ORGANIZATIONS IN THE ANTI-NUCLEAR POWER MOVEMENT: REALLY A WORKING PAPER

Emilie Schmeidler Central. College Pella, Iowa and Mayer N. Zald University of Michigan January, 1982

CRSO WORKING PAPER /I252

Copies available through: Center for Research on Social Organization University of Michigan 330 Packard Street Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109

Organizations in the Anti-Nuclear Power.Movement: Really a Working Paper*

by Emilie Schmeidler

*Funded by a grant from the Phoenix Memorial Project, University of Michigan to Mayer N. Zald

Linda Kaboolian, Bert Useem, and Mayer Zald assisted and consulted on the project.

This working paper is intended to help further study, rather than as an analysis-or even a full description

--

of the anti-nuclear power movement.

It is the product

of a series of efforts by several people. Initially, we assumed.the anti-nuke movement was comprised of-both special interest 'and general interest groups, and -we decided to concentrate on those groups which w6re trying to effect decisions on the national level. In order to locate

organizations comprising the social movement, Linda Kaboolian identified the interests we expected to have represented in the social'movement:. peace, consumer, environmental.' . scientific, labor, and 'women's groups. She began collecting names of organizations which appeared in the.media and contacted a Washington lobbyist. She then telephoned these organizations, and

. solicited the names of other organizations from them. In the summer of 1979, she
conducted 12 open-ended interviews in New York, Philadelphia, and Washington. D.C. In the spring of 1981, Emilie Schmeidler collected information on a less formal basis from seven informants.
*

(In order to preserve confidentiality! we are not -listing

the names of our informants; contact us if you need specific information.) In addition to our interviews, we collected printed information from each organization,.the media, and published material. with each organizational summary. Besides these national organizations, we have included the Clamshell Alliance as an organization focussed around a more specific local issue. For this. Emilie
I

These printed sources are listed

Schmeidler conducted three personal interviews and one telephone interview during the spring of 19'81. The body of this working paper describes these organizations in terms of eight categories: history, organizational structure, goals and'targets, strategy and tactics, resources, alliances within the movement, relations with authorities, and
3

relations with opponents. The account of the Clamshell Alliance is somewhat more

extensive to show how these categories might be used to examine changes within an organization over time. In these descriptions, we have noted explicitly places where information was lacking in order to alert others to the kinds of information they might want to obtain,.but which we did not find readily available.

CRITICAL MASS (CM) HISTORY. In November 1974, Ralph Nader organized a "Critical Mass Convention" with workshops and resource people: about 300 anti-nuclear activists attended, In February 1975, a steering committee set.up a Critical Mass office in Washington. In November 1975, 1000 people came from all over the country to a second critical
I
I

Mass convention. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE Critical Mass is one of the 15 organizations begun by Ralph Nader, and one to five (Public Citizen, Congress Watch, Critical Mass, Tax Reform Research Group, and Public Interest Research Group of Washington) which deal with energy issues, Funding comes through Public Citizen and through subscriptions to the2Critical'Mass Journal (CMJ). Apparently Nader makes the decisions about the size of allocations to the

various groups, staffing, pay, etcL

here

is at least some donsultation with the

staff (for example, discussion about who to respond to the opportunities they saw as a result of Three Mile Island; see below under Tactics), but 1've little information about either the formal or informal structure other than that Nader makes most of the major decisions; Apparently
(=M

has quite a small staff.

(It is difficult to tell just how

small: McFarland says there are 10-15 people working on energy issues in all five Nader organizations. The masthead for CMJ lists 10-20 people: mostly as "contributors;" but it is not clear what relations these people have to CM: not all people who

have articles in the issue are listed as contributors, and all the contributors may not be members of CM.) The staff'of.CM is primarily young and middle class. Nadervs policy has been for the staff to work for low pay; this results in considerable turnover, Most of the staff are drawn from somewhat related work, e,g, local PIRGs, journalism, work with legislators; they work for 0 1 temporarily, e,g,, until they need more money or go back to school. Linda's informant spoke of seeing the work as a kind of

training, and spoke of intending to continue doing similar kinds of work long after she left CM. There are orgnizational inefficiencies because of the high turnover among the staff. It is not a membership organization: its membership is the same as its

subscription list, and the subscribers do not have any formal control over decisions.

There are the broader goals of Nader and the' Nader organi-zationsas a whole, and the specific goals of CM. The overarching goals of the Nader organizations are

'i

conservation, low-energy growth, a moratorium on nuclear development, governmental regulation of gas and oil prices, and scrupulous environmental restrictions on development of oil and coal; they support the development of solar power (as long as it is not high technology). (These are the goals pertinant to CM; 'there are another Most broadly! "corporate

related set which have to do with consumers1 rights;)

America" is the opponent. The immediate targets'for much of their actions are governmental and regulatory bodies (legislatures, the NRC, etc.),
..

.
L
,

CM1s stated goal is the development of safe, efficient energy, it opposes the development of nuclear power as being neither safe nor efficient, Although members of -the staff see connections with the issue of nuclear weapons-,CM focuses on nuclear power'and related: safety issues. bodies, primariljr.
'

Its targets have been legislative and regulatory

STRATEGY AND TACTICS

I have little sense of CM's broad.strategic thinking, The only issue on which
I

I have any information about strategy is CM1s response to TMI.

Before TXI, CM mainly

concentrated on issues of safety, for example studying accidents in the transporting of nuclear wastes, problems of storage, and the use of radioactive materials in hospitals. In response to TM1;many people turned to CM for information, 0 4 decided

to organize around the concerns for safety (rather than bring in the issue of nuclear .weapons), because the local people had not been mobilized before, and they were now

concerned a b o u t l o c a l s a f e t y i s s u e s .

.The CM s t a f f thought t h e l o c a l p e o p l e would n o t The s t a f f does s e e

b e c r i t i c a l of t h e u s e of n u c l e a r weapons f o r n a t t o n a l d e f e n s e .

a c o n n e c t i o n between t h e s e i s s u e s , b u t t h i n k s CM w i l l b e more l i k e l y t o b e a b l e t o m o b i l i z e t h i s c o n s t i t u e n c y i f t h e y go one s t e p a t a . t i m e . Beyond o r g a n i z i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y around TMI, CM s e e s TMI a s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e a n t i - n u c l e a r movement h a s a l a r g e r p o t e n t i a l c o n s t i t u e n c y t h a n t h a t t o which i t had been r e l a t i n g ( i . e . , anti-nuke a c t i v i s t s ) ,
CM i s d i s c u s s i n g how t o respond t o t h i s

o p p o r t u n i t y , e s p e c i a l l y how t o do more g r a s s r o o t s o r g a n i z i n g ; and, a t t h e time of ~ i n d a ' si n t e r v i e w , was s e a r c h i n g f o r a p e r s o n w i t h o r g a n i z i n g s k i l l s t o b e added t o the staff.

--

C M ' s major a c t i v i t i e s have been p r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t o l o c a l a n t i -

--

n u c l e a r groups, doing r e s e a r c h , and l o b b y i n g . . C r i t i c a l Mass J o u r n a l C C ~ )

.
.

--. A

i s a monthly 12-16 p a g e t a b l o i d w h i c h .

