Computer Applications For Management

MBA 017: Computer Applications in Management
Max. Hours: 40 Unit I (10 Sessions) Basic Concepts of Computers :Introduction and definition of computer; functional components of a computer system-(Input unit, CPU, Memory and output unit); Types of memory and memory hierarchy; Functioning inside a computer; characteristics, advantages and limitations of a computer; classification of computers; Essential Components of computer Hardware: (a) Input devices - keyboard, printing devices, voice speech devices, scanner, MICR, OMR, Bar code reader, digital camera etc. (b) Output devices - Visual Display Unit, printers, plotters etc.(c) Storage Devices Magnetic storage devices, Optical storage devices, Flash Memory etc. Software: Introduction; Types of software with examples; Introduction to languages, compiler, interpreter and assembler. Operating System: Definition, Functions, Types and Classification, Elements of GUI based operating system-Windows-Use of menus, tools and commands of windows operating system. Unit II (12 Sessions) Use of MS-Office: Basics of MS-Word, MS-Excel and MS-PowerPoint; Application of these softwares for documentation and making reports; preparation of questionnaires, presentations, tables and reports (Practical) Database Management System: Overview of DBMS; Components of DBMS, Recent trends in database, RDBMS. MS Access: Overview of MS-Access. Creating tables, queries, forms and reports in MS-Access. Unit III (Session 8) Computer Networks: Overview of Computer Network, Types of computer networks (LAN, WAN and MAN), Network topologies, Components of computer networks (servers, workstations, network interface cards, hub, switches, cables, etc..) Internet: Overview of Internet, Architecture & Functioning of Internet, Basic services over Internet like WWW, FTP, Telnet, Gopher etc., IP addresses, ISPs, URL, Domain names, Web Browsers, Internet Protocols, Search engines, e-mail, Web browsing, searching, downloading & uploading from Internet. Unit IV (Session 10) E-commerce: Introduction, Comparison between Traditional commerce and E-commerce; Advantages & disadvantages of e-commerce, Buying & Selling on Internet, Issues in Implementing Electronic Commerce. Applications of Information Technology: Information Technology (IT) applied to various functional areas of management, such as Production / Operations, Marketing, Human Resource, Finance and Materials Management. Suggested Readings st 1. Cyganski - Information Technology: Inside and outside (Pearson, 1 Edition). 2. Basandra SK - Computers Today (Galgotia, 1 Edition). st 3. Leon A and Leon M - Introduction to Computers (Leon Vikas, 1 Edition). 4. Leon - Fundamentals of Information Technology, (Vikas) 5. Kakkar DN, Goyal R Computer Applications in Management (New Age, 1 Edition).
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Notes are Prepared by Virendra Singh Kushwah, Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Application, HIMCS, Mathura
Unit I Introduction and definition of computer:

A computer is an electronic machine that accepts information, stores it until the information is needed, processes the information according to the instructions provided by the user, and finally returns the results to the user. The computer can store and manipulate large quantities of data at very high speed, but a computer cannot think. A computer makes decisions based on simple comparisons such as one number being larger than another. Although the computer can help solve a tremendous variety of problems, it is simply a machine. It cannot solve problems on its own. A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates data//information, and provides output in a useful format. A programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a computer are: 1. It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner. 2. It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program).
Modern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery -- wires, transistors, and circuits -- is called hardware; the instructions and data are called software. All general-purpose computers require the following hardware components: 1. Memory: Enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data and programs. 2. Mass storage device: Allows a computer to permanently retain large amounts of data. Common mass storage devices include disk drives and tape drives. 3. Input device: Usually a keyboard and mouse, the input device is the conduit through which data and instructions enter a computer. 4. Output device: A display screen, printer, or other device that lets you see what the computer has accomplished. 5. Central processing unit (CPU): The heart of the computer, this is the component that actually executes instructions.
In addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic components to work together efficiently. For example, every computer requires a bus that transmits data from one part of the computer to another.
Functional components of a computer system:

Historically, a computer is any device that can store and process data. Today it usually refers to an electronic device with circuits that allow for data to be manipulated in binary form. So the main components are software (memory and programs to process data) and hardware (devices used for the storing and processing of that data). And, lastly, an array of components for humans to interact with the electronic data 'machine.' Modern computers usually contain the following components: A Motherboard - The backbone of the computer, designed to transfer information and power to and from all of the major components. Other components are usually plugged into this device, and it is almost always the largest board in the computer. Also called a "Mainboard" or "mobo". The motherboard contains the BIOS (Basic Input/output System) that allows all the components to communicate with each other.
CPU (Central Processing Unit) - The Central Processing Unit that is usually attached directly to the motherboard. It is comprised of a chip with usually dozens of pins which are connected to the motherboard. They are usually obscured by a large heat sink (large metal components which divert heat away from chips, which may or may not have an attached fan, depending on if it is a PC or a Mac). RAM (Random Access Memory) - Usually Dual-Inline Memory Modules (DIMMs), they are plugged directly into the motherboard as well. Some high-performance versions are cased in metal which help cool the chips on them. There are usually 8 chips on a stick of RAM (random access memory), sometimes there is a 9th "parity" chip, which helps check for errors within the memory. ROM (Read Only Memory), usually on a Hard drive - This is usually a large metallic rectangular prism-shaped device about 3.5 inches wide. It stores data onto metal discs within the device and has recently come out with capacities as large as 1 TB (Terabyte, or 1000 Gigabytes, 1,000,000 Megabytes etc). In the 'old days' these were cards, ticker tape, or magnetic discs labeled as A drive or B drive. Now most computers have C drive, which is the hard drive mentioned earlier. A Power Supply - Computers need specific power voltages for each component and always have a power supply which takes power from the wall and outputs power at specific voltages on specific cable formats within the computer. The OS - This is the programmed Operating System that is the 'brain' of the computer. If it is a PC it will be a Microsoft derivative of the common Windows systems. It began its earlier days as DOS (Disk Operating System) which was developed by Bill Gates for IBM. If it is an Apple Mac (Macintosh) computer it will likely be using a Mac OS system developed by
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Apple Inc., which first developed the graphical user interface-based operating systems that interfacewe all use today. The other alternative operating systems include UNIX, and some others. l

A case to hold all the components, usually in a tower. Human Interface Devices (HID) - These are the components that allow a human being to interact with the computer and access and/or process data. These can include a keyboard, mouse, monitor (digital video screen, usually now an LED monitor), video cam, microphone, headphones/speakers, graphics tablet, or other devices.
Accessories and Peripherals include: Optical Devices - It has become common for a computer to contain CD CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, BLURAY ROM or writing devices of the aforementioned types. LAN CARD - Known officially as a Network Interface Card (NIC), these devices connect a computer to a network, usually to a router or modem which establishes connectivity to the Internet. These are usually PCI expansion cards or built into a motherboard and output in RJ RJ-45 format. The cable tips (RJ-45) look similar to a phone cable (RJ 11), but are larger. They are commonly called 45) (RJ-11), ca Ethernet Cables.
Parts of a computer
If you use a desktop computer, you might already know that there isn't any single part called the "computer." A computer is really a system of many parts working together. The physical parts, which you can see and touch, are collectively called hardware. (Software on the other hand, refers Software, to the instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware what to do.) The illustration below shows the most common hardware in a desktop computer system. Your system may look a little different, but it probably has most of these parts. A laptop computer has similar parts but combines them into a single notebook-sized package. notebook
Desktop computer system

