Control Issues: e.g., Aileron Reversal As an example of the many control issues one may encounter, aileron reversal is one commonly seen at higher speeds
Control: Open & Closed Loop Practically all aircraft are closed-loop control
Classic: pilot gets feedback from stick forces and instruments Modern: digital autopilot corrects/enhances pilot input
19
Indirect
Hydraulic Fly-by-wire Fly-by-light
FBW Philosophy The computer should have final authority on the commands sent to the control system. The pilots inputs should be limited by the computer (hard limits or protections) to prevent exceeding the physical design limits of the aircraft (e.g., angle of attack, gloads, etc.) to protect the integrity and dynamics of the aircraft. The pilot should have final authority of the commands sent to the control system. The computer should monitor the pilots inputs for limits (soft limits) and warn when they exceed the physical design limits of the aircraft, but carry out the commands even if that would endanger the aircraft integrity or flight.
20
Handling Qualities Controls must feel right to pilot Control parameters (gains, damping, etc.) are unique to each aircraft and thus must be tuned, typically through wind tunnel and flight tests Cooper-Harper Scale
21
Weather
22
Wind Shear
23
Wind Shear
24
25