- -

g i v e s t h e r e a d e r a s e n s e t h a t h e i s p a r t of a burgeoning n a t i o n w i d e movement by c h r o n i c l i n g a n t i n u c l e a r a c t i v i t i e s i n v a r i o u s a r e a s ; t h e l a t e s t a n t i n u c l e a r arguments; t h e l a t e s t i n f o r m a t i o n on Washington l o b b y i n g , w i t h c o n g r e s s i o n a l v o t i n g c h a r t s ; a r t i c l e s on t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r c o n s e r v a t i o n of energy; i n f o r m a t i o n on a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e s of energy, e s p e c i a l l y s o l a r power; i n s i d e i n f o r m a t i o n on what ERDA, FEA, and o t h e r f e d e r a l a g e n c i e s a r e up t o ; c r i t i c i s m of l e a d i n g pron u c l e a r a d v o c a t e s ; and a n a n n o t a t e d r e a d i n g l i s t of r e c e n t energy r e s e a r c h , emphasizing f e d e r a l documents and r e p o r t s by p u b l i c i n t e r e s t r e s e a r c h groups. Through CMJ , o t h e r p u b l i c a t i o n s ; and through p a r t i c i p a t i o n . i n c o a l . i t i o n s , CM
I

u r g e s . lobbying. and p r o v i d e s some. t r a i n i n g f o r t h i s . 6

For example, i n t h e May

demonstration,^^

o r g a n i z e d t h e lobbying which t o o k. p l a c e on May 7 t h . ( s e e . While CMJ r e p o r t s

r e l a t i o n s w i t h opponents l o r some more i n f o r m a t i o n on t h i s ) .

I

c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l.e. enthusiasm, i t u r g e s Its _ r e a d e r s towards

.

lobbying , p r e s e n t i n g mater La1 t o t h e .NRC, and o t h e r forms of l e g a l a c t i o n .

. .
.- . . .

'

--

I
.

I n a d d i t i o n t o t r y i n g . t o g e t o t h e r s t o lobby, and p r e p a r i n g m a t e r i a l s
. .

t o h e i p them do s o , CM i t s e l f l o b b i e s , g a t h e r s names of i n d i v i d u a l s and . g r o u p s w i l l i n g t o lobby, s e n t - a p u b l i c l e t t e r , t o C a r t e r c r i t i c i s i n g energy p o l i c i e s , etc.

'

1-1

( I t is i n t e r e s t i n g how d i f f e r e n t l y CMJ seems t o have d e a l t w i t h TMI CMJ r e p o r t s f a v o r a b l y on Seabrook and o t h e r c i t i z e n group a c t i o n s - However, in CMJ t h e r e is no i n d i c a t i o n t h a t CM d i d t h a t it s a w public response Similarly,
.

and Seabrook.

bothlegaliand illegal.

s u b s t a n c i a l r e t h i n k i n g i n l i g h t of Seabrook, e . g . ,

t o Seabrook as i n d i c a t i n g a p o t e n t i a l c o n s t i t u e n c y t o o r g a n i z e .

L i n d a . ' . ~informant mentions. t h e impact of TMI. i n t h i s r e s p e c t , b u t . n o t Seabrook. T h r e e p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s : (1) Seabrook p r o t e s t o r s used c i v i l d i s o b e d i . n c -e and e
I

CM u s e s l e g a l t a c t i c s , t h e r e f o r e , Seabrook d i d n o t l o o k l i k e a model f o r CM;

(2) t h e p u b l i c i n v o c a t i o n of s a f e t y c o n c e r n s r e s o n a t e d w i t h C M ' s long dnvolvement

I.

on t h a t b a s i s ; - a n d ( 3 ) t h i s i s a n a r t i f a c t of m r e l i a n c e on a few i s s u e s of CMJ y
:

'
,-I

and a n i n t e r v i e w which t o o k p l a c e a f t e r TMI w i t h a . . informant who had n o t been n

1--;

a t CM d u r i n g t h e Seabrook d e m o n s t r a t i o n s . )
+ .

RESOURCES Nader h i m s e l f i s a major r e s o u r c e f o r CM, Much of i t s funding comes through

t h e Nader o r g a r i i z a t i o n s , and CM' s r e p u t a t i o n f o r t r u s t w o r t h i n e s s i s because of Nader However, CM d o e s n ' t c o n t r o l Nader:

i t c a n ' t simply t e l l him where t o go and a t

which e v e n t s t'o speak because t h e r e a r e f a r too.many demands on h i s time and CM i s o n l y one of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o w h i c h h e r e l a t e s , s i z e of 04's budget. a b o u t $2,000,000.)
CMJ c i t e s a H a r r i s p o l l i n 1978 which showed 8.0% of t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a n t e d . a

(.I have no i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e

McFarland s a y s t h a t t h e Nader o r g a n i z a t i o n s had a t o t a l of

c r a s h program i n development of s o l a r power, and l e s s t h a n 50% wanted n u c l e a r power p l a n t s c o n s t r u c t e d , more r a p i d l y . The o r g a n i z e r s of t h e May 6 d e m o n s t r a t i o n c l a i m 100,000 p e o p l e a t t e n d e d , b u t few were members of m i n o r i t y groups. N a t i o n a l f i g u r e s a t t h e demonstration i n c l u d e d

James Fonda, Ralph Nader, Dick Gregory, J e r r y Brown, and s e v e r m u s i c i a n s .

(=MJ

a l s o r e p o r t s f i g u r e s about i n c r e a s e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n l o c a l p r o t e s t groups

i n t h e wake of TMI,

ALLIANCES
CM i s mainly t i e s t o t h e o t h e r Nader groups i n terms of f u n d i n g and s e t t i n g

priorities.

(However, i n f e r r i n g from L i n d a ' s i n t e r v i e w s w i t h CM and PIRG, t h e

groups doe o p e r a t e s e p a r a t e l y . )
CMJ and L i n d a ' s -informant

[ _ -b_ ,n d i c a t e t h a t C&f --c o ~ p e r a t e sw i t h . . a number , oth i

1
,

-__

of o r g a n i z a t i o n s ; n e i t h e r i n d i c a t e s p o i n t s of c o m p e t i t i o n . v a r i o u s groups i n Washington--Union

the

of Concerned S c i e n t i s t s , F r i e n d s of t h e E a r t h , d i v i d i n g up what had t o b e done s o t h e r e

A

S i e r r a Club, Environmental H e a l t h Center--as would b e l i t t l e d u p l i c a t i o n of e f f o r t ,

CM worked w i t h what i t kd"crlbedi as a " d i v e r s e , -.,

' L / - '

r a n g e of c i t i z e n , environmental, and l a b o r groupsf' i n o r g a n i z i n g t h e May 6 demonstration. The CMJ r e p o r t s f a v o r a b l y on a c t i v i t i e s by d i r e c t a c t i o n and c i t i z e n groups, and r e f e r s i t s r e a d e r s t o many of t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , RELATIONS WITH AUTHORITIES
-P

CM i s p a r t i c u l a r l y c r i t i c a l of S c h l e s i n g e r and t h e n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y ;
I

i t i d e n t i f i e s them a s b e i n g f undementally. u n t r u s t w o r t h y .

