Pegah Khadish, Tehran

The Morphology of Persian Fairy Tales

Morphology is an approach to study the form or structure of a tale. It is a combination of structuralist theories as well as linguistic findings. The Russian scholar Vladimir Propp defined morphology as the explanation of tales based on their structural components and the integrity among them and among the whole narration1. In his morphological analysis of Russian fairy tales, Propp identified a limited number of functions. By function, he meant the action of each character in regard to its importance in the sequence of narration. His further definition of function is one of the most revolutionary and important contributions to folklore theory in decades. Propp states that an action cannot be defined apart from its place in the process of narration. This single statement reveals the unmistakable fallacy of thinking of folklore in terms of isolated motifs. The action or function can only be defined in its place in the process of narration.2 Although Propp had solely focused on Russian fairy tales, his findings can be applied to the tales of other nations and even to other forms of folklore or popular literature. Propp proposed 31 functions by analyzing Russian fairy tales, including types 300749 of the AaTh system. Although his functions break the tale down into its smallest component units, they are laden with circumlocution that may cause his technique to reduce the universality of its application as well as the possibility of analyzing the tales of other nations based on his proposed system. When Propps Morphology of the Folktale was translated into English, scholars and critics paid special attention to it, admiring his efforts while at the same time mentioning its shortcomings. Many of them tried to reduce the number of Propps functions and develop a more comprehensive numbering system to analyze fairy tales. For instance, Algirdas J. Greimas reduced the functions to 203, Claude Bremond to three4, Alan Dundes to eight5, Peter Gilet to five6, and Satu Apo to four7.

2 3 4 5 6 7

Propp, Vladimir: RiNt-hensi-ye qeeh-ye pariyn. Trans. Fereidun Badrei. Tehran 1368/1989, 49. This Persian translation is based on the second American edition: Propp, V.: Morphology of the Folktale. Trans. Laurence Scott. Austin/London 21968. Dundes, Alan: From Etic to Emic Units in the Structural Study of Folktales. In: id.: Analytic Essays in Folklore. The Hague 1975, 67. Greimas, Algirdas J.: Smantique structurale. Paris 1966, 200208. Bremond, Claude: Logique du rcit. Paris 1973, 131. Dundes, Alan: The Study of Folklore. Selected Essays of Folklore. London 1965, 208 210. Gilet, Peter: Vladimir Propp and Universal Folktales. A New Pattern for Morphology of Tales. New York 1998, 9198. Apo, Satu: The Narrative World of Finnish Fairy Tales. A Complete Study on Finnish Tales. New York 1995, 5558.
DOI 10.1515/FABL.2009.023

Fabula 50 (2009) Heft 3/4 Walter de Gruyter Berlin New York

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Persian Fairy Tales So far not much research has been carried out about the structural features and narrative patterns of Iranian tales. Still today, one of the most important works is Ulrich Marzolphs classification of Persian tales as based on the AaTh typology of international folktales8. By analyzing a tales structure, one can recognize the contextual and pragmatic relationship of the tales and can also reach a basis for a precise scientific method of classification. The present essay, then, is based on the first part of my project A Study of the Iranian Folktales9. Besides the tales of magic considered by Propp (i.e. types 300749 in AaTh/ATU), I also included two other subgenres, namely religious and realistic tales (types 750999), because these kinds of stories often include an unusual or metaphysical element that affects the sequence of narration. Following this general idea, 100 tales (including 70 types from AaTh/ATU 300999) were chosen from the documented Persian tales which were available to me. I analyzed Persian tales and not Iranian ones, since Iran is populated by many different ethnic groups speaking numerous languages and dialects with their own individual oral literature. Although many of the motifs and formal patterns of, for instance, Kurdish, Baluchi, Turkish and other tales in Iran more or less overlap with those of Persian tales, the main focus of my research is on tales that were narrated in the Persian language. The purpose of my research was to study the structure and narrative units of the Persian tales. Consequently, I have not compared the structure, content and motifs of Persian tales and foreign ones. This discussion will be presented in another part of my project.