Notes are Prepared by Virendra Singh Kushwah, Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Application, HIMCS, Mathura 4
Let's take a look at each of these parts. System unit The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular box placed on or underneath your desk. Inside this box are many electronic components that process information. The most important of these components is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which (CPU) acts as the "brain" of your computer. Another component is random access memory (RAM), which co (RAM) temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while the computer is on. The information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is turned off. Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The cables plug connects into specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit. Hardware that is not part of the system unit is sometimes called a peripheral device or device.
Storage Your computer has one or more disk drivesdevices that store information on a metal or plastic devices disk. The disk preserves the information even when your computer is turned off. Hard disk drive Your computer's hard disk drive stores information on a hard disk, a rigid platter or stack of platters , with a magnetic surface. Because hard disks can hold massive amounts of information, they usually serve as your computer's primary means of storage, holding almost all of your programs and files. The hard disk drive is normally located inside the system unit.
CD and DVD drives Nearly all computers today come equipped with a CD or DVD drive, usually located on the front of the system unit. CD drives use lasers to read (retrieve) data from a CD, and many CD drives can c also write (record) data onto CDs. If you have a recordable disk drive, you can store copies of your files on blank CDs. You can also use a CD drive to play music CDs on your computer.
DVD drives can do everything that CD drives can, plus read DVDs. I you have a DVD drive, you If can watch movies on your computer. Many DVD drives can record data onto blank DVDs. Tip*** If you have a recordable CD or DVD drive, periodically back up (copy) your important files to CDs or DVDs. That way, if your hard disk ever fails, you won't lose your data. Floppy disk drive Floppy disk drives store information on floppy disks, also called floppies or diskettes. Compared to CDs and DVDs, floppy disks can store only a small amount of data. They also retrieve information more slowly and are more prone to damage. For these reasons, floppy disk drives are less popular than they used to be, although some computers still include them.
Why are floppy disks "floppy"? Even though the outside is made of hard plastic, that's just the sleeve. The disk inside is made of a thin, flexible vinyl material. Mouse A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen. Although mice come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual mouse. It's small, oblong, and connected to the system unit by a long wire that resembles a tail. Some newer mice are wireless.
Mouse
A mouse usually has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary button. Many mice also have a wheel between the two buttons, which allows you to scroll smoothly through wheel screens of information.
When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen moves in the same direction. (The pointer's appearance might change depending on where it's positioned on your screen.) When you want to select an item, you point to the item and then click (press and release) the primary button. Pointing and clicking with your mouse is the main way to interact with your computer. Keyboard A keyboard is used mainly for typing text into your computer. Like the keyboard on a typewriter, it ainly has keys for letters and numbers, but it also has special keys: The function keys, found on the top row, perform different functions depending on where keys, they are used. The numeric keypad, located on the right side of most keyboards, allows you to enter ic keypad, numbers quickly. The navigation keys, such as the arrow keys, allow you to move your position within a keys, document or webpage.
Keyboard You can also use your keyboard to perform many of the same tasks you can perform with a mouse. Monitor A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphics. The portion of the monitor that displays the information is called the screen. Like a television screen, a computer screen can . show still or moving pictures. There are two basic types of monitors: CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors and LCD (liquid crystal display) monitors. Both types produce sharp images, but LCD monitors have the advantage of being much thinner and lighter. CRT monitors, however, are generally more affordable. CRT
LCD monitor (left); CRT monitor (right) Printer A printer transfers data from a computer onto paper. You don't need a printer to use your computer, but having one allows you to print e e-mail, cards, invitations, announcements, and other materials. Many people also like being able to print their own photos at home. The two main types of printers are inkjet printers and laser printers. Inkjet printers are the most . popular printers for the home. They can print in black and white or in full colour and can produce can high-quality photographs when used with special paper. Laser printers are faster and generally better quality able to handle heavy use.
Inkjet printer (left); laser printer (right) Speakers Speakers are used to play sound. They may be built into the system unit or connected with cables. Speakers allow you to listen to music and hear sound effects from your computer.
Computer speakers
Modem To connect your computer to the Internet, you need a modem. A modem is a device that sends and . receives computer information over a telephone line or high speed cable. Modems are sometimes high-speed built into the system unit, but higher speed modems are usually separate components. higher-speed
Cable modem
Components of a Computer
Components of a computer can be broadly divided into the following two categories: 1. Software Software refers to the programs required to operate a computer. For example, DOS (Disk Operating System), BASIC, COBOL, dBase, Accounting Software etc. are all software. An analogy of hardware can be the book which you are reading and, in this case, software would be the text written on it. Another analogy could be that brain is hardware but memory stored in brain is software. Both hardware and software are dependent on each other. CPU, memory unit, hard disk etc. are dependent useless unless they are provided with instructions and data for storage and processing. Similarly, BASIC or COBOL has no importance unless they are used along with various hardware components of computer. 2. Hardware Hardware refers to any physical component of computer. For example, CPU, monitor (VDU), keyboard, hard disk, floppy disk, printer etc. are physical components and, thus, are all hardware. Hardware can be compared to a human body capable of doing any activity. But without the presence capable of blood and oxygen, it will not be able to do anything. The same is the case with computer and hardware. It is capable of doing many things but without software it just cannot work. Thus, for computer both software and hardware components are essential. oth
Organization of Computer
We will discuss the basic structure of a computer system. The diagram of a generalized architecture of a computer system is shown below. A computer system has the following main components: Input/output unit Central Processing Unit (CPU) Memory unit
Input/Output Unit
The computer is a machine which processes input data according to a given set of instructions and gives output. Before a computer does processing, it should be given data and instructions. After processing, output should be displayed or printed by computer. The unit used for getting the data and instructions into computer and displaying or printing output is known as an Input/output Unit (I/O Unit). There are many peripheral devices which are used as input/output units for a computer. The most common form of an input device is known as terminal. A terminal has an electronic typewriterlike device called keyboard and has a display screen called Visual Display Unit (VDU) or monitor. Keyboard is the main input device while the monitor can be considered both as an input as well as an output device. There are some other common input devices like mouse, punch card, tape, joystick, scanner, modem etc. Monitor, printer and plotter are the main peripheral devices used as output units for a computer.
Central Processing Unit

Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the main component or brain of a computer. It performs all the processing of input data. Its function is to fetch, examine and execute the instructions stored in the main memory of a computer. In microcomputers, CPU is built on a single chip or Integrated Circuit (IC) and is called a microprocessor. A CPU consists of the following distinct parts: Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) Control Unit (CU) Registers Buses Clock Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) The arithmetic and logic unit of CPU is responsible for all arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division as well as logical operations, such as less than, equal to and greater than. All calculations and comparisons are performed in arithmetic logic unit.
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Control Unit The control unit is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer. It is considered as the central nervous system of a computer as it manages and coordinates all the units of computer. It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them and directs the operation of computer. It also performs the physical data transfer between memory and peripheral devices. Registers Registers are small high-speed circuits (memory locations). These are used to store data, instructions and memory addresses (memory location numbers) when ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations. Registers can store one word of data (1 word = 2 bytes and 1 byte = 8 bits) until it is overwritten by another word. Depending on the processors capability, the number and type of registers vary from one CPU to another. Depending upon their functions, these can be divided into the following six categories: General purpose registers Pointer registers Segment registers Index registers Flags registers Instruction pointer registers
Buses Data is stored as a unit of eight bits (bit stands for binary digit, i.e. 0 or 1) in a register. Each bit is transferred from one register to another by means of a separate wire. This group of eight wires that is used as a common way to transfer data between registers is known as a bus. It is actually a connection between two components to transmit signal between them. A bus can be of three major types. These types are as follows: 1. Data bus-- It is used to move data. 2. Control bus-- It is used to move address or memory location. 3. Address bus-- It is used to send control signals between various components of a computer.
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Clock A clock is another important component of CPU. It measures and allocates a fixed time slot for processing each and every micro-operation (smallest functional operation). In simple terms, CPU is allocated one or more clock cycles to complete a micro-operation. CPU executes the instructions in synchronization with the clock pulse. The clock speed of CPU is measured in terms of Mega Hertz (MHz) or Millions of Cycles per second. The clock speed of CPU varies from one model to another in the range 4.77 MHz (in 8088 processor) to 266 MHz (in Pentium II). The speed of CPU is also specified in terms of Millions of Instructions per Second (MIPS) or Million of Floating Point Operations per Second (MFLOPS).
Memory Unit
Memory unit is that component of a computer system which is used to store data, instructions and information before, during and after the processing by ALU. It is actually a work area (physically a collection of integrated circuits) within a computer where CPU stores data and instructions. It is also known as a main/primary/internal memory.
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Input Devices
Input devices are used to input data, information and instructions into RAM. These devices can be classified into the following two broad categories: Basic input devices Special input devices The structure and function of common input devices of these two categories are discussed below in detail. Basic Input Devices The input devices which have now-a-days become essential to operate a PC (personal computer) may be called as basic input devices. These devices are always required for basic input operations. These devices include keyboard and mouse. 1. Keyboard Keyboard (similar to a typewriter) is the main input device of a computer. It contains three types of keys-- alphanumeric keys, special keys and function keys. Alphanumeric keys are used to type all alphabets, numbers and special symbols like $, %, @, A etc. Special keys such as <Shift>, <Ctrl>, <Alt>, <Home>, <Scroll Lock> etc. are used for special functions. Function keys such as <Fl>, <F2>, <F3> etc. are used to give special commands depending upon the software used. The function of each and every key can be well understood only after working on a PC. When any key is pressed, an electronic signal is produced. This signal is detected by a keyboard encoder that sends a binary code corresponding to the key pressed to the CPU. There are many types of keyboards but 101 keys keyboard is the most popular one.
2. Mouse Mouse (similar to a mouse) is another important input device. It is a pointing device used to move cursor, draw sketches/diagrams, select text/object/menu item etc. on monitor screen while working on Windows (graphics-based environment of a computer). Mouse is a small, palm size box containing three buttons and a ball underneath which senses the movement of the mouse and sends the corresponding signals to CPU on pressing the buttons.
Special Input Devices The input devices which are not essential to operate a PC are called as special input devices. These devices are used for various special purposes, and are generally not required for basic input operations. These devices include trackball, light pen, touch screen, joystick, digitizer, scanner, OMR, OCR, bar code reader, MICR and voice input devices.
1. Trackball A trackball looks like a mouse. It has a roller on the top with selection buttons on the side. It is also a pointing device used to move the cursor and works like a mouse. For moving cursor in a particular direction, the user spins the ball in that direction. It is sometimes considered better than a mouse because it requires little arm movement and less desktop space. It is generally used with portable computers.
2. Light Pen Light pen (similar to a pen) is a pointing device which is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube. When its tip is moved over monitor and pen button is pressed, its photocell-sensing element detects the screen location and sends corresponding signal to CPU.
3. Touch Screen Some special VDU devices have touch sensitive screens. These screens are sensitive to human fingers and act as tactile input devices. Using touch screen, the user can point to a selection on the screen instead of pressing keys. Touch screen helps users to get information quickly. It is mainly used in hotels or airports to convey information to visitors.
4. Joystick Joystick is also a pointing device used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. It can be moved in all the four directions. The function of a joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer-Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
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5. Digitizer A digitizer is used to create drawings and pictures with the help of a digitizer tablet by a process called digitizing. Digitizing is a process by which graphic representations are converted into digital data. A digitizer consists of the following three main parts: A flat surface called tablet A small hand held mouse-like device called puck A special pen like device called stylus The puck is used to input existing drawings into the computer. The stylus is used to trace existing drawings placed on tablet. It is also used to draw new drawings on a piece of paper placed on tablet. The user makes contact to the tablet with stylus. As the stylus is connected to the tablet by a wire, the traced image is stored in RAM and displayed on monitor.
6. Scanner A scanner is widely used in Desktop Publishing (DTP) applications. It is used for digitizing images such as photographs, forms, documents etc. in computer memory. There are many types of scanners which can also read text by converting them to digital code. The scanners are very useful for converting the typed pages into word processing files. Graphic scanners convert a printed image into video image without converting it to digital code.
7. Optical Mark Reader (OMR) Optical Mark Reader (OMR) is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is especially used for checking answer sheets of examination having multiple-choice questions. The answer sheet contains special marks such as squares or bubbles. The student fills in these squares with soft pencil or ink to indicate the correct choice. The OMR detects these marks and sends corresponding signals to the processor. If a mark is present, the amount of reflected light is reduced and, thus, OMR detects the presence of mark for each and every answer. These are widely used for almost all competitive examinations having objective type questions.
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8. Bar Code Reader Bar code reader is an optical scanner used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark lines). The bar coded data consists of a number of bars of varying thickness and spacing between them. The bar code reader reads the bar coded data and converts it into electrical pulses which are then processed by computer. Bar coded data is generally used in labeling goods, lab numbering the books, or encoding ID or A/c numbers.
9. Optical Character Reader (OCR) Optical Character Reader (OCR) is an optical scanner which is capable of detecting alphanumeric characters typed or printed on paper using an OCR font. The text which is to be scanned is The illuminated by a low frequency light source. The dark areas on the text absorb light while light areas reflect it. The photocells of OCR device receive this reflected light and provide binary data corresponding to dark and light areas. OCR devices are used for large volume applications like reading of passenger tickets, computer printed bills of credit card companies and ZIP codes in postal services. 10. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) is used to recognize the magnetically charged characters mainly found on bank cheques. The magnetically charged characters are written by special ink called magnetic ink. MICR device reads the patterns of these characters and compares them with special patterns stored in memory. Using MICR device, a large volume of cheques can be processed in a day. It is widely used by banking industry for the processing of cheques.
11. Digital Camera A digital camera (also digicam or camera for short) is a camera that takes video or still photographs, or both, digitally by recording images via an electronic image sensor. Many compact digital still cameras can record sound and moving video as well as still photographs. Most 21st century cameras are digital. Digital cameras can do things film cameras cannot: displaying images on a screen immediately after they are recorded, storing thousands of images on a single small memory device, recording video with sound, and deleting images to free storage space. Some can crop pictures and perform other elementary image editing. The optical system works the same as in film cameras, typically using a . cameras lens with a variable diaphragm to focus light onto an image pickup device. The diaphragm and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film but the image pickup device is electronic rather than chemical.
Voice-Input Devices
Voice-input devices are the latest input devices that can recognize human voice. They seem to be very useful but are not popular due to storage of limited vocabularies and variations in the way of pronouncing words by different persons.
Output Devices
Output devices are hardware components which are used to display or print the processed information. The structure, working and uses of common output devices is discussed below. 1. Monitor Visual Display Unit (VDU), commonly known as monitor, is the main output device of a computer . It consists of a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) which displays characters as an output. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels. Pixels are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of image (screen resolution) depends upon the number of pixels.
Types of Monitors Depending upon the resolution, monitors can be classified as follows: (a) CGA (Color Graphics Adapter) b) MDA (Monochrome Display Adapter) (c) HGA (Hercules Graphics Adapter) (d) EGA (Enhanced Graphics Adapter) (e) VGA (Video Graphics Adapter) (f) SVGA (Super VGA) The differences between these monitors are summarized below. Depending upon the color of display, monitors can be classified as monochrome (with single color/ black and white display) and color (with all colors display) monitors.
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2. Printer Printer is the most important output device. It is used to print information on paper. It is essential for getting output of any computer-based application.
Types of Printers Printers can be broadly categorized into the following two types: 1. Impact Printers The printers that print the characters by striking against the ribbon and onto the paper are called impact printers. These are of two types: (a) Character Printers These printers print one character at a time. These printers are further of two types: (i) Daisy Wheel Printers These printers print the characters by a mechanism that uses a plastic or metal hub with spokes, called daisy wheel (refer to figure 2.20). The characters are embossed on the radiating spokes and printed by striking these spokes against the ribbon and paper. These printers give a good quality but are more expensive than dot matrix printers. (ii) Dot Matrix Printers These printers print the characters by putting dots onto paper. They do not give better printing quality than daisy wheel printers but are faster in speed. The printing speed of a dot matrix printer can be upto 360 cps (characters per second). They are widely used with microcomputers. (b) Line Printers These printers print one line at a time. Their printing speed is much more than character printers. They are also of two types: (i) Drum Printers These printers print line by a rotating drum having a ring of characters for each print position. The hammers strike each character of the drum simultaneously so that entire line is printed in one full rotation of the drum. These printers are also called as barrel printers. The printouts obtained from these printers have even character spacing but uneven line height. (ii) Chain Printers These printers print the line by a rotating chain having ring characters for each print position. Their printing mechanism is similar to drum printers. The printouts, thus, obtained from these printers have uneven character spacing but even line height.
2. Non-Impact Printers The printers that print the characters without striking against the ribbon and onto the paper are called non-impact printers. These printers print a complete page at a time and, therefore, are also called as page printers. Page printers are of three types: (a) Laser Printers These printers look and work like photocopiers. They are based on laser technology which is the latest development in high speed and high quality printing. In these printers, a laser beam is used to write an image on a paper. First, the image is formed by electrically charged thousands of dots on a paper by laser beam. Then, the paper is sprayed with a toner having the opposite charge and is passed over a heated roller to make the image permanent. Laser printers are very popular and have become an essential part of DTP. Although laser printers are costlier than dot matrix yet they are generally preferred in all offices due to their high quality of printing. There are many models of laser printers depending upon the speed and number of dots printed. The latest model of laser printer is 1200 DPI (dots per inch) which can print 10 pages per minute. Some high-speed laser printers give a speed of upto 100 pages per minute. (b) Inkjet Printers These printers print characters by spraying electrically charged ink on paper. These printers give better quality than character printers but not better than laser printers. They are cheaper than laser printers and hence used widely in many offices. They also offer an option of using color cartridges for multi-color printing. (c) Thermal Printers These printers print characters by melting a wax-based ink off a ribbon onto a special heat sensitive paper. They give letter-quality printing but are relatively expensive in maintenance than other printers. Plotter Plotter is an important output device which is used to print high quality graphics and drawings. Although the graphics can be printed on printers yet the resolution of such printing is limited. Plotters are generally used for printing/drawing graphical images such as charts, drawings, maps etc. of engineering and scientific applications.
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Some important types of plotters are discussed below: 1. Flat Bed Plotters These plotters print the graphical images by moving the pen on stationary flat surface material. They produce very accurate drawings. 2. Drum Plotters These plotters print graphical images by moving both the pen and the drum having paper. They do not produce as accurate drawings as printed by flat bed plotters. 3. Inkjet Plotters These plotters use inkjets in place of pens. They are faster than flat bed plotters and can print multicolored large drawings. Computer Output Microfilm Computer Output Microfilm (COM) is a technique to produce output on a microfilm media (microfilm reel or microfiche card). (Refer to figure 2.30) A microfilm is a continuous filmstrip that can store several thousand miniaturized document pages. A microfiche card is a 4 x 6 inch film sheet which can store several hundred pages. The process of producing microfilm or microfiche takes place on a special COM unit. The information recorded on the microfilm is read with the help of a microfilm viewing system. It is generally easier to read a microfiche than microfilm. COM is particularly useful for organizations which need to store and manipulate large amount of data. It helps them in tremendous savings in paper and document handling costs.
Storage Devices
1. Magnetic storage devices Magnetic storage and magnetic recording are terms from engineering referring to the storage of data on a magnetized medium. Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization in a magnetizable material to store data and is a form of non-volatile memory. The information is accessed using one or more read/write heads. As of 2009, magnetic storage media, primarily hard disks, are widely used to store computer data as well as audio and video signals. In the field of computing, the term magnetic storage is preferred and in the field of audio and video production, the term magnetic recording is more commonly used. The distinction is less technical and more a matter of preference. Other examples of magnetic storage media include floppy disks, magnetic recording tape, and magnetic stripes on credit cards.
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2. Optical storage devices Optical storage is a term from engineering referring to the storage of data on an optically readable medium. Data is recorded by making marks in a pattern that can be read back with the aid of light. A common modern technique used by computers involves a tiny beam of laser light precisely focused on a spinning disc. An older example, that does not require the use of computers, is microform. There are other means of optically storing data and new methods are in development. Optical storage differs from other data storage techniques that make use of other technologies such as magnetism or semiconductors. Optical storage can range from a single drive reading a single CDROM to multiple drives reading multiple discs such as an optical jukebox. Single compact discs can hold around 700MB (megabytes) and optical jukeboxes can hold much more. Ex: the TeraStack Solution from Hie Electronics can hold 78TB (terabytes) and the DISC7000 from DISC can hold 25.5 to 34.5TB. The term optical drive usually refers to a device in a computer that can read CDROMs or other optical discs.
3. Flash memory Flash memory is a non-volatile computer storage technology that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. It is primarily used in memory cards, USB flash drives, and solid-state drives for general storage and transfer of data between computers and other digital products. It is a specific type of EEPROM (electrically-erasable programmable read-only memory) that is erased and programmed in large blocks; in early flash the entire chip had to be erased at once. Flash memory costs far less than byte-programmable EEPROM and therefore has become the dominant technology wherever a significant amount of non-volatile, solid state storage is needed. Example applications include PDAs (personal digital assistants), laptop computers, digital audio players, digital cameras and mobile phones. It has also gained popularity in console video game hardware, where it is often used instead of EEPROMs or battery-powered static RAM (SRAM) for game saves data. Since flash memory is non-volatile, no power is needed to maintain the information stored in the chip. In addition, flash memory offers fast read access times (although not as fast as volatile DRAM memory used for main memory in PCs) and better kinetic shock resistance than hard disks. These characteristics explain the popularity of flash memory in portable devices. Another feature of flash memory is that when packaged in a "memory card," it is extremely durable, being able to withstand intense pressure, extremes of temperature, and even immersion in water.
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Binary Logic
Binary logic deals with binary variables and logical operations. The binary variables are denoted by x, y, z, A, B, C etc. that can have only two distinct values (e.g., 1 and 0, true or false, yes or no etc.). There are three basic logical operations-- AND, OR and NOT. In binary logic, if x and y are two binary variables, x.y (read as x AND y) represents AND operation and x+y (read as x OR y) OR operation. The NOT operation is represented by x'. It follows that for each combination of the values of x and y, there is a value for x+y, x.y, and x' as specified by the definition of logical operations. The definitions of AND, OR and NOT logical operations is demonstrated in tables, called truth tables. Bits and Bytes Bit stands for binary digit. It is a single digit in binary number which can be either 0 or 1. Within a computer, a single bit can be stored in many ways, generally by using transistor, multi-vibrator (flip-flops-- circuits made of logic gates), or a capacitor as on/off switch. If a bit is OFF, its value is considered 0 and if it is ON, its value is 1. Bit is the smallest unit of data in a computer. A single bit alone does not provide much information but a combination of 8 bits is enough to store all alphabets, numbers and other characters used by computer. The group of 8 bits is known as a byte. For example, when a user types A (1 byte) on the keyboard, the system delivers a signal which sets input location to the bit value 01000000. In memory, each byte occupies a unique address (storage location). Byte is considered as the smallest unit of memory. There are higher units of memory such as word, kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte and terabyte. These are illustrated in table 2.2 given below: Unit of Memory Byte Word Double word Quad word Paragraph Kilobyte (K) Megabyte (MB) Gigabyte Terabyte Petabyte Equivalent Units 8 bits 2 bytes 4 bytes 8 bytes 16 bytes 1024 bytes 1024 K 1024 MB 1024 GB 1024 TB
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Characteristics of Computer
Now-a-days computer is playing a main role in everyday life it has become the need of people just like television, telephone or other electronic devices at home. It solves the human problems very quickly as well as accurately. The important characteristics of a computer are described below: 1. Speed The computer is a very high speed electronic device. The operations on the data inside the computer are performed through electronic circuits according to the given instructions. The data and instructions flow along these circuits with high speed that is close to the speed of light. Computer can perform million of billion of operations on the data in one second. The computer generates signals during the operation process therefore the speed of computer is usually measure in mega hertz (MHz) or gega hertz (GHz). It means million cycles units of frequency is hertz per second. Different computers have different speed. 2. Arithmetical and Logical Operations A computer can perform arithmetical and logical operations. In arithmetic operations, it performs the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division on the numeric data. In logical operation it compares the numerical data as well as alphabetical data. 3. Accuracy In addition to being very fast, computer is also very accurate device. it gives accurate output result provided that the correct input data and set of instructions are given to the computer. It means that output is totally depended on the given instructions and input data. If input data is in-correct then the resulting output will be in-correct. In computer terminology it is known as garbage-in garbage-out. 4. Reliability The electronic components in modern computer have very low failure rate. The modern computer can perform very complicated calculations without creating any problem and produces consistent (reliable) results. In general, computers are very reliable. Many personal computers have never needed a service call. Communications are also very reliable and generally available whenever needed. 5. Storage A computer has internal storage (memory) as well as external or secondary storage. In secondary storage, a large amount of data and programs (set of instructions) can be stored for future use. The stored data and programs are available any time for processing. Similarly information downloaded from the internet can be saved on the storage media. 6. Retrieving data and programs The data and program stored on the storage media can be retrieved very quickly for further processing. It is also very important feature of a computer.
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7. Automation A computer can automatically perform operations without interfering the user during the operations. It controls automatically different devices attached with the computer. It executes automatically the program instructions one by one. 8. Versatility Versatile means flexible. Modern computer can perform different kind of tasks one by one of simultaneously. It is the most important feature of computer. At one moment your are playing game on computer, the next moment you are composing and sending emails etc. In colleges and universities computers are use to deliver lectures to the students. The talent of computer is dependent on the software. 9. Communications Today computer is mostly used to exchange messages or data through computer networks all over the world. For example the information can be received or send throug the internet with the help of computer. It is most important feature of the modern information technology. 10. Diligence A computer can continually work for hours without creating any error. It does not get tired while working after hours of work it performs the operations with the same accuracy as well as speed as the first one. 11. No Feelings Computer is an electronic machine. It has no feelings. It detects objects on the basis of instructions given to it. Based on our feelings, taste, knowledge and experience: we can make certain decisions and judgments in our daily life. On the other hand, computer cannot make such judgments on their own. Their judgments are totally based on instructions given to them. 12. Consistency People often have difficulty to repeat their instructions again and again. For example, a lecturer feels difficulty to repeat a same lecture in a class room again and again. Computer can repeat actions consistently (again and again) without losing its concentration: To run a spell checker (built into a word processor) for checking spellings in a document. To play multimedia animations for training purposes. To deliver a lecture through computer in a class room etc. A computer will carry out the activity with the same way every time. You can listen a lecture or perform any action again and again. 13. Precision Computers are not only fast and consistent but they also perform operations very accurately and precisely. For example, in manual calculations and rounding fractional values (That is value with decimal point can change the actual result). In computer however, you can keep the accuracy and precision upto the level, you desire. The length calculations remain always accurate.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of a computer