For example, i n

1977 , S c h l e s i n g e r announced t h a t environment a 1 groups backed t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s energy p r o p o s a l s a t a tiiae when, i n . f a c t , t h e groups were s t i l l meeting t o f o r m u l a t e t h e i r s t a t e m e n t ; CMJ proclaimed. t h i s a s showing how , t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n .:
L

w a s t r y i n g t o use' environmental g r o u p s , and s a i d t h e s e groups should l e a r n a

l e s s o n from t h i s . (This is CMJ1s account'of t h e s i t u a t i o n . ) Similarly, in

summarizing t h e l e s s o n s from,TMI, CMJ s t a t e d t h a t commercial i n d u s t r y i s n o t .

w e l l - s u i t ed t o o p e r a t e high-r i s k t e c h n o l o g i e s s a f e l y , and t h a t a n i n d u s t r y which

i s not a c c o u n t a b l e f o r i t s a c t i o n s w i t h a c t . r e c k l e s s l y .
- 1

I n g e n e r a l , CM i s c r i t i c a l of t h e NRC a s having t i e s w i t h t h e i n d u s t r y and a s being i r r e s p o n s i b l e i n l e t t i n g t h e I n d u s t r y c o n t i n u e w i t h l i t t l e r e g u l a t i o n and i n a d a q u a t e s a f e g u a r d s , d e s p i t e r e p e a t e d a c c i d e n t s and problems. Most

of C M J ' s coverage of TMI emphasized t h e NRC's i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; however, i t

r some members of t h e

.-

%--

approved t h e N R C ' s May 2 1 moratorium on l i c e n s i n g new r e a c t o r s , and s a i d t h a t

N ~ .ca p p e a r e d . i n t e r e s t e d

i n f u r t h e r r e s t i c t i o n s on c o n s t r u c t i o n .

Also i n r e s p o n s e t o TMI, CMJ r e p o r t e d C o n g r e s s i o n a l probes and i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , and t h e c r i t i c i s m s and r e s e r v a t i o n s by members of Congress.

I

It p r o v i d e s consid-

,
I

e r a b l e d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and t h e p o t e n t i a l l e g i s l a t i o n as p o s i t i v e steps. P a r t i c u l a r members of Congress and s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e s a r e i d e n t i f i e d a s

s y m p a t h e t i c w i t h C M ' s s t a n c e s . . . C I t may b e t h a t t h e r e i s more of t h i s r e l a t i v e l y

I

p o s i t i v e coverage of l e g i s l a t i o n ; I have o n l y f o u r i s s u e s of CKJ, s o i t s h a r d t o tell.)

.

CMJ a l s o r e p r i n t e d a column from a n a t i o n a l newspaper i n which t h e

!
I

c o l u m n i s t r e p o r t s s h i f t i n g from p r o - n u c l e a r

t o a n t i - n u c l e a r on t h e b a s i s of TMI.

RELATIONS W I T H OPPONENTS Following TMI, CM p e r c e i v e d t h e n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y a s i n c r e a s i n g i t s l e v e l

I I
;

of a c t i v i t y , bu.t n o t changing t h e t y p e s of a c t i o n s - - p r i m a r i l y and lobbying. -

public relations

The i n d u s t r y asked employees t o c o n t a c t t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s ;

t h i s w a s a n i m p o r t a n t impetus f o r CM d e c i d i n g t o u s e t h e May 6 d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a s an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r massive lobbying. L i n d a ' s informant s e e s i n d u s t r y e x p e n d i t u r e s on

1 o b b y i n g . a s paying o f f f o r i t , b u t s e e s i t s p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s a s b e i n g a wasted effort. ( I t ' s n o t c l e a r how s h e e v a l u a t e s campaign c o n t r i b u t i o n s , )

CMJ, however,

t o o k a more p u b l i c s t a n d denouncing i n d u s t r y propaganda, e s p e c i a l l y m a t e r i a l s s e n t t o schools.

.

CMJ, b e f o r e ,TMI, mentions t h e i n d u s t r y ' s u s e ' o f t h e media i n a number of ways,

e.g., power.

pushing i t s own c a s e a n d . s u p p r e s s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e d a n g e r s of n u c l e a r It a l s o accused t h e American Nuclear Energy Council of m i s r e p r e s e n t i n g two

g o v e r n o r s a s having urged t h e C a r t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o push f o r n u c l e a r development when t h e y had n o t done s o . There a r e no mentions, i n t h e m a t e r i a l I have, about t h e r e l a t i o n s w i t h pronuclear grassroots organizations,

- --

PHYSICIANS FOR SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY (PSR)

I

HISTORY PSR has had two phases.

I t was founded i n 1962 by p h y s i c i a n s , p r i m a r i l y

i n t h e .Boston a r e a , who were concerned a b o u t m u c l e a r war.

...

They chose. t o f o c u s

on m e d i c a l r a t h e r t h a n s t r a t e g i c o r p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , and saw a need f o r t b e medical community ,and t h e p u b l i c i n g e n e r a l t o have b e t b e r i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e e x t e n t t o which a n u c l e a r bombing. would b e a c a t a s t r o p h e . I n May

1962, ??SR p u b l i s h e d a s e r i e s of a - t i c l e s o u t l i n i n g t h e m e d i c a l consequences of a thermonuclear w a r . PSR played an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n p a s s a g e of t h e Anti-

B a l l i s t i c s M i s s i l e T r e a t y , and remained a c t i v e through t h e Vietnam War.

I t was r e v i v e d . i n 1978, l a r g e l y t h r o u g h t h e .leadersh.ip of D r . Helen

Caldicott.

I t h a s c o n t i n u e d t o p l a c e . p r i m a r y emphasis on s h a r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n

and t r y i n g t o m o b i l i z e t h e m e d i c a l community f o r a c t i v e o p p o s i t i o n t o n u c l e a r dangers--war, weapons, power p l a n t s ' , t h e n u c l e a r f u e l c y c l e ; e t c . The d i s -

. c u s s i o n below c o n c e r n s o n l y . t h i s second p h a s e of PSR. J u s t a t t h e t i m e of TMI, PSR had p l a c e d a major ad i n t h e - England New Journal

of

Medicine.

'

Following t h a t , i t s membership, i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y . I n t h e p a s t bwo y e a r s , i t .has e s t a b l i s h e d

a s have r e q u e s t s f o r i n f o r m a t i o n .

c h a p t e r s throughout t h e c o u n t r y , become a n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , and h i r e d staff

I1

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE PSR c u r r e n t l y h a s a n a t i o n a l of f i c e , more t h a n 30 c h a p t e r s , 'and more t h a n 3000 members. . I t is governed .by a board of d i r e c t o r s and an e x e c u t i v e committee. I n d i v i d u a l s may j o i n t h e PSR ( i . e . , need n o t b e a f f i l i a t e d w i t h a c h a p t e r ) . The c h a p t e r s a r e f a i r l y autonomous and f r e e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i r s p e c i f i c g o a l s and a c t i o n s w i t h i n t h e framework of t h e l a r g e r o r g a n i z a t i o n .
A l l contributions

t o t h e n a t i o n a l o f f i c e and d i v i d e d 50-50 w i t h t h e c h a p t e r i n t h e a r e a from which t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n came ( p o l i c y s i n c e 1 / 1 / 8 0 ) . The c h a p t e r s r a i s e t h e

r e s t of t h e money t h e y need f o r t h e i r programs themselves.

