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AGRARIAN STRUCTURE
The term AGRARIAN STRUCTUIRE denotes all of the existing and lasting production and living conditions found in a rural region. It comprises social, technological, and economic elements and determines the achievable productivity, income and its distribution, and the rural population's social situation. The agrarian structure includes the system of land tenure (social agrarian structure) and the system of land management (technical and economic agrarian structure).
AGRARIAN SYSTEM
The system of land tenure (that is, land ownership and labour organization) and the technological and economic conditions are not independent factors. Their concrete form is interlaced with the natural and social conditions found in each specific area. The natural conditions not only influence the production factors- generally good and poor soil, enough precipitation, and temperatures favorable for growth and working- but also influence what types of ownership are found in an area: large farms are seldom found, for example, in regions where the soil conditions are poor and the topography is mountainous. Even more important is the relation between the agrarian structure and the existing social conditions in the individual countries and regions. Feudal, capitalistic, and socialistic social orders result in very different conditions of land ownership, systems of labour organization, and forms of cultivation. The social system, in other words, makes up the framework within which agrarian structures can evolve. In this process the state as well as tribes, landlords, communes, and colonial powers can determine the conditions. Within the framework of social conditions, the agricultural sector's economic goals, the function land fulfils, and the political and social system play significant roles. The economic goal can vary from self sufficiency and satisfying one's needs, maintaining the farm, earning rent or interest on capital, production for the market, maximizing profits, or meeting economic plans. In doing so, land can function as a basis for earning one's livelihood, home, means of production, a commodity, an asset, annuity, power basis, or prestige object. Several functions can be combined. The above mentioned factors are not independent, but rather are embedded within a system; that is, a change in any factor results in a change in all of the other factors. The term"agrarian system" bas been coined in order to conceptualize this complex system. The "agrarian system" consists of the "institutional, economic, socio-organizational, and ethical patterns found in the agricultural sector and rural areas that are oriented towards the superordinate economic and social system" (RHM) The following brief summary of the most important agrarian systems is by no means exhaustive and stresses in particular the most significant agrarian systems found in the developing countries.
Land Grants
In Islamic countries, land is granted to schools, ,mosques, orphanages, and similar institutions. This type of grant is often called a "waqf." The beneficiary receives an irrevocable right of use that is carried out by government organizations, generally in the form of being leased out. The institution that is granted the right of use receives the profit. The lands are frequently in very bad condition as hardly any investments are made. Land is sometimes established as a private waqf. The irrevocability of the grant, that is established in court, prevents eventual changes in ownership and protects the family against property losses. The family receives the income derived from the yield. This type of grant is also found in the south of Europe and existed in Eastern Germany until 1945 where it was called "Fideikommis."
Large Holdings
In many cases not farmed by the owner himself. If there is a large demand for land, the owner is in a position to let others work for him and still receive a sufficient income. He, therefore, leases the land out, and, although he exercises his influence regarding farm management, this is more to control the farm rent payments than to foster agricultural production. The rent is usually not reinvested, but rather used by the owner to cover his own living expenses as well as other purposes. Thus landed property becomes a source of rent while the agricultural economy remains static. As soon as the owner becomes more interested in the cultivation of his land, he generally switches to centrally controlled farming as this makes it possible to control the cropping vote closely and, thus, guarantee economic success. This form is not only found on plantations and commercial farms. In the course of the Green Revolution, many former lessors started cultivating the land themselves as this appeared to them to be more profitable under the new circumstances than the traditional forms of leasing the land to tenants.
Farm Tenancy
An increasing population, while at the same times the job opportunities outside the agriculture) sector develop only slowly, has barred a growing number of people to look for land that they can rent from someone for their usage for a period of time. In densely settled countries with private land ownership, in some cases more than half of the land is cropped today by tenants. One can differentiate between various forms of renting the land according to the type of payment that is demanded.
Occupational tenancy
In way of payment, the tenant works for a specific number of days on the landlord's farm in order to pay for the land he rents. In some cases, he uses his own draught animals and implements. This form is particularly found in Latin America where it is called a colonate. Until a few years ago, it also existed in Westphalia, Germany, under the name, Heuerling.
Cash Tenancy
The tenant pays a fixed rent for the land he rents and, thus, bears the full cropping and marketing risk himself; however, he also receives all the proceeds growing out of his labours. This form demands the ability to face a risk and is, thus, found in the case of tenants who are economically sound.