Why Propp? Since Propp was the first to present the theory of morphology of tales and therefore has priority over other scholars, I worked on Persian fairy tales according to the system suggested by him. I have, however, also made use of some other recent models (proposed by Greimas, Dundes or Apo). There are some elements and functions in Persian tales that do not exactly fit into the proposed models. Therefore, it was necessary to adapt the morphological patterns so as to be able to apply them to Persian tales. Among the mentioned models, Apos model is most useful for analyzing Persian tales. Yet she has considered very general patterns (plot types), and each of these patterns includes some functions. Consequently, I preferred to analyze and extract the functions of Persian tales based on Propps model. After categorizing the functions, which is the main purpose of the current

Marzolph, Ulrich: Typologie des persischen Volksmrchens (Ph.D. Diss. Cologne 1981) Beirut 1984; id.: xabaqe-bandi-ye qeeh-ye irni. Trans. Keikwus Jahndri. Tehran 1371/1992 (21276/1997). This article is based on my Ph.D. thesis prepared at Tehran University (2004), in appreciation of my professors Ali Mohammad Haghshenas, Mohamad Reza Shafiee Kadkani, and Ulrich Marzolph.

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study, I shall propose narrative patterns of Persian tales in the form of some formulas according to Apos model. These formulas will soon be presented in another essay. The result of this study indicates that there is no need for enumerating all of Propps functions while analyzing the fairy tales, since the occurrence of some of them is so low that they can easily be ignored. This applies, for instance, to the marking or branding of the false hero by the hero (J)10 that merely appears in tales of type AaTh/ATU 314. Moreover, some functions could be merged. For example, the first seven functions including absence, interdiction, violation, reconnaissance, delivery, trickery, and complicity do not play a major role in shaping the narration. In fact they are auxiliary parameters to prepare the ground for the occurrence of the following events. The above-mentioned functions can instead be considered altogether as a single main function, leading to their categorization, for example, as the initial problem, without affecting the structure of the narration. As soon as a problem has arisen, the flow of tale with no exception in all of the fairy tales studied will be directed towards solving the problem or taking appropriate actions. Some functions such as mediation, beginning counteraction, and departure can also be classified as another key category, for instance research or movement.

Characters Propp has also identified seven character types in the Russian fairy tales: villain, donor, helper, princess, dispatcher, hero, and false hero. Marie-Laure Ryan defines the relation of these seven character types and the thirty one functions as at As (the senders) request, B (the hero) conquers C (the desired person) by defeating D (the villain) with the help of E (the donor), despite the tricks of F (false hero)11. The number of characters can be reduced by merging the functions. There is, for instance, often no difference between donor and helper in Persian fairy tales. Usually, they are the same, such as in type 314. Since a sender or dispatcher cannot be found in most of the tales, the hero succeeds in removing a lack or defeating the villain on his own. The deeds of the false hero are usually vicious and devilish. He/she often causes considerable trouble for the hero and tries to kill him/her. That is why the false hero and the villain can be considered one character. The characters of Persian tales thus include: hero, villain, helper and princess. Other characters can easily be omitted.

10 11

J is the letter describing this function in the English translation (Propp 21968 [above, note 1]). Ryan, Marie-Laure: Linguistic Models in Narratology. From Structuralism to Generative Semantics. In: Semiotica 28 (1979) 127155, here 153.

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Six Pairs of Functions in the Persian Fairy Tales In the final chapters of his book, Propp has mentioned the possibility of considering the functions in pairs12. For example, he suggests that misfortune or lack (L)13 and villainy (V) form a pair. Based on this possibility and according to the results of the structural analysis of the Persian fairy tales, the functions can be summarized as including the following pairs: (A) Initial situation: an arising problem; (DF) meeting the donor receiving a magical object; (HI) struggle victory; (PsRs) pursuit rescue; (MN) difficult task solution; (OQ) unrecognized arrival recognition; (Z) final situation: solution of the problem. The first and the last functions, i.e. the arising problem (A) and its solution (Z) actually form a pair that is separated by other functions. This pair is found without exception in all Persian tales, even if there is no other function at all. In general, the narrative scheme of these fairy tales is based on the appearance of a problem in the beginning and solving it at the end. In Propps methodology, the tale starts with villainy. If a villain causes no harm or injury, a request or need for something or somebody will initiate the action. In the Persian fairy tales, these two types, i.e. villainy and lack, are also the most important initial problems. Sometimes a problem arises because of the violation or interdiction of an order; this problem itself is not caused by villainy, but may lead to villainous behaviour or the appearance of a villain: for example, the dying father advises his sons not to sleep at the cemetery by night, but they fall asleep and an ogre approaches them (The Story of Hassan-e Khakbaz14, AaTh/ATU 302 + ATU 302 C*)15; although the boy is forbidden to open the door of a certain room, he does so and falls in love with the picture of a girl left there (Delaram and the Prince16, AaTh 451*). In the Persian fairy tales, villainy usually occurs in one of the following forms: the villain commits a murder or commands it, he imprisons or hides someone, steals something or abducts somebody, threatens forced marriage, causes physical harm to the hero, causes a disappearance or casts a spell on someone, practices cannibalism, or expels the hero. Sometimes the initial situation is depicted by a lack or a desire for something. Based on its frequency in the Persian tales this may be categorized as desire for somebody (child, spouse, etc.), desire for money and property, desire for a magical object, for disclosing a secret or finding the answer to a question.