--..
.
<

When PSR r e v i v e d , most of i t s members w e r e i n t h e Boston and San

-.It had no r e g u l a r s t a f f ( a l t h o u g h i t . d i d have some temporary

Francisco area.

s t a f f i n g by a m e d i c a l s t u d e n t ) . j u s t over 300 members.

By t h e t i m e of TMI (March 1 9 7 9 ) , PSR had

By t h e end of 1980, i t had about 3000 members, 25

.

formal' c h a p t e r s , and a n o t h e r 1 8 groups i n

..
*.I

t h e process.of organizing a s
..

'

chapters.

Most of, t h e c h a p t e r s have a c o r e of 10-15 a c t i v e members; some

. .

a l s o .have a l a r g e number of nominal members. of medical - s t u d e n t s t o e s t a b l i s h e d d o c t o r s .

Chapters v a r y i n t h e p'roportion

During 1979, PSR h i r e d s t a f f ; by t h e end of t h a t y e a r i t 'had two f u l l - t i m e a n d . t w o p a r t - t i m e s t a f f members.

.

A s i t s . p r o g r a m expanded, i t has

s e e n t h e need f o r more s t a f f t o . m e e t . p a r t i c u l a r needs ( e . g : , t o - t r a i n s p e a k e r s o r t o handle p r e s s r e l a t i o n s ) . I n 1979 and 1980, much of t h e work was c a r r i e d o u t by members and s e a i n t h e Boston a r e a . I n 1980, t h e board and e x e c u t i v e committee v o t e d t o \
\

c r e a t e s e v e r a l n a t i o n a l committees t o t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e work whichhad been being done by t h o s e i n t h e Boston a r e a . These <ommitt;es includgi:;

T e c h n i c a l Committee ( f o r g a t h e r i n g and d i s t r i b u t i n g t e c h n i c a l in ormat ion)

Chapter Outreach, Medical Outreach, Labor Outreach, I n t e r n a t i o n a l Outreach, P r e s s Committee, and P u b l i c P o l i c y Committee.

I do n o t have i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e f o r m a l or i n f o r m a l r e l a t i o n s among

t h e s e v a r i o u s p a r t s except t h a t members a r e i n v i t e d t o ' j o i n any committee in whose work ,they have i n t e r e s t . PSR's budget f o r t h e n a t i o n a l o f f i c e f o r 1981 is $110,230 ( w i t h a d d i t i o n a l budgets f o r s p e a k e r t r a i n i n g and o t h e r p r o j e c t s ) . Of t h i s , i t planned t o be
'

a b l e t o r a i s e $70,000 from memberships, c o n t r i b u t i o n s , and s a l e of l i t e r a t u r e .

11 1

GOALS
.

MD TARGETS
PSR's main concern i s w i t h t h e m e d i c a l h a z a r d s o f . n u c l e a r r a d i a t i o n ,

and s e e s i t s purpose a s p r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e medical community and g e n e r a l p u b l i c about t h e dangers from n u c l e a r weapons, n u c l e a r power, and. t h e

-.-.
.
\

nuclear f u e l chain.

I t s e e s t h e medical consequences of n u c l e a r w a r a s s o

c a t a s t r o p h i c , t h a t much of i t s a t t e n t i o n i s on t h i s ; however, i t s e e s t h e whole set of i s s u e s a s r e l a t e d , and s o opposes a l l t h e s e f a c e t s . (Caldicott,

however, c h a r a c t e r i z e d n u c l e a r power a s compared t o n u c l e a r war a s l i k e

II

pimple on a pumpkin.")

. .

PSR i d e n t i f i e s t h e maj o r problems .of n u c l e a r power a s .being r a d i o a c t i v e

..

was t&s t h e dangerS of nuc'lear a c c i d e n t s , and ' n u c l e a r weapons p r o l i f e r a t i o n . , I n a d d i t i o n t o . c a l l i n g f o r n u c l e a r weapon disarmament, PSR c a l l s f o r a morat o r i u m . o n c o n s t r u c t i o n of n u c l e a r power p l a n t s and p h a s i n g out of e x i s t i n g o n e s , a ' comprehensive program t o conserve e n e r g y and .develop a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e s
of e n e r g y , and s t u d i e s ' of p o p u l a t i o n s exposed t o n u c l e a r . r a d i a t i o n ' ( e . g . ,

uranium m i n e r s as w e l l as t h e v i c t i m s a t Hiroshima). PSR wants t o a f f e c t b o t h U and USSR governmental p o l i c i e s (and preS sumably t h o s e of o t h e r n a t i o n s w i t h n u c l e a r weapons). Most of i t s work i s

e d u c a t i o n a l , however, and f o r t h i s i t s t a r g e t s a r e p r i m a r i l y . t h e medical community, and t h r o u g h i t , t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c .

IV

STRATEGY AND TACTICS .PSR h a s t a k e n e d u c a t i o n o f , t h e medical p r o f e s s i o n and p u b l i c a s being c r i t i c a l a s p e c t s of t h e problem'on which i t w i l l work. follows.
. .
,'

I t s a n a l y s i s is a s

There i s no way f o r p h y s i c i a n s t o t r e a t . t h e ' m e d i c a 1 consequences

.

of a n u c l e a r a t t a c k ; t h e r e f o r e t h e b a s i c h e a l t h i s s u e i s p r e v e n t i o n r a t h e r

t h a n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r n u c l e a r war.

-- p h y s i c i a n s aze w i d e l y r e s p e c t e d a n d accus-

tomed t o r e p o r t i n g s c i e n t i f i c f i n d i n g s

T h e r e f o r e t h e y make a p o t e n t i a l l y

..

1.

f o r c e f u l p r e s s u r e group f o r r a t i o n a l c o n t r o l o v e r t h i s d e s t r u c t i v e weaponry. s i n c e p h y s i c i a n s throughout t h e world s h a r e t r a d i t i o n s , language, and p r a c t i c e s , they a r e i n a p o s i t i o n t o c r e a t e a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l movement a g a i n s t n u c l e a r hazards.

.7

PSR's program is. overwhelmingly e d u c a t i o n a l .

It has put a high p r i o r i t y

on t r a i n i n g s p e a k e r s and s o encouraging p h y s i c i a n s t o s p e a k a s e x p e r t s t o t h e p u b l i c , b e f o r e . g o v e r n m e n t b o d i e s and i n c o u r t s - , a n d . t h r o u g h t h e media.

...

It

o r g a n i z e s symposia a b o u t t h e consequences of , - r a d i a t i o n , and e s p e c i a l l y a b o u t :,!.

.:

t h e - c a t a s t r o. p h i c e f f e c t s of a n u c l e a r a t t a c k . . p r i m a r i l y . . a t . t h e medical community, e.g..; They r e l y h e a v i l y on-

Many of t h e s e have been o r i e n t e d

a r e s p o n s o r e d by medical s c h o o l s .

by e x p e r t s ' , b o t h from t h e medical p r o f e s s i o n

and t h o s e ' w i t h knowledge o f . the.' i n t e r n a t i o n a l arms r a c e ( e . g .

former S e c r e t a r y

of S t a t e Cyrus Vance and former d i r e c t o r of t h e US A r m s C o n t r o l and Disarmament Agency, P a u l Warnke. PSR a l s o p r e s e n t s

its

views t o t h e medical community

t h r o u g h a r t i c l e s i n major m e d i c a l j o u r n a l s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e of??-iedicine, and a t p r o f e s s i o n a l g a t h e r i n g s .