Advantages 1. It helps you automate various tasks that you cannot do manually. 2. It helps you organize your data and information in a better way. 3. It has much more computing and calculating power then an ordinary human. 4. It may help your work to be a lot easier. 5. It may be the storage of your important data and files. 6. It may be your hand book. 7. It may help you solve problems faster than an ordinary human being can do. 8. It has speed, storage, reliability, consistency and communications. 9. It helps you to find useful information using the Internet. 10. It helps in businesses, factories, offices, schools and homes. Disadvantages 1. It destroys your social life and interactions with humans if you do not maintain the balance. 2. It may effect to the destruction of your eye sight due to radiation. 3. It may cause pimples and wrinkles. 4. It may damage your studies and life. 5. Too much time in front of monitor may adverse effect your eye sight and can also make you fat. 6. The way it distracts and can deviate our thoughts and activities towards unproductive activities. 7. It could cause violation of privacy, impact on labor force, health risks, impact on environment, distraction from work, and possible antisocial influences. 8. Getting away from their real life and getting into bad lines
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Classification of computers
Computers can be classified, or typed, many ways. Some common classifications are summarized below. Classes by Size 1. Microcomputers (Personal computers) Microcomputers are the most common type of computers in existence today, whether at work in school or on the desk at home. The term "microcomputer" was introduced with the advent of single chip microprocessors. The term "microcomputer" itself, is now practically an anachronism. These computers include:

Desktop computers Laptop and notebook computers Tablet PC Palmtop computers Personal digital assistants (more commonly known as PDA's) Programmable calculator
2. Minicomputers (Midrange computers) A minicomputer (colloquially, mini) is a class of multi-user computers that lies in the middle range of the computing spectrum, in between the largest multi-user systems (mainframe computers) and the smallest single-user systems (microcomputers or personal computers). The contemporary term for this class of system is midrange computer, such as the higher-end SPARC, POWER and Itanium -based systems from Sun Microsystems, IBM and Hewlett-Packard. 3. Mainframe Computers The term mainframe computer was created to distinguish the traditional, large, institutional computer intended to service multiple users from the smaller, single user machines. These computers are capable of handling and processing very large amounts of data quickly. Mainframe computers are used in large institutions such as government, banks and large corporations. These institutions were early adopters of computer use, long before personal computers were available to individuals. "Mainframe" often refers to computers compatible with the computer architectures established in the 1960s. Thus, the origin of the architecture also affects the classification, not just processing power. Mainframes are measured in millions of instructions per second or MIPS. An example of integer operation is moving data around in memory or I/O devices. A more useful industrial benchmark is transaction processing as defined by the Transaction Processing Performance Council. Mainframes are built to be reliable for transaction processing as it is commonly understood in the business world: a commercial exchange of goods, services, or money. A typical transaction, as defined by the Transaction Processing Performance Council, would include the updating to a database system for such things as inventory control (goods), airline reservations (services), or banking (money). A transaction could refer to a set of operations including disk read/writes, operating system calls, or some form of data transfer from one subsystem to another.
4. Supercomputer A supercomputer is focused on performing tasks involving intense numerical calculations such as weather forecasting, fluid dynamics, nuclear simulations, theoretical astrophysics, and complex scientific computations. A supercomputer is a computer that is at the frontline of current processing capacity, particularly speed of calculation. The term supercomputer itself is rather fluid, and today's supercomputer tends to become tomorrow's ordinary computer. Supercomputer processing speeds are measured in floating point operations per second or FLOPS. Example of floating point operation is the calculation of mathematical equations in real numbers. In terms of computational capability, memory size and speed, I/O technology, and topological issues such as bandwidth and latency, Supercomputers are the most powerful. Supercomputers are very expensive and not cost-effective just to perform batch or transaction processing. Transaction processing is handled by less powerful computer such as server computer or mainframe. Classes by function 1. Servers Server usually refers to a computer that is dedicated to providing a service. For example, a computer dedicated to a database may be called a "database server". "File servers" manage a large collection of computer files. "Web servers" process web pages and web applications. Many smaller servers are actually personal computers that have been dedicated to providing services for other computers. 2. Workstation Workstations are computers that are intended to serve one user and may contain special hardware enhancements not found on a personal computer. 3. Embedded computers Embedded computers are computers that are a part of a machine or device. Embedded computers generally execute a program that is stored in non-volatile memory and is only intended to operate a specific machine or device. Embedded computers are very common. Embedded computers are typically required to operate continuously without being reset or rebooted, and once employed in their task the software usually cannot be modified. An automobile may contain a number of embedded computers; however, a washing machine and a DVD player would contain only one. The central processing units (CPUs) used in embedded computers are often sufficient only for the computational requirements of the specific application and may be slower and cheaper than CPUs found in a personal computer.
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Types of memory and memory hierarchy