12 13

14 15 16

Propp 21968 (above, note 1) 109 = id. 1989 (above, note 1) 112. To avoid confusion, the lettering system of the English translation of Propps Morphology (21968 [above, note 1]) was applied in this article. Letters A and Z have been added to denote the initial and final situations, respectively. Yazqi, >amid Re9: Afsneh-ye Yorsn (Tales from Khorasan) 1. Mashhad 1378/ 2000, 169197. The phrases in brackets refer to the title of the tale as given in the source text. EnJavi, Abolqsem: Qeeh-ye irni (Persian Tales) 3. Tehran 1367/1978, 8085.

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The pair meeting the donor receiving a magical object (DF) is encountered in many Persian tales. Occasionally, the hero overcomes difficulties by himself and with the help of his intelligence or his physical power. He may acquire the magical objects by various means; nevertheless there is no distinct relation between the objects and the means employed in their acquisition. For instance, in order to enjoy the help of donor animals, the hero sometimes helps them first: the hero rescues the captive lion, and the lion helps him later on (The Girl from the Chinese City17, AaTh/ATU 554); the hero sometimes purchases the animals (Chaqun duz18, AaTh/ATU 560); sometimes he is the animals owner (The Black Pony19, AaTh/ATU 314); and in some cases, the animals help the hero by themselves for no reason (King Mohammad and the Spell of King Shapours Daughter20, AaTh/ATU 516). The hero struggles with an enemy who is usually the quintessential villain and defeats him (HI). In some cases the tale ends by the villains defeat: the hero kills the ogre who has tortured his sister (Seven Brothers and One Sister21, AaTh/ ATU 451). Nevertheless, the paired function HI in most cases acts as a mediator to pave the way for achieving the final goal. An ogre or dragon, a neighbouring king, disloyal brothers, or the princesss father are among the heros opponents. The paired function HI does not necessarily end up with the opponents death: the hero forgives his defeated disloyal brothers (King Jamshid and the Ogre Who Steals Apples22, AaTh/ATU 301). The paired functions PsRs refer to situations where the hero is inferior to his opponent and runs away. The villain pursues the hero and tries to kill him. The hero is then rescued from his pursuers by various tactics such as placing obstacles in the pursuers path: By dropping needles, the hero creates a heath to trap pursuers (Khaft khomr and Mehr-Negr23, AaTh/ATU 425 A + B); he escapes with the help of a magic object or donors: a flying horse carries the hero on his back and crosses the sea (Prince Ibrahim and Prince Ismaeel 24, AaTh/ATU 303 + AaTh/ATU 314); the hero changes his appearance: he disguises himself as a tree and his wife as a snake, so that the pursuers cannot recognize them (Prince of the Fairies25, AaTh/ATU 432). In the Persian fairy tales, other characters ask the hero to perform difficult tasks (MN). In most cases, the girl asks her suitors to carry out a difficult task to marry her: the hero must separate a large amount of wheat and oats grains, defeat a

17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24 25

ibid. 1 (1352/1973), 258267. Yazqi (above, note 14) vol. 4 (1379/2000), 97128. Faqiri, Abolqsem: Qeeh-ye mardom-e Frs (The Tales of the People of Fars Province). Tehran 1350/1971, 3744. Elwell-Sutton, L.P.: Qeeh-ye Mahdi Galin Ynom (The Tales of Mashdi Galin Khanom). eds. Ulrich Marzolph/Azar Amirhosseini-Nithammer/ABmad Vakiliyn. Tehran 3 2004, 8090. EnJavi (above, note 16) vol. 2 (1353/1974), 125127. Elwell-Sutton (above, note 20) 332337. Faqiri (above, note 19) 113118. EnJavi (above, note 16) vol. 3, 87100. ibid., 6974.