New

England J o u r n a l

PSR a l s o makes p u b l i c s t a t e m e n t s

to;r.he b r o a d e r p u b l i c , e . g . , ,through news r e l e a s e s , p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e s , advert i s e m e n t s , and by o r g a n i z i n g p u b l i c l e c t u r e s and f i l m series. The n a t i o n a l o f f i c e h a s been p u t t i n g t o g e t h e r a l i b r a r y of books, r e p r i n t s , t a i e s , f i l h s , and c a s s e t t e s f o r t h e u s e of i t s members. e&:atioc~:l. mater'als for rent or s a l e :
It i s a l s o assembling

i n f o r m a t i o n a l p a c k e t s on c l i n i c a l ana

s c i e n t i Z f c 1ike;ature weapons ;

on t h e medical h a z a r d s of n u c l e a r r a d i a t i o n , power, and

I n a d d i t i o n , t h o s e a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l have g i v e n c o n s i d e r a b i e a t t e n t t o n to organizational issues.

'

I n i t i a l l y t h e y f o c u s s e d pf i m a r i l g on g e t t i n g some

. f u l l - t h e s t a f f and r e c r u i t i n g n e w members, e . g . ,

by r u n n i n g . ads 'in t h e New

England J o u r n a l - .Medicine ar.3 NY 'Times. .-of

PSR h a s n o t been s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e

l i x i t e 2 anoilnt of s u p p o r t it' h a s been a51e t o g i v e riew , c h a p t e r s , and s o i s working on d e v e l o p i n k a v h o l e prrjgrac; of r e c r u ' i t m e n t ar,d c h a p t e r o u t r e a c h .

t e c h n i q u e s have worked b e s t , d e v e l o p i s g d p n c k ~ g sf c r szer ring n?,? c 5 ~ p Z e r a , c o n n e c t k g w i t h m e d l c a l e l i t e s (t~7h~re szudents ~?rrr?-~.?~~.;r!,te t:-.?.i>::.~rs: r a i s i n g , and working. w i t h the br.;ar:e=
,::r ; r .;tcn.
' . .Em ;

-.

A r e l a t e d concern h a s been over how t o manage t h e i n c r e a s e d workload

and s u p p o r t i t f i n a n c i a l l y .

PSR's i n i t i a l s o l u t i o n was . t o h i r e s t a f f .

Then

it o r g a n i z e d n a t i o n w i d e committee's i n o r d e r t h a t a l l t h e ' w o r k would n o t f a l l

on t h o s e i n t h e Boston a r e a . . e.g.,
. . I

These committees cover a r a n g e of a c t i v i t i e s ,

chapter;out.reich,

making c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e ' l a b o r movement, u r g i n g

"

'

-'members t o work through o t h e r m e d i c a l groups . t o make p r e s e n t a t i o n s and p a s s r e s o l u t i o n s a g a i n s t n u c l e a r weapons and n u c l e a r power, i d e n t i f y i n g what e x p e r t i s e i s a v a i l a b l e among c h a p t e r members s o t h a t PSR may draw on t h e s e people i n -response t o t h e r e q u e s t s i t g e t s f o r experts. I n ' a d d i t i o n , . PSR

' h a s d e v e l o p e d . f u n d - r a i s i n g p r o p o s a l s f o r many a s p e c t s of i t s work d u r i n g t h e p a s t +see

.-

years:

n a t i o n a l speaker . training--$23., 225; t e c h n i c a l i n ormat i o n media--$17,500; c h a p t e r development--$39,000; and n a t i o n a l

resour.'ces--$4'0,500;

o f f i c e support--$39,500. I n a d d i t i o n t o . t h i s work by t h e n a t i o n a l . o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e c h a p t e r s c a r r y 'on. t h e k r own programs. e.g. Many o f . t h e s e c e n t e r around s h a r i n g in ormat i o n , O t h e r s . f o c u s on conducting s t u d i e s
A number of t h e s e

through l e c t u r e s , f ilrns, c o n f e r e n c e s .

and p u t t i n g t o g e t h e r e d u c a t i o n . m a t e r i a l .such a s s l i d e shows.

h a v e been i n r e f e r e n c e t o p a r t i c u l a r l o c a l c o n f l i c t s about power p l a n t s , uranium mining, o r r a d i o a c t i v e w a s t e s . i n l o c a l conl i c t s , e. g

,

A t l e a s t a .few have become a c t i v e l y engaged

. .

., t a k i n g

a n u c l e a r pover p l a n t t o c o u r t .

RESOURCES PSR d e s c r i b e s i t s e l f a s comprised o f p h y s i c i a n s , d e n t i s t s , and s t u d e n t s from t h e s e f i e l d s ; non-physicians may j o i n a s a s s o c i a t e members. (Interestingly,

PSR does not g i v e any i n d i c a t i o n t h a t i t t r i e s t o r e c r u i t n u r s e s and o t h e r health-r-elated professionals.) Both i t s l i t e r a t u r e and a c t i v i t i e s emphasize

t h e s p e c i a l e x p e r t i s e of p h y s i c i a n s and t h e r e f o r e t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o t a k e a f i r m s t a n d on t h i s as a n i s s u e of l i f e and h e a l t h . The r o l e of doctor-as-

e x p e r t seems t o b e b e r e s o u r c e t o which PSR g i v e s mo,st a t t e n t i o n , and a l s o t h e o n e which d i s t i n g u i s h e s i t most from t h e o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n t h e a n t i - n u k e

r e p o r t s t h a t i t s c o n f e r e n c e s , symposia, and l e c t u r e s a r e . w e l 1 - a t t e n d e d t h e s i z e of t h e s e m.eetings r a n g e s c o n s i d e r a b l y , e.g

(though
..

.,

60-900).

For' t h e s e

m e e t i n g s , PSR r e l i e s h e a v i l y on e x p e r t s from w i t h i n t h e m e d i c a l p r o f e s s i o n and from. n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s ( e . g

., Cyrus

Vance and .Paul Warnke) Coverage of t h e major

Its p u b l i c i t y emphasizes t h e s e e x p e r t s ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

L41

.
'

symposia by t h e media i s improving, b u t PSR i s -working bn improving it . s t i l l f u r t h e r by h i r i n g a s t a f f p e r s o n t o work p a r . t - t i m e . s p e c i f i c a l l y on r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e media, r a t h e r t h a n having t h i s d o n e on a n ad hoc b a s i s .

VI

RELATIONS WITH ALLIES

PSR has e s t a b l i s h e d \*rmni?tees

t o d e a l - w i t h r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n - th-e medical

, '

community ( p r i m a r i l y t o encourage i t s members t o work t h r o u g h t h e v a r i o u s m e d i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s t o which they belong) and t o work w i t h . l a b o r . In addition,
.

one of t h e c o n c e r n s of t h e c h a p t e r o u t r e a c h committee i s t h a t c h a p t e r s c o o p e r a t e w i t h o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n t h e b r o a d e r movement.