Rent in kind
Share Tenancy
Is a specific form of rent in kind. It is widely spread, particularly in the developing countries. In this case, the gross output is divided between the landlord and tenant. While the original size of the share was determined by the reciprocal obligations and the productivity of the land, the great demand for land has led increasingly to shares equalling 50/50. Under these conditions, each side receives only half of any proceeds resulting from additional inputs. There is little incentive, therefore, to increase productivity by means of working harder or making larger investments. Moreover, the contract is often drawn up for only one year. Even though it is often prolonged by tacit agreement, it leads to insecurity and a state of dependence. This has, along with the normally extremely small size of the plots under tenancy, resulted in many farmers being indebted and living in very poor economic and social conditions. Although tenancy can fundamentally bring about flexibility in the structure of land ownership and allows making adoptions to changing economic and social (family) conditions, under the circumstances in the developing countries (with a one sided advantageous position on the market for land available for tenancy in favour of the landlords), tenancy leads to stagnating agricultural production, dependence, and an economically poor situation for the tenants and their families.
Agrarian Revolution
Agrarian revolutions are spontaneous, radical changes in the traditional agrarian structure with uncompensated redistribution of all rights and usually a drastic regrouping of the society. The terms 'agrarian reform' and 'agrarian revolution' are frequently not clearly differentiated. They do not differ so much in their goals as in the speed they are forced through and how radical they are. For development planning, agrarian reforms have the most significance since they can be used as an instrument and shaped according to policy goals. Thus agrarian revolutions frequently turn into agrarian reforms following the upheaval. Agrarian revolutions and socialistic agrarian reforms are not identical. Agrarian reforms as well as agrarian revolutions can have redistribution as well as collectivisation as their goals.
AGRICULTURAL AGENCIES
The following agencies provide services to the country's agricultural sector:
AGRICULTURAL LAND
The total land area of Bangladesh is about 14.4 million ha, of which about 66.6% is available for cultivation. Depending on the flooding depth, the land is categorized as highland (20%), medium highland (35%), medium lowland (20%), lowland (8%) and very lowland (1%). Based on physical environment which are relevant to land use, the land is divided into 30 agroecological zones and 88 sub-regions.
CROPPING PATTERN
A spatial and temporal arrangement of crops within a cropping year, largely determined by physical, biological, and socio-economic factors. There are three cropping seasons (Rabi, Kharif-I or Pre-Kharif, and Kharif-II) during a year in Bangladesh. Since rice is the major crop, it dominates the cropping patterns of Bangladesh. Depending on the land type, soil characteristics, and water availability, rice cropping may be single, double, or triple. In general, double or triple rice cropping is practised in high land areas. In medium lowlands, mixed cropping of Aus and broadcast Aman is a common practice, while in deeply flooded lands, single cropping of broadcast Aman (deepwater rice) in Kharif, or Boro in Rabi, is the common practice. Non-rice crops are generally grown as a sequential or intercrop with rice. Most non-rice crops are dryland crops, although some crops like jute (Deshi type), millets (Kaon), and sugarcane can tolerate some degree of submergence at later stages of growth. Jute is grown in the Kharif-I season, competes with Boro Aus for land, and is considered a substitute crop for Boro Aus in cropping patterns. The dry (Rabi) season crops included in cropping patterns may be early, middle, or late, depending upon land types, recessions of floods, and dates of harvests of the preceding crops. In rainfed-dryland areas, growing of drought-tolerant, short-duration crop species has been an important feature. Although high crop yields have been difficult to obtain, traditional cropping patterns usually exhibit a high degree of stability. Another important feature is the extensive use of mixed cropping and intercropping of annual crops. These practices provide farmers with opportunities for harvesting diverse crops from the same land, increasing total land productivity, and maintaining and improving soil fertility through the use of legumes. Boro, Aus, jute, maize, barley, and chickpea are the most important rainfed dryland crops. When more than two crops are included in the pattern, mixed cropping, intercropping, or relay cropping are practised.
Farmers for better use of soil resources, although not always executed as planned, follow crop rotations, to some extent. Generally deep-rooted crops (jute) are grown after shallow rooted crops (rice). [Nurul Islam Bhuiyan]
receipt from agriculture as agricultural expenses to avoid the no acceptable evidences of the production cost of cultivation.