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lion, or bisect a precious stone (Prince Yousef of the Fairies and King Ahmad 26, AaTh/ATU 552 + ATU 302 C* + AaTh/ATU 400). Sometimes the villain tries to get rid of the hero by sending him on a difficult and impossible errand: the vizier asks the hero to go to the otherworld and bring him a letter on behalf of his dead father (The Fisher Boy27, AaTh/ATU 513 A + AaTh/ATU 467). As far as the pair of functions OQ is concerned, which occurs before the end of the narrative, the hero sometimes arrives home or at another place without being recognized; by performing a difficult task he is recognized: after his unrecognized arrival at his home town, the hero makes a golden singing cock (The Fairies of the Apple Tree28, AaTh/ATU 301). The initial problem is followed by the intermediate functions that are activated to solve the problem and to set the conditions for the final situation (Z). It is obvious that the final situation mostly consists in resolving the misfortune or lack (K), in victory (I), or in punishing the villain or false hero (U). Marriage (W) or rescue (Rs) are also other types of final situation. Sometimes, the final elements (K, U, W) in Persian fairy tales appear separately, whereas at other times they are combined. The frequency of occurrence of these final situations is shown by the following table:
Final situation Separately K U W KU Combined UW KW KUW Frequency in 100 tales 11 16 19 7 11 22 14

Separate or joint occurrence of the elements of a pair

In the Persian fairy tales the pairs do not necessarily occur together, i.e., sometimes they are separated. As mentioned above, the largest gap occurs between the initial and final functions (AZ). Consequently, they have been considered as two separate functions in this study. There is no gap between the pairs PsRs or HI in Persian fairy tales. In many cases, other pairs, especially (DF), namely meeting a donor and receiving a magical object, cause a separation in the pair MN.

26 27 28

ibid., vol. 2, 153160. Kuhi Kermni, >osein: Pnzdah afsne az afsneh-ye rustwi-ye Irn (Fifteen Rural Tales from Iran). Tehran 1334/1955, 2431. Yazqi (above, note 14) 1746.

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Sometimes the pair OQ is separated, usually caused by functions MN. After the unrecognized arrival of hero, a difficult task is proposed to him and then he is recognized by achieving the task (AaTh/ATU 480, 510).

Symbolic Equations of Functions (Allomotifs) Most of the allomotifs in the Russian fairy tales that have been treated by Propp also occur in the Persian tales, although with different frequency and in different forms. For instance, Propp refers to tasks such as ordeal by food, drink or fire; guessing a riddle; selecting a person or object among similar ones; hiding and seeking; kissing the princess; jumping up on top of the gates; testing the strength or endurance of the hero; tasks of supply and manufacture29. In the Persian fairy tales the difficult allomotifs include: ordeal by drink or food (AaTh/ATU 530, 554) or by fire (AaTh/ATU 302, 302 B), the solution of a problem (AaTh/ATU 613), a contest (AaTh 507 C/ATU 507), making a person talk (AaTh/ATU 725), manufacturing and building (AaTh/ATU 551, 465), tests of strength and endurance (AaTh/ATU 480, 425 B), finding a lost person or object (AaTh/ATU 314 A, 518, AaTh 513 C/ATU 531).