.
.

(However, I am.not c l e a r of

j u s t which movement. PSR would c o n s i d e r i t s e l f t o be a p a r t .) The PSR symposia m o s t l y , i n d i c a t e r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e medical community, e.g., j o i n t s p o n s o r s h i p b y . m a j o r m e d i c a l s c h o o l s and p a r t i c i p a t i o n by p r e s t i -

g i o u s f i g u r e s s u c h a s d e a n s . a n d department c h a i r s . . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e s c a t & e r e d r e f e r e n c e t o p a r t i c i p a t i o n by p e o p l e from o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s o r s p e c i f i c e v e n t s co-sponsored by o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s : Union of Concerned

Scientists,.Environrnentalists f o r F u l l Employment, American F r i e n d s S e r v i c e

Committee, Environmental P o l i c y I n s t i t u t e , c o u n c i l f o r a L i v e a b l e World, e t c . None of t h e m a t e r i a l s I have (which a r e v e r y l i m i t e d i n t h i s r e s p e c t ) g i v e ariy i n d i c a t i o n of c o n f l i c t o r c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h o t h e r . o r g a n i z a t i o n s . However,

they. a l s o g i v e ' l i t t l e s e n s e of whether t h e r e a r e any s o r t s of c o n t i n u i n g r e l a t i o n s w i t h groups o t h e r t h a n t h e . m e d i c a 1 ones.' On' t h e o t h e r hand, PSR

r e c e i v e s f a r more . r e q u e s t s f o r s p e a k e r s and i n ormat i o n t h a n i t can h a n d l e .

I n 1 9 7 9 ( ? ) n a t i o n a l . P S R r e p o r t e d t h a t i t had p r o v i d e d ' s p e a k e r s f o r over 300 e v e n t s , and t h a t c h a p t e r s r e c e i v e d 1-10 r e q u e s t s f o r s p e a k e r s each week.

PSR's l a b o r committee h a s focused o n . o c c u p a t i o n a 1 h a z a r d s , e . g . , uranium m i n e r s .

of

.It members were involved in some c o a l i t i o n work and i n t h e

f o r m a t i o n . of t h e Labor Committee f o r S a f e Energy and. F u l l Employment.

I

The

PSR. l a b o r - commit tee members see u n i o n s a s p r i m a r i l y concerned a b o u t occupa-

tional safety issues.

< I L

They see problems h a v i n g a r i s e n when ant-i-nuke a c t i v i s t s

e r r o n e o u s l y .assume. t h a t n u c l e a r workers who a r e concerned about h e a l t h and s a f e t y r e g u l a t i o n s a r e a l s o opposed t o n u c l e a r power.

,

'

PSR . i s s u e d a s t a t e m e n t c a l l i n g f o r S o v i e t p h y s i c i a n s t o j o i n them i n Members of PSR, i n c l u d i n g C a l d i c o t t , have m e t

p r o t e s t i n g n u c l e a r weaponry. with Soviet physcians,

1

i s s u e d a j o i n t s t a t e m e n t , and planned a j o i n t

meeting f o r March 1981.

VII

RELATIONS WITH AUTHORITIES

I n - g e n e r a l , PSR seems, t o have had r e l a t i v e l y p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s w i t h a u t h o r i t i e s i n t h e s e n s e t h a t it is a b l e t o g e t a hearing f o r its p o s i t i o n .

\

I n 1980
,
/ '

'

t h e Washington DC c h a p t e r o r g a n i z e d a n e d u c a t i o n a l forum on "Health BSR's major symposia a r e r e c e i v i n g i n c r e a more. r a d i o and p r i n t .media andk.l.only a

E f f e c t s of Radiation'' f o r Congress.

s'ing amounts of media coverage--though

l i t t l e . on TV.

o n t h e o t h e r hand, PSR's b a s i c p o s i t i o n i s c r i t i c a l .of t h e f e d e r a l S government, c a l l i n g on b o t h t h e U and USSR t o s t o p i : t h e arms r a c e and t h e t h r e a t of n u c l e a r war. .To t h i s end, i t h a d . a f u l l - p a g e a d ' i n t h e NY Times
. .

and made a p u b l i c s t a t e m e n t c a l L i n g f o r change i n p o l i c y and f o r p h y s i c i a n s i n b o t h c o u n t r i e s t o j o i n i n t h i s a p p e a l . 0 n t h i s b a s i s , PSR h a s begun'working w i t h p h y s i c i a n s i n - t h e S o v i e t Union.

VIII

RELATIONS WITH .OPPONENTS PSR's r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e f e d e r a l government a r e d e s c r i b e d above. Beyond

t h a t , I have no i n d i c a t i o n of n a t i o n a l PSR f o c u s s i n g on o t h e r s a s opponents.. However, some of t h e c h a p t e r s have u n d e r t a k e n p r o j e c t s ' d , i r e c t e d a g a i n s t s p e c i f i c opponents. The New Mexico c h a p t e r accused t h e n a t i o n a l c o a l and uranium

mining l o b b i e s of- being w i l l i n g t o s a c r i f i c e everyone e l s e t o t h e i r 'narrow interests. The San- F r a n c i s c o c h a p t e r h a s become v e r y involved i n t r y i n g t o

a r o u s e p u b l i c o p i n i o n a g a i n s t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a Livermore Nuclear Weapons L a b o r a t o r y .

. I S

l he

P o r t l a n d , Oregon, c h a p t e r has t a k e n l e g a l a c t i o n t o
\

\
\

a s s u r e t h a t t h e Energy F a c i l i t i e s S i t i n g Council w i l l review t h e s t a t u s of t h e Trojan ~ G c l e a r Power P l a n t . However, i n none of t h e s e c a s e s do I have

.

L :/ 1
.

any i n f o r m a t i o n ' a b o u t t h e n a t u r e of t h e c h a p t e r ' s i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h i t s opponent.

UNION OF CONCERNED SCIENTISTS (.UCS)

HISTORY

I have no i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e ' f o u n d i n g of t h e UCS.

The o n l y

i n f o r m a t i o n I ' d o h a v e . i b o u t i t s h i s t o r y is from one of i t s f u n d i n g a p p e a l s which l i s t s i t s accomplishments s h c e 1971.

:

A l l of t h e s e f o c u s on n u c l e a r

..

s a f e t y , . f i r s t i t s c r i t i c i s m s of t h e inadaquacy of t h e -AEC r e g u l a t i o n s (1971), and t h e n p r e s s u r e t o . r e p l a c e t. h e ' A C (1974) ; a d e c l a r a t i o n s i g n e d by 2300 E .