If the agriculturist does not have any other income source other than the agriculture
then he or she will get exemption of more taka 50000 after the deduction of 60% of the receipts as the agricultural expense. There are some agricultural incomes which are also considered as the business income. As for example
Income from tea garden is bifurcated between agricultural income and business income at the ratio of 60% and 40% consecutively. Income from rubber cultivation is also bifurcated at the same ratio.
By means of agriculture
By the performance of any processes ordinarily employed by a cultivator to render marketable the produce of such land By the sale of the produce of the land raised by the cultivator in respect of which no process, other than that to render the produce marketable, has been perform. By granting a right to any person to use the land for any period
Is occupied by the cultivator of any such land as is referred to in subclause. In which any process is carried on to render marketable any such produce aforesaid Is on, or in the immediate vicinity of such land
Is required by the cultivator as the dwelling house or store-house or other out-house by the reason of his connection with such land. From the above discussion it can be said that any income derived from any land or building in Bangladesh that is used for agricultural purposes will be considered under the head Agricultural Income. There are some other scopes of agricultural income under the considerations of income process. These are:
Gain from the sale of the machinery or plant exclusively used for agricultural
purposes (Capital Gain) Compensation money received against demolished machinery or plant exclusively used for agricultural purposes (Equipment insurance) Income from sale of partly agricultural goods ( Tea, Sugarcane, Jute) Other agricultural income by notifications
Serial No 01 02 03 04 05 06
Name of the Program Agro Service Center Program. Production of Improved Cereal Seeds through S.M Farm Program. Production of Improved Seeds through Contract Growers Program. Procurement, Processing & Distribution of Improved Seed Program. Jute Seed Program National Vegetable Seed Program.
06
Construction of Rubber Dams in Small and Medium Rivers for increasing food production project. (BADC Part).
07 08
Development and Multiplication of Agricultural Seed (2nd Phase) Private Seed Sector Development Project (2nd Phase)
09
Mujibnagar Integrated Agricultural Development Project Pilot Project for Agricultural Production in Monga Prone Area through Modern Minor Irrigation Practices. Mosaddek Saiyed Ashugonj Polash Agro Irrigation Project (4th Phase)
Expansion of Irrigation through utilization of Surface Water by Double Lifting (2nd Phase) Greater Bogra Rangpur Dinajpur Integrated Area Dev. Project (2nd Phase) Greater Mymensingh-Tangail Integrated Agricultural Dev. Project (2nd Phase)
Project for Enhancement of Agricultural Production and Poverty Alleviation by Introducing Force Mode Tube-well Irrigation Project for Activating of Inoperable DTW of BADC for Irrigation Greater Dhaka Zilla Irrigation Area Development Project (2nd Phase) Pabna Natore Sirajganj Minor Irrigation Development Project Greater Faridpur Minor Irrigation Development Project Survey and Monitoring Project for Development of minor irrigation (3rd Phase)
Md. Abdul Mannan Md. Samsuddin Md. Asraf Ali Khan Md. Salahuddin
Global Commitment
Within a decade, no man, woman or child will go to bed hungry Dr. Henry Kissinger, World Food Conference, 1974 in Rome. After two and half decades of kissingers pronouncement we see that more than 800 million unfortunate men, women & children of this earth are going to bed hungry, malnourished and starving. The declaration of kissingers remained unfulfilled. There was no change in the reality. Similarly at our national level the successive governments over the last 30 years, the professional bodies and the non-govt. organizations are collectively responsible for failing to translate the constitutional obligation into reality. As a result 69% of our people are landless, laborers, workers, slum dwellers and are forced to live in perpetual poverty, hunger, malnutrition & deprivation. We have over the past three decades, created two Bangladesh; one Bangladesh for the powerful minority and the other Bangladesh for the poor & powerless majority who owns nothing but create everything and keeps the wheel of the nations economy moving for the consumption & comfort of the minority.
Conclusions
The struggle for land for livelihood & housing is a uphill struggle. Strong political commitment is a pre-condition to adopt & implement agrarian & land reform for those millions who are conditioned to live in slums, poverty, deprivation & destitutions. Lack and absence of commitment on the part of the people at the top, the politicians, the bureaucrats & the vested interest groups obstruct the adoption and implementation of land and agrarian reform in Bangladesh. They run the country according to their ideologies to serve their own clan interest. Therefore, if we are to progress and fulfill the constitutional obligation made to the people of the Republic of Bangladesh in 1972, fundamental changes have to be brought in the thinking process and mindset of the people in the top.