The Sequence of Functions One of Propps four rules is the uniformity of the sequence of functions. The sequence of events has its own laws. [...] The sequence of elements [...] is strictly uniform. Freedom within this sequence is restricted by very narrow limits which can be exactly formulated.30 Propp has refrained from paraphrasing the theory of the sequence of functions and has just very briefly dealt with it. He says that meeting the donor and receiving the magic tool always occurs after a previous villainous act or after the hero has left home. In the Persian fairy tales, however, sometimes the pair of functions DF occurs before a villainous act. Does this not break the rule? No, for this is not a new, but rather an inverted [...] sequence.31 Apparently, after his determined conclusion on the uniformity of the sequence of functions Propp has witnessed examples that did not follow this rule; therefore he has tried to justify his theory, but not in a reasonable manner. He says that if functions do not always appear sequentially, his rule will not be violated. He has clearly mentioned that some functions can change their position in the tale. This mention surely violates his rule that the sequence of functions is always identical. An overall schema of the structure of Persian fairy tales can be described as follows: A (V, L), DF, HI, PsRs, OQ, MN, Z (K, U, W).

29 30 31

Propp 21968 (above, note 1) 60f. = id. 1989 (above, note 1) 126128. id. 21968 (above, note 1) 22 = id. 1989 (above, note 1) 54. id. 21968 (above, note 1) 107 = id. 1989 (above, note 1) 211.

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Meanwhile, there is no definite rule for determining the sequence of functions, and it is not possible to fix a precise and well-documented pattern for their sequence. Naturally, in the creative system of story-telling narrators like to change the sequence of events based on their personal tastes and memories or their audiences preferences, i.e., they can change, add, or omit some elements. Innovative storytellers do not narrate their tales by rote but rather rearrange them, depending on their moods and their audiences. Consequently, any attempt to generalize the sequence of functions is bound to fail.

Appearance of Functions Among the above-mentioned six pairs of functions in the Persian fairy tales, pair AZ forms the framework of narration. All other functions appear with different frequency. Since fairy tales are determined by the presence of magic characters, events, or objects, it is natural that pair DF i.e., the encounter with the helper and the acquisition of the magic tool will also be considered as one of the main components of the tales structure. In fact, it occurs in more than 90% of the Persian tales under consideration. In tales where this function does not appear, we are faced with strange creatures like ogres or magic events like putting a spell on somebody: the boy drinks water from a spring and is changed into a deer (AaTh/ ATU 450). In such tales the problem will be solved without the use of a magic tool or helper. The pair MN that complicates the story and is a test of the heros ability and worthiness occurs in about 30% of the tales. PsRs is found in about 20% of the tales. Just in one story we discover Ps without Rs: the kings army follows the hero who has married the princess, but before any fighting takes place a demon steals the bride. If the villain is a human, just the second half of this pair (i.e. Rs) occurs, and there is no trace of Ps: the prince escapes from his stepmother (AaTh/ATU 314); the daughter escapes from her teacher who wants to make love to her (AaTh/ATU 510 B); a girl and her brother escape from their father who wants to marry his own daughter (AaTh/ATU 450). Functions OQ appear both individually as well as a pair. They occur as a pair only when the hero enters his home town or another city unrecognized. If the function of unrecognized arrival is missing, there is just recognition (Q), like in those tales where the hero is forced to leave his/her family or home. After earning money or welfare, the person who has made him/her leave, recognizes the hero (AaTh/ATU 707, 891 A, 986). In HI, the fighting takes not always place face to face; sometimes the hero prevails over the enemy without facing him. These cases simply concern a struggle (I). Altogether, the pair OQ occurs in 39%, and HI in 34% of the Persian tales. It is interesting to note that in the Persian tales either HI, or PsRs are present; these two pairs never occur together in the same tale.

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Conclusion It is interesting to note that the functions and allomotifs of the Persian tales differ in relation to the heros gender. In tales with a female hero, the function HI is never be found, and functions PsRs are encountered rarely. Difficult tasks for female heroes usually include a patience and tolerance test and not, for instance, manufacturing or building something or solving a riddle. The reason for this prevalence might result from the social conditions of Persian women who are expected to bear difficulties in life with patience and without complaining. In traditional Iranian culture, after her marriage a woman belonged to the family of her spouse and was subject to their orders and commands. From childhood on, young girls had to learn how to put up with marital problems, obey the commands of both their mother-in-law and sisters-in-law, and raise their children patiently. Such obligations were repeated in the form of fairy tales to prepare young girls for marriage. Religion as the ideological foundation of Iranian society has influenced all aspects of life, a fact that is reflected in Iranian tales as well. In the Russian fairy tales, pain or a magic element is the reason for the birth of a baby who later becomes the hero. In the Iranian tales, the child is born due to the prayers or vowing of his parents or following the sudden appearance of a pious dervish whose blessing causes a woman to become pregnant after eating an apple. Religious characters, mostly Imam Ali and Khidr, possess a supernatural function in helping the hero to overcome hardships and vanquish his enemies. The hero usually enjoys the spiritual support and protection of such characters (AaTh/ATU 551, 465, AaTh 533*/ATU 404). Russian fairy tales usually end with the heros marriage. About two thirds of the Persian tales also have the same ending. They differ, however, in that the hero usually marries more than one woman. This mirrors Islamic law according to which a man is allowed to marry up to four women, a right stated by a Quranic verse according to which a man may marry up to four women on condition that he treats all of them equally. In some of the tales that end in polygamy, the hero is presented from the beginning as a very kind and fair man who loves all of his wives equally.