A personal computer must have a means of storing information (data) and instructions so that it can perform processing tasks on the data. Personal computers have two types of memory. These are discussed below. Read Only Memory (ROM) ROM is a small area of permanent memory that provides startup instructions when the computer is turned on. You cannot store any data in ROM. The instructions in ROM are set by the manufacturer and cannot be changed by the user. The last instruction in ROM directs the computer to load the operating system. Every computer needs an operating system. This is a special computer program that must be loaded into memory as soon as the computer is turned on. Its purpose is to translate your instructions in English into Binary so that the computer can understand your instructions. The operating system also translates the results generated by your computer into English when it is finished so that we can understand and use the results. The operating system comes with a computer. Random Access Memory (RAM) This is the area of memory where data and program instructions are stored while the computer is in operation. This is temporary memory. NOTE: The data stored in RAM is lost forever when the power is turned off. For this reason it is very important that you save your work before turning off your computer. This is why we have peripheral storage devices like your computers hard disk and floppy diskettes. Permanent Memory (Auxiliary Storage) Your files are stored in permanent memory only when saved to your disk in a: drive or saved to your computer's hard disk, When an electric current flows through a circuit, the circuit is on. When no electricity flows, the circuit is off. An on circuit is represented by the number one (1) and an off circuit is represented by the number zero (0). The two numbers 1 and 0 are called bits. The word bit comes from binary digit. Each time a computer reads an instruction, it translates that instruction into a series of bits, 1s and 0s. On most computers every character from the keyboard is translated into eight bits, a combination of eight 1s and 0s. Each group of eight bits is called a byte. Byte The amount of space in memory or on a disk needed to store one character. 8 bits = 1 Byte Since computers can handle such large numbers of characters at one time, metric prefixes are combined with the word byte to give some common multiples you will encounter in computer literature. Kilo means 1000 Mega means 1,000,000 Giga Means 1,000,000,000 Kilobyte (KB) = Megabyte (MB) = Gigabyte (GB) = 1000 Bytes 1,000,000 Bytes 1,000,000,000 Bytes
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There are many types of computer memory modules available. In this day and age, computers (laptops, PCs, etc.) generally do not use a single type of memory; rather, a combination of memory chips and modules are normally found in today's computers, depending on requirements and applications. The following is an overview of the types of computer memory: SIMM (Single In-Line Memory Module) Dating back to the days of 286, 386, and 486 PCs, SIMMs are generally plug-in memory modules that are inserted into the CPU motherboard (or an extended memory board). A SIMM can be comprised of BEDO (Burst Extended Data Out Dynamic Random Access Memory), DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) or EDO (Extended Data Out Dynamic Random Access Memory), with the memory chips (one or more) soldered on a PCB (printed circuit board). As mentioned above, it is the SIMM that is plugged into the CPU motherboard or memory extend card to expand the memory capability of the computer. Generally, when one is adding memory to a computer, it is in the form of a SIMM. Early SIMMs handled 8 data bits at a time in a 30-pin configuration; later, when CPUs were processing 32-bits, newer generation SIMMs was constructed in a 72-pin configuration. DIMM (Dual In-Line Memory Module) DIMMs have two rows of DRAM, BEDO, or EDO memory chips. DIMMS allow for double the memory on the same size printed circuit board. A typical DIMM would be constructed in a 168-pin configuration and handle 64 data bits at a time. SODIMM (Small Outline Dual In-Line Memory Module) SODIMMs are generally found in notebook computers and are smaller than standard DIMMs. In general, there are 2 types of SODIMMs the first handling 32 data bits at a time with a 72-pin configuration, and the second handling 64 data bits with a 144-pin configuration. RIMM (Rambus In-Line Memory Module) Rambus Inc. in coordination with Intel developed a new memory technology called Direct RDRAM, with the in-line modules known as RIMMs. RIMMs have a 184-pin configuration and deliver a peak transfer rate of 1.6 Gigabytes per second (in 16 data bit segments). SORIMM (Small Outline Rambus In-Line Memory Module) SORIMMs have a similar outline as a SODIMM, but use the Rambus memory technology. Different Types of Memory Chips: DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) The most common type of computer memory. DRAMs hold data for a relatively brief period of time and need to be refreshed at regular intervals. DRAMs are measured by access time (in nanoseconds, or ns) and storage capacity (in megabytes, or MB). EDO (Extended Data Out) Memory Higher-performing memory than DRAM, with a gain in performance of roughly 10-15% over DRAM. BEDO (Burst Extended Data Out) Memory Higherperforming memory than EDO, with a gain in performance of roughly 13% over EDO. SDRAM (Static Dynamic Random Access Memory) A memory chip that retains memory and does not need refreshing. Another advantage of SDRAM is that it synchronizes with the CPU timing. Although faster than DRAM, it is also more expensive; available in speeds from 66 to 266 MHz. DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory) A memory integrated circuit that permits transactions on the rising as well as the falling edges of the clock cycle, with a bus clock speed of 100 MHz with a data transfer rate of 200 MHz. OTHER MEMORY TYPES VRAM (Video Random Access Memory) VRAM is a video version of fast page mode memory and is found primarily in video accelerator cards.
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Flash Memory A memory chip that is non-volatile, re-writable that functions like a combination non writable random access memory and a hard disk drive. In the case of power being lost, data is retained in memory. Advantages of flash memory include low voltage, durability and high speed; for this reason, flash memory is used in printers, pagers, digital cameras, audio recorders and cell phones. digital Shadow RAM (Random Access Memory) During the booting up of a computer, a minimal set of instructions to start the computer and video are stored in ROM (read only memory), known as BIOS (basic input output system). Since ROM normally executes slowly, Shadow RAM allows for the stem). transfer of selected segments of the BIOS code from ROM to RAM memory (which is faster).
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Introduction of Software
Computer software, or just software, is the collection of computer programs and related data that provide the instructions telling a computer what to do. The term was coined to contrast to the old term hardware (meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is intangible, meaning it "cannot be touched". Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only. Sometimes the term includes data that has not traditionally been associated with computers, such as film, tapes and records.
Types of software
Practical computer systems divide software systems into three major classes: system software, programming software and application software, although the distinction is arbitrary, and often blurred. System software System software helps run the computer hardware and computer system. It includes a combination of the following: device drivers operating systems servers utilities window systems The purpose of systems software is to unburden the applications programmer from the often complex details of the particular computer being used, including such accessories as communications devices, printers, device readers, displays and keyboards, and also to partition the computer's resources such as memory and processor time in a safe and stable manner. Examples are - Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X. Programming software Programming software usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs, and software using different programming languages in a more convenient way. The tools include: compilers debuggers interpreters linkers text editors An Integrated development environment (IDE) is a single application that attempts to manage all these functions. Application software Application software allows end users to accomplish one or more specific (not directly computer development related) tasks. Typical applications include:
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industrial automation business software video games quantum chemistry and solid state physics software telecommunications (i.e., the Internet and everything that flows on it) databases educational software medical software molecular modeling software image editing spreadsheet simulation software Word processing Decision making software
Application software exists for and has impacted a wide variety of topics.
Introduction to languages
In all over the world, language is the source of communication among human beings. Different countries/regions have different languages. Similarly, in order to communicate with the computer user also needs to have a language that should be understood by the computer. For this purpose, different languages are developed for performing different types of work on the computer. Basically, languages are divided into two categories according to their interpretation. 1. Low Level Languages. 2. High Level Languages. 1. Low Level Languages Low level computer languages are machine codes or close to it. Computer cannot understand instructions given in high level languages or in English. It can only understand and execute instructions given in the form of machine language i.e. language of 0 and 1. There are two types of low level languages:

Machine Language. Assembly Language
Machine Language: It is the lowest and most elementary level of Programming language and was the first type of programming language to be developed. Machine Language is basically the only language which computer can understand. In fact, a manufacturer designs a computer to obey just one Language, its machine code, which is represented inside the computer by a String of binary digits (bits) 0 and 1. The symbol 0 stands for the absence of Electric pulse and 1 for the presence of an electric pulse. Since a computer is Capable of recognizing electric signals, therefore, it understands machine Language.
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Advantages of Machine Language i) It makes fast and efficient use of the computer. ii) It requires no translator to translate the code i.e. directly understood by the computer Disadvantages of Machine Language: i) All operation codes have to be remembered ii) All memory addresses have to be remembered. iii) It is hard to amend or find errors in a program written in the machine language iv) These languages are machine dependent i.e. a particular Machine language can be used on only one type of computer Assembly Language: It was developed to overcome some of the many inconveniences of machine language. This is another low level but a very important language in which operation codes and operands are given in the form of alphanumeric symbols instead of 0s and ls. These alphanumeric symbols will be known as mnemonic codes and can have maximum up to 5 letter combination e.g. ADD for addition, SUB for subtraction, START, LABEL etc. Because of this feature it is also known as Symbolic Programming Language. This language is also very difficult and needs a lot of practice to master it because very small English support is given to this language. The language mainly helps in compiler orientations. The instructions of the Assembly language will also be converted to machine codes by language translator to be executed by the computer. Advantages of Assembly Language i) It is easier to understand and use as compared to machine language. ii)It is easy to locate and correct errors. iii) It is modified easily Disadvantages of Assembly Language i) Like machine language it is also machine dependent. ii) Since it is machine dependent therefore programmer should have the knowledge of the hardware also. 2. High Level Languages High level computer languages give formats close to English language and the purpose of developing high level languages is to enable people to write programs easily and in their own native language environment (English). High-level languages are basically symbolic languages that use English words and/or mathematical symbols rather than mnemonic codes. Each instruction in the high level language is translated into many machine language instructions thus showing one-tomany translation Types of High Level Languages Many languages have been developed for achieving different variety of tasks, some are fairly specialized others are quite general purpose. These are categorized according to their use as
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a) Algebraic Formula-Type Processing. These languages are oriented towards the computational procedures for solving mathematical and statistical problem Examples are

BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code). FORTRAN (Formula Translation). PL/I (Programming Language, Version 1). ALGOL (Algorithmic Language). APL (A Programming Language).
b) Business Data Processing: These languages emphasize their capabilities for maintaining data processing procedures and files handling problems. Examples are:

COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language). RPG (Report Program Generator
c) String and List Processing: These are used for string manipulation including search for patterns, inserting and deleting characters. Examples are:

LISP (List Processing). Prolog (Program in Logic).
d) Object Oriented Programming Language: In OOP, the computer program is divided into objects. Examples are:

C++ Java
e) Visual programming language: these are designed for building Windows-based applications Examples are: Visual Basic Visual Java Visual C Advantages of High Level Language Following are the advantages of a high level language: User-friendly Similar to English with vocabulary of words and symbols Therefore it is easier to learn. They require less time to write. They are easier to maintain. Problem oriented rather than 'machine' based. Program written in a high-level language can be translated into many machine language and therefore can run on any computer for which there exists an appropriate translator. It is independent of the machine on which it is used i.e. Programs developed in high level language can be run on any Computer
Disadvantages of High Level Language A high-level language has to be translated into the machine language by a translator and thus a price in computer time is paid. The object code generated by a translator might be inefficient Compared to an equivalent assembly language program
Compiler, Interpreter and Assembler

1. Compiler: A compiler is a computer program (or set of programs) that transforms source code written in a programming language (the source language) into another computer language (the target language, often having a binary form known as object code). The most common reason for wanting to transform source code is to create an executable program. A program that translates from a low level language to a higher level one is a decompiler. A program that translates between high-level languages is usually called a language translator, source to source translator, or language converter. 2. Interpreter: A program that executes instructions written in a high-level language. There are two ways to run programs written in a high-level language. The most common is to compile the program; the other method is to pass the program through an interpreter. An interpreter translates High-level instructions into an intermediate form, which it then executes. In contrast, a compiler translates high-level instructions directly into machine language. Compiled programs generally run faster than interpreted programs. The advantage of an interpreter, however, is that it does not need to go through the compilation stage during which machine instructions are generated. This process can be time-consuming if the program is long. 3. Assembler: A program that translates programs from assembly language to machine language. An assembler converts machine-manipulation coding directly into binary machine instructions. Produces the most efficient executables, but is the most difficult (for humans) to work with.
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Definition of Operating System

An Operating System is a software program or set of programs that mediate access between physical devices (such as a keyboard, mouse, monitor, disk drive or network connection) and application programs (such as a word processor, World-Wide Web browser or electronic mail client). Some characteristics of an Operating System are: Whether multiple programs can run on it simultaneously: multi-tasking Whether it can take advantage of multiple processors: multi-processing Whether multiple users can run programs on it simultaneously: multi-user Whether it can reliably prevent application programs from directly accessing hardware devices: protected Whether it has built-in support for graphics. Whether it has built-in support for networks. Some popular Operating System's are: UNIX: multi-tasking, multi-processing, multi-user, protected, with built-in support for networking but not graphics. Windows NT: multi-tasking, multi-processing, single-user, protected, with built-in support for networking and graphics. Windows 95/98: multi-tasking, multi-processing, single-user, unprotected, with built-in support for networking and graphics. Windows 3.x: single-tasking, single-processing, single-user, unprotected, with built-in support for graphics but not networking. DOS: single-tasking, single-processing, single-user, unprotected with no built-in support for graphics or networking. NetWare: multi-tasking, multi-processing, single-user, unprotected, with built-in support for networking but not graphics.
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The most important program that runs on a computer. Every general-purpose computer must have an operating system to run other programs. Operating systems perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers. For large systems, the operating system has even greater responsibilities and powers. It is like a traffic cop -- it makes sure that different program and users running at the same time do not interfere with each other. The operating system is also responsible for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the system. Operating systems can be classified as follows: Multi-user : Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users. Multiprocessing : Supports running a program on more than one CPU. Multitasking: Allows more than one program to run concurrently. Multithreading : Allows different parts of a single program to run concurrently. Real time: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating systems, such as DOS and UNIX, are not real-time. Operating systems provide a software platform on top of which other programs, called application programs, can run. The application programs must be written to run on top of a particular operating system. Your choice of operating system, therefore, determines to a great extent the applications you can run. For PCs, the most popular operating systems are DOS, OS/2, and Windows, but others are available, such as Linux.
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Functions of Operating System

Today most operating systems perform the following important functions: 1. Processor management, that is, assignment of processor to different tasks being performed by the computer system. 2. Memory management, that is, allocation of main memory and other storage areas to the system programmes as well as user programmes and data. 3. Input/output management, that is, co-ordination and assignment of the different output and input device while one or more programmes are being executed. 4. File management, that is, the storage of file of various storage devices to another. It also allows all files to be easily changed and modified through the use of text editors or some other files manipulation routines. 5. Establishment and enforcement of a priority system. That is, it determines and maintains the order in which jobs are to be executed in the computer system. 6. Automatic transition from job to job as directed by special control statements. 7. Interpretation of commands and instructions. 8. Coordination and assignment of compilers, assemblers, utility programs, and other software to the various user of the computer system. 9. Facilities easy communication between the computer system and the computer operator (human). It also establishes data security and integrity.
Type and Classification of Operating System

Operating systems that create a link between users and the applications form the core of computer systems. It dissociates the programs and the hardware and simplifies resource management. Let us look at the different types of operating systems. An operating system is a software component of a computer system that is responsible for the management of various activities of the computer and the sharing of computer resources. It hosts the several applications that run on a computer and handles the operations of computer hardware. Users and application programs access the services offered by the operating systems, by means of system calls and application programming interfaces. Users interact with operating systems through Command Line Interfaces (CLIs) or Graphical User Interfaces known as GUIs. In short, operating system enables user interaction with computer systems by acting as an interface between users or application programs and the computer hardware. Here is an overview of the different types of operating systems. Real-time Operating System: It is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications. Real-time operating systems often use specialized scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a deterministic nature of behaviour. The main object of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable response to events. They either have an event-driven or a time-sharing design. An event-driven system switches between tasks based of their priorities while time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts.
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Multi-user and Single-user Operating Systems: The operating systems of this type allow a multiple users to access a computer system concurrently. Time-sharing system can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable a multiple user access to a computer through the sharing of time. Single-user operating systems, as opposed to a multi-user operating system, are usable by a single user at a time. Being able to have multiple accounts on a Windows operating system does not make it a multi-user system. Rather, only the network administrator is the real user. But for a Unix-like operating system, it is possible for two users to login at a time and this capability of the OS makes it a multi-user operating system. Multi-tasking and Single-tasking Operating Systems: When a single program is allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped under a single-tasking system, while in case the operating system allows the execution of multiple tasks at one time, it is classified as a multi-tasking operating system. Multi-tasking can be of two types namely, pre-emptive or co-operative. In pre-emptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates one slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems such as Solaris and Linux support pre-emptive multitasking. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in a defined manner. MS Windows prior to Windows 95 used to support cooperative multitasking. Distributed Operating System: An operating system that manages a group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a single computer is known as a distributed operating system. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other, gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a group work in cooperation, they make a distributed system. Embedded System: The operating systems designed for being used in embedded computer systems are known as embedded operating systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE, FreeBSD and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. The operating systems thus contribute to the simplification of the human interaction with the computer hardware. They are responsible for linking application programs with the hardware, thus achieving an easy user access to the computers.
Operating System Types

There are many types of operating systems. The most common is the Microsoft suite of operating systems. They include from most recent to the oldest:

Windows XP Professional Edition - A version used by many businesses on workstations. It has the ability to become a member of a corporate domain. Windows XP Home Edition - A lower cost version of Windows XP which is for home use only and should not be used at a business. Windows 2000 - A better version of the Windows NT operating system which works well both at home and as a workstation at a business. It includes technologies which allow hardware to be automatically detected and other enhancements over Windows NT.
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Windows ME - An upgraded version from windows 98 but it has been historically plagued with programming errors which may be frustrating for home users. Windows 98 - This was produced in two main versions. The first Windows 98 version was plagued with programming errors but the Windows 98 Second Edition which came out later was much better with many errors resolved. Windows NT - A version of Windows made specifically for businesses offering better control over workstation capabilities to help network administrators. Windows 95 - The first version of Windows after the older Windows 3.x versions offering a better interface and better library functions for programs.
There are other worthwhile types of operating systems not made by Microsoft. The greatest problem with these operating systems lies in the fact that not as many application programs are written for them. However if you can get the type of application programs you are looking for, one of the systems listed below may be a good choice.
UNIX - A system that has been around for many years and it is very stable. It is primary used to be a server rather than a workstation and should not be used by anyone who does not understand the system. It can be difficult to learn. UNIX must normally run on a computer made by the same company that produces the software. Linux - Linux is similar to UNIX in operation but it is free. It also should not be used by anyone who does not understand the system and can be difficult to learn. Apple Macintosh - Most recent versions are based on UNIX but it has a good graphical interface so it is both stable (does not crash often or have as many software problems as other systems may have) and easy to learn. One drawback to this system is that it can only be run on Apple produced hardware.
Graphical User Interface (GUI)

A graphical user interface (GUI), often pronounced gooey, is a type of user interface that allows users to interact with programs in more ways than typing such as computers; hand-held devices such as MP3 players, portable media players or gaming devices; household appliances and office equipment with images rather than text commands. A GUI offers graphical icons, and visual indicators, as opposed to text-based interfaces, typed command labels or text navigation to fully represent the information and actions available to a user. The actions are usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements. Graphical user interfaces, also known as GUIs, offer a consistent visual language to represent information stored in computers. This makes it easier for people with little computer skills to work with and use computer software.
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Elements of GUI based operating system-Windows-Use of menus

1. Window A window is an area on the screen that displays information, with its contents being displayed independently from the rest of the screen. An example of a window is what appears on the screen when the "My Documents" icon is clicked in the Windows Operating System. It is easy for a user to manipulate a window: it can be opened and closed by clicking on an icon or application, and it can be moved to any area by dragging it (that is, by clicking in a certain area of the window usually the title bar along the tops and keeping the pointing device's button pressed, then moving the pointing device). A window can be placed in front or behind another window, its size can be adjusted, and scrollbars can be used to navigate the sections within it. Multiple windows can also be open at one time, in which case each window can display a different application or file this is very useful when working in a multitasking environment. The system memory is the only limitation to the amount of windows that can be open at once. There are also many types of specialized windows.
A Container Window a window that is opened while invoking the icon of a mass storage device, or directory or folder and which is presenting an ordered list of other icons that could be again some other directories, or data files or maybe even executable programs. All modern container windows could present their content on screen either acting as browser windows or text windows. Their behavior can automatically change according to the choices of the single users and their preferred approach to the graphical user interface. A browser window allows the user to move forward and backwards through a sequence of documents or web pages. Web browsers are an example of these types of windows. Text terminal windows are designed for embedding interaction with text user interfaces within the overall graphical interface. MS-DOS and UNIX consoles are examples of these types of windows. A child window opens automatically or as a result of a user activity in a parent window. Popup windows on the Internet can be child windows. A message window, or dialog box, is a type of child window. These are usually small and basic windows that are opened by a program to display information to the user and/or get information from the user. They usually have a button that must be pushed before the program can be resumed.
2. Menus Menus allow the user to execute commands by selecting from a list of choices. Options are selected with a mouse or other pointing device within a GUI. A keyboard may also be used. Menus are convenient because they show what commands are available within the software. This limits the amount of documentation the user reads to understand the software. A menu bar is displayed horizontally across the top of the screen and/or along the tops of some or all windows. A pull-down menu is commonly associated with this menu type. When a user clicks on a menu option the pull-down menu will appear.
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A menu has a visible title within the menu bar. Its contents are only revealed when the user selects it with a pointer. The user is then able to select the items within the pull-down menu. When the user clicks elsewhere the content of the menu will disappear.[5] A context menu is invisible until the user performs a specific mouse action, like pressing the right mouse button. When the software-specific mouse action occurs the menu will appear under the cursor. Menu extras are individual items within or at the side of a menu.
3. Icons An icon is a small picture that represents objects such as a file, program, web page, or command. They are a quick way to execute commands, open documents, and run programs. Icons are also very useful when searching for an object in a browser list, because in many operating systems all documents using the same extension will have the same icon. good work which work done 4. Controls (or Widgets) Interface element that a computer user interacts with, and is also known as a control or Widget. Window A paper-like rectangle that represents a "window" into a document, form, or design area. Pointer (or mouse cursor) The spot where the mouse "cursor" is currently referencing. Text box A box in which to enter text or numbers. Button An equivalent to a push-button as found on mechanical or electronic instruments. Hyperlink Text with some kind of indicator (usually underlining and/or color) that indicates that clicking it will take one to another screen or page. Drop-down list A list of items from which to select. The list normally only displays items when a special button or indicator is clicked. List box A GUI widget that allows the user to select one or more items from a list contained within a static, multiple line text box. Combo box A combination of a drop-down list or list box and a single-line textbox, allowing the user to either type a value directly into the control or choose from the list of existing options. Check box A box which indicates an "on" or "off" state via a check mark () or a cross (). Radio button A button, similar to a check-box, except that only one item in a group can be selected. Its name comes from the mechanical push-button group on a car radio receiver. Selecting a new item from the group's buttons also deselects the previously selected button. Datagrid A spreadsheet-like grid that allows numbers or text to be entered in rows and columns.
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5. Tabs A tab is typically a rectangular small box which usually contains a text label or graphical icon associated with a view pane. When activated the view pane, or window, displays widgets associated with that tab; groups of tabs allow the user to switch quickly between different widgets. This is used in the web browsers Firefox, Internet Explorer, Konqueror, Opera, and Safari. With these browsers, you can have multiple web pages open at once in one window, and quickly navigate between them by clicking on the tabs associated with the pages. Tabs are usually placed in groups at the top of a window, but may also be grouped on the side or bottom of a window. Tabs are also present in the settings panes of many applications. Windows for example uses tabs in most of its control panel dialogues.
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Questions based on Unit I 1. Distinguish between Primary Storage devices and Secondary Storage devices. 2. Distinguish between a Multiprogramming and a Time-Sharing Operating System. 3. What are the basic features of the Window Operating System? Why has it become so popular? 4. Discuss the Menus, Tools and Commands of WINDOWS 98 Operating System. 5. Discuss the different applications of single and a multi-user operating systems. 6. Differentiate between the following : (i) Primary and Secondary memory, (ii) CPU and control unit, (iii) RAM and ROM, 7. What is buffer? 8. What is the role of memory buffer and input/output buffer in computer? 9. Explain the advantages of working with graphics interface. 10. Explain any four points to differentiate between a compiler and an interpreter. 11. What is an operating system? What are its important functions? 12. Discuss the different types of operating system by giving one example for each. 13. What type of interface is provided by Windows operating system? How it differs with the previously used interface (Command Line Interface) for computers? 14. What do you understand by the compiler for a high level language? How it differs with the interpreter used for high level language? 15. Discuss the role of an operating system as a resource manager and coordinator of devices. 16. Differentiate between RAM and ROM. Discuss various types of RAM and ROM in detail. 17. Draw a block diagram to illustrate the basic organization of a computer system and explain the function of the various units. 18. What is operating system? Give various services provided by the OS. Distinguish between single user and multiuser operating systems. 19. What is the role of taskbar in Windows? List the steps to perform the following actions in windows: (i) Start a program (ii) Open a recently used document (iii) Search a file (iv) Delete a file or folder permanently. 20. Write the role of following : (i) My computer (ii) Network neighborhood (iii) My document (iv) Recycle bin (v) My briefcase. 21. Write steps to create a folder in D: drive and to put a shortcut of this folder on Desktop in Windows based system.
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Computer Applications For Management

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MBA 017: Computer Applications in Management

Unit I Introduction and definition of computer:

Functional components of a computer system:

Desktop computer system

Central Processing Unit

Advantages and Disadvantages of a computer

Types of memory and memory hierarchy

Machine Language. Assembly Language

COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language). RPG (Report Program Generator

LISP (List Processing). Prolog (Program in Logic).

Compiler, Interpreter and Assembler

Definition of Operating System

Functions of Operating System

Type and Classification of Operating System

Operating System Types

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Elements of GUI based operating system-Windows-Use of menus

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