11

members of t h e t e c h n i c a l community'' c r i t i c i z i n g t h e n u c l e a r power program

and c a l l i n g f o r a r e d u c t i o n i n i t (1975); and c r i t i c i s m s of t h e

as muss en

Report (1977) followed by exposure of hazardous c o n d i t i o n s which were perm i t t e d . o n ' t h e b a s i s of Rasmussen e s t i m a t e s of t h e . p r o b a b i l i t y of v a r i o u s k i n d s of a c c i d e n t s .
I1

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE The U S h a s a b o u t 85,000 dues-paying members. C r o l e i n s e t t i n g policy: They have a minimal

p e r i o d i c a l l y , UCS s e n d s o u t a q u e s t i o n a i r e i n i t s Policy

m a i l i n g s and g e t s i n f o r m a t i o n about membership concerns i n t h i s way.

i s s e t , o f f i c i a l l y , by t h e board of d i r e c t o r s ; I have no i n f o r m a t i o n about

how t h e board is s e l e c t e d o r a b o u t i t s composition. The UCS is p r i m a r i l y a s t a f f o r g a n i z a t i o n . It - h a s two of f i c e s , t h e

main of i c e i n 'Cambridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s , and a n o t h e r i n Washington, D.C. The.Cambridge o f f i c e s e t s p o l i c y , b u t I have no o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n about i t s s i z e o r work. The- washington o f f ? c e has- a s t a f f of f o u r and c o n c e n t r a t e s L i n d a ' s informant ( L i s a

i n lobbying b o t h i n Congress and w i t h t h e NRC. ~ u

Mo c)t e d i n t h e Washington o f f i c e , p e r c e i v e d t h e C a m b r i d g e ' o f f i c e l a ,

a s more c o n s e r v a t i v e , arid saw t h e Washington o f f i c e a s b e i n g more concerned t o i n v o l v e t h e membership. i n t h a t di.rection, e.g., I11 TARGETS AND GOALS The UCS d e f i n e s i t s g o a l a s s t o p p i n g n u c l e a r power u n t i l i t i s proven s a f e . Its e m p h a s i s . i s on i s s u e s o f s a f e t y and h e a l t h ; i t s p o s i t i o n She saw t h e o f f i c e a s having made some changes having s t a f f h e l p i n t h e May 6 demonstration.

. -

'

i s t h a t s i n c e t h e n u c l e a r power p l a n t s a r e u n s a f e now., they. s h o u l d

f o r now.

be- o p p ~ s e ~

Some members b e l i e v e t h e p l a n t s c o u l d b.e made s a f e enought t o l i v e

w i t h , b u t t h a t s i n c e t h i s would b e v e r y e x p e n s i v e , and n u c l e a r power i s a l r e a d y t o o e x p e n s i v e t o b e v i a b l e , n u c l e a r power i s u n l i k e l y e v e r t o b e made s a f e enough. Because of t h i s c o n c e r n w i t h i s s u e s o f h e a l t h and s a f e t y , UCS does i n terms o f arms c o n t r o l , n o t disarmament. UCS

oppose n u c l e a r weapons--but

does n o t t a k e a p o s i t i o n - o n t h e i s s u e of c e n t r a l i z a t i o n of power. UCS's u l t i i n a t e t a r g e t i s t h e n u c l e a r power i n d u s t r y which i t i d e n t i f i e s a s b e i n g more. concerned w i t h p r o t e c t i n g i t s i n v e s t m e n t s t h a n p r o t e c t i .n.g c i t i zens. UCS's immediate t a r g e t i s t h e government--primarily Congress and t h e

NRC--~hich t h e s t a f f approa'ch.both d i r e c t l y and through t h e membership: What c o n c e r n s u s i s t h a t t h e F e d e r a l government, which s t i l l promotes n u c l e a r power v i g o r o u s l y , w i l l s e e k a h a s t y , p o l i t i c a l l y m o t i v a t e d , c o s m e t i c s o l u t i o n i n s t e a d of a s a f e , long-range p l a n from a f u n d i n g a p p e a l , p. 2
IV

...

....

-STRATEGY.AND TACTICS UCS's t a c t i c s c e n t e r around e d u c a t i o n , .lobbying, a n d . t e s t i f y i n g . It

sees i t s e l f a s :having c r e d i b i l i t y b e c a u s e o f i t s s c i e n t i f i c b a s e and a c c e s s

t'o e x p e r t s , . a n d , b e c a u s e . i t . d o e s n o t d e m o n s t r a t e . It u s e s t h i s e x p e r t i s e t o through

a n a l y s e s a f e t y i s s u e s and b r i n g them t o p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n , e. g . ,

c a l l i n g f o r h e a r i n g s ; t e s t i f y i n g b e f o r e - c o m m i t t e e s and' t h e NRC, l o b b y i n g , s e n d i n g m a t e r i a l t o c o n s t i t u e n t s , and p u b l i c a t i o n s . The l o b b y i s t s s e e t h e

..

r o l e of t h e membership a s v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n p r o v i d i n g p r e s s u r e from c o n s t i t u e n t s s o member's of C o n g r e s s ' w i l l l i s t e n t o UCS's arguments';' and t h e r e f o r e , they p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t l e g i s l a t i o n t o t h e membership. UCS i d e n t i f i e s t h e major i s s u e s a s b e i n g t h e inadequacy of t h e b a s i c ,. s a f e t y systems i n n u c l e a r power p l a n t s ,
.

',

s u p r e s s i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n about

t h e s e problems by t h e .government, t h e f ed'eral government's s u p p o r t f o r devel.

opment of n u c l e a r power, a n d i n a d a q u a t e means of w a s t e d i s p o s a l .

It s e e s t h e

c l a i m s t h a t America needs n u c l e a r power t o p r e v e n t energy s h o r t a g e s a s f a l s e , and h a s a book a r g u i n g t h a t c o n s e r v a t i o n and more e f f i c i e n t u s e o f

--

e x i s t i n g s u p p l i e s of energy would be ample f o r c o n t i n u e d economic and populat i o n growth; The samples I have o f l i t e r a t u r e s e n t t o p r o s p e c t i v e members

emphasizes UCS's f u n c t i o n s a s a watchdog o n . t h e f e d e r a l government, e s p e c i a l l y t h e NRC; The i s s u e s of i t s p u b l i c a t i o n , Nucleus, p r i m a r i l y SALT 11, and t e s t i m o n y .

r resent

informa-

t i o n a b o u t issues--TMI,
.,I

I n a d d i t i o n , UCS p u t s o u t

':

i n f o r m a t i o n a l pamphlets, e . g . ,

on t h e h a z a r d s o f n u c l e a r power and on U S

s u r v e i l l a n c e o f S o v i e t compliance w i t h SALT. The m a t e r i a l s w e have ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e i n t e r v i e w ) have a l i t t l e o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n . a b o u t e l e m e n t s 'of UCS's a n a l y s i s : t h a t n u c l e a r power .is n o. t

.

economically v i a b l e , t h a t i n t h e l o n g r u n n u c l e a r power p r o v i d e s fewer j o b s t h a n y o u l d s o l a r , and t h a t d e m o n s t r a t i o n s are n o t l i k e l y t o b e a s e f f e c t i v e a way t o ' p e r s u a d e members o f Congress t h a n e i t h e r s u c h e v e n t s a s TMI o r p u b l i c o p i n i o n p o J l s showing v o t e r s u p p o r t f o r s t o p p i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n .
, '
'

1,) /
4
.