Abstract
With the aim of identifying the structural elements and narrative patterns of Persian tales, one hundred tales including seventy tales from section 300999 in AaTh/ATU have been analyzed according to Propps morphological model. As a result, the main functions of the Persian tales have been identified as the following six pairs: (A) initial situation: an arising problem; (DF) meeting the donor receiving a magical object; (HI) struggle victory; (PsRs) pursuit rescue; (MN) difficult task solution; (OQ) unrecognized arrival recognition; (Z) final situation: solution of the problem. These pairs do not necessarily occur together, and at times they are separated from each other. A and Z in fact con-

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stitute a pair that is separated by other functions. By merging the functions into pairs, the number of characters is reduced to four: hero, villain, helper, and princess. The functions and allomotifs in Persian tales are influenced by social and religious factors that may be considered as peculiarities of these tales. The allomotifs also differ in relation to the protagonists gender.

Rsum
Afin didentifier les lments structuraux et les schmas narratifs des contes persans, cent contes dont soixante-dix de la section AaTh/ATU 300999 ont t analyss suivant le modle morphologique de Propp. Il sest avr que les fonctions principales des contes persans consistent dans les six paires suivantes : (i) situation initiale : un problme se pose ; (DZ) rencontre avec le donateur obtention du moyen magique ; (LV) lutte victoire ; (PS) poursuite salut ; (TA) tche difficile accomplissement ; (oI) arrive incognito identification ; (Z*) dnouement : solution du problme. Ces paires ne figurent pas ncessairement ensemble, et parfois elles sont spares lune de lautre. En fait, i et Z* constituent une paire qui est spare par dautres fonctions. En amalgamant les fonctions en paires, le nombre des caractres est rduit quatre : hros, antagoniste, donateur et princesse. Les fonctions et les allomotifs des contes persans sont influencs par des facteurs sociaux et religieux quon peut considrer comme particularits de ces contes. Les allomotifs varient aussi suivant le sexe du protagoniste.

Zusammenfassung
Mit dem Ziel, die Strukturelemente und Erzhlmuster der persischen Mrchen zu bestimmen, wurden hundert Mrchen darunter siebzig aus der Sektion AaTh/ATU 300999 auf der Basis von Propps morphologischem Modell analysiert. Als Hauptfunktionen der persischen Mrchen wurden die folgenden sechs Paare ermittelt: (i) Ausgangssituation: es entsteht ein Problem; (SchZ) Begegnung mit dem Schenker Empfang eines Zaubermittels; (KS) Kampf Sieg; (VR) Verfolgung Rettung; (PL) Prfung, schwere Aufgabe Lsung; (XE) unerkannte Ankunft Erkennung; (Z*) Ausgang: Lsung des Problems. Diese Paare erscheinen nicht notwendig gemeinsam, und manchmal werden sie getrennt. Das Paar i und Z* ist in der Tat immer durch andere Funktionen getrennt. Durch die paarweise Verschmelzung der Funktionen wird die Anzahl der Personen auf vier reduziert: Held, Gegner, Schenker und Prinzessin. Die Funktionen und Allomotive der persischen Mrchen sind durch gesellschaftliche und religise Faktoren beeinflut, die als Besonderheiten dieser Erzhlungen angesehen werden knnen. Darber hinaus unterscheiden sich die Allomotive je nach Geschlecht des Protagonisten.

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