.>

~ n . o - + ~ n t ~ : : ~ s aUCS.reckives r e q u e s t s f o r a s s i s t a n c e and f o r s p e a k e r s ; ys b u t t h a t i t h a s n e i t h e r ' t h e tiine n o r t h e r e s o u r c e s t o - r e s p o n d t o such r e q u e s t s ; . . s h e does n o t t r e a t t h i s a s a m a t t e r of s t r a t e g y . One s t r a t e g i c i s s u e s h e does

r a i s e , however, i s t h a t UCS h a s emphasized t h e need t o s t o p n u c l e a r power b u t h a s n o t emphasized p o s i t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e s t o i t . She sees t h i s i n terms o f

n o t h a y i n g had enough r e s o u r c e s t o do bo.th, b u t a l s o s a y s UCS i s t h i n k i n g .of l o b b y i n g f o r money t o b e t a k e n from t h e b r e e d e r r e a c t o r program and p u t i n t o renewable r e s o u r c e s . ( T h i s a c c o u n t may have missed t h e w e i g h t i n g UCS g i v e s t o e d u c a t i o n versus lobbying. Informant i s one of t h e l o b b y i s t s , anh s h e seemed. t o have

: \

much less s e n s e o f what was happening 'in o.ther p a r t s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . )

RESOURCES UCS h a s 80,000-85,000 dues-paying members.

I have no i n f o r m a t i o n
standard annual

a b o u t t h e s i z e of i t s budget o r s t a f f ( b u t 80,000 X $15 --the contribution--would g i v e a minimum o f $1,200,000 income).

--

UCS p r e s e n t s i . t s e l f . i n terms. o f repres'enti:ng s c L e n t i . s t s , . p r o f e s s i o n a l s , and r e s p o n s i b l e p e o p l e concerned a b o u t n u c l e a r power and w i l l i n g t o make a c a r e f u l s t u d y o f it., and w i t h o u t a v e s t e d i n t e r e s t i n i t .
'

It sees i t s s c i e n -

t i f i c c r e d i b i l i t y .as v e r y i m p o r t a n t , and a s depending pirtly on h a v i n g e x p e r t s t o . s u p p o r t i t s p o s i t i o n s and p a r t l y a s r e s u l t i n g from i t s p o l i c y of n o t demonstrating:,

.
,

,,

1nfo-%nt'
%

d i d n o t have a s e n s e o f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of UCS's membership.

,

However, s h e s a i d t h a t t h e a n t i - n u k e movement i s d e f i n a t e l y s p r e a d i n g t o new constituencies:

-

a l o t of l a b o r groups, l a b o r u n i o n s one-by-one,

l o c a l League

o f Women V o t e r s , and t h e more l i b e r a l wing o f t h e Democratic P a r t y .

I

r -~nforma,n't-assessment of t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f d e m o n s t r a t i o n s was mixed.

\./-

.-

She i n d i c a t e d t h a t s h e d i d n o t t h i n k t h e May 6 d e m o n s t r a t i o n was l i k e l y t o have had much impact on members o f Congress.. She c o n t r a s t e d t h a t demonstra-

ti'on w i t h t h e e v e n t s around t h e TMI a c c i d e n t i t s e l f and w i t h a CBS/NY Times . . p o l l showing v o t e r s u p p o r t f o r s t o p p i n g n u c l e a r power p l a n t . c o n s t r u c t i d n , b o t h

'.

of which s h e thought would have more i n f l u e n c e .

.

On t h e o t h e r hand, i n a

d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t , s h e described t h e n u d e a r i n d u s t r y a s anxious t o avoid t h e

.

k i n d s o f problems w i t h d e m o n s t r a t o r s which o c c u r e d a t Seabrook.

VI

ALLIANCES I N THE M V M N OE ET

A s a m a t t e r . of p o l i c y , UCS does n o t j o i n c o a l i t i o n s o r g i v e formal' s u p p o r t t o d e m o n s t r a t i o n s by o t h e r s .

ow ever,

i t s - - t a f f d o e s work w i t h p e o p l e s
L .

from o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s around s p e c i f i c i s s u e s - i ~ n f o.m , a n t m e n t. i o.n s ~ t h e . ~ o l a r . Lobby, ~ n v i r o n m e n t a lP o l i c y c e n t e r , F r i e n d s o f t h e E a r t h , gnd C r i t i c a l

M~SS.

/I

Although UCS as such does n o t t a k e p a r t i n d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , s t a f f members c a n g i v e some a s s i s t a n c e : t h e Washington UCS s t a f f d i d h e l p some i n t h e l o b b y i n g

L

/ -

p a r t of t h e May 6 d e m o n s t r a t i o n .

(,Informant s a y s t h i s i s a r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t

s h i f t i n U S p r a c t i c e , and comes a s r e s u l t o f t h e c o n c e r n of t h e . l o c a 1 s t a f f . ) C ~ n f p m n t - a l s o i n d i c a t e s t h a t some o f t h o s e i n t h e anti-nuke movement s e e UCS a s h e l p i n g t h e n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y b e c a u s e by emphasizing make t h e p l a n t s . , s a f e , t h e y a r e postponing s t o p p i n g them e n t i r e l y .
I

__Iv... .>>. >.

. : - o f t h e a n t i - n u k e movement's concern w i t h o t h e r i s s u e s s u c h a s c e n t r a l i z e d

power.
VII
.

RELATIONS WITH AUTHORITIES Much of UCS's work f o c u s e s on t r y i n g t o i n f l u e n c e t h e f e d e r a l a u t h o r i t i e s , and i t s r e l a t i o n s seem t o v a r y from r e l a t i v e l y c o r d i a l t o a n a t a g o n i s t i c . {' '

(,h,
',i

:,I

'The. sqbcommittee.mos't d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r nupl&%; power i s t h e ~ b u s e

. .

I n t e r i o r and I n s u l a r A f f a i r s Committee, c h a i r e d ( t h e n ) by M o r r i s U d a l l . of UCS's l i t e r a t u r e c a r r i e s a t e s t i m o n i a l by U d a l l f o r t h e UCS's work.

Some Nucleus

r e p o r t s UCS t e s t i m o n y b e f o r e t h a t subcommittee i n which i t c r i t i c i z e d '.the Rasmussen r e p o r t and t h e NRC, and advocated t i g h t e r C o n g r e s s i o n a l c o n t r o l s o v e r tghe NRC and i n d e p e n d e n t s o u r c e s o f i n f o & a t i o n on n u c l e a r power. UCS l i t e r a t u r e r e g u l a r l y c r i t i c i z e s t h e government f o r s u p r e s s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e d a n g e r s of n u c l e a r power and f o r i t s p o l i c y of f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t f o r development of n u c l e a r power.
It i s p a r t i c u l a r l y c r i t i c a l of t h e

NRC f o r doing more t o promote n u c l e a r power t h a n t o s a f e g u a r d p u b l i c h e a l t h

-..through regulating t h e industry.

UCS i d e n t i f i e s i t s e l f w i t h exposing governf i r s t by

m e n t a l cover-ups and p o l i c i e s which expose p e o p l e t o d a n g e r , e . g . ,

opposing t h e Rasmussen r e p o r t and e v e n t u a l l y by f o r c i n g t h e government t o r e p u d i a t e t h e r e p o r t ; and t h e n by u s i n g t h e Freedom o f I n f o r m a t i o n Act t o c h a l l e n g e NRC d e c i s i o n s which had been b a s e d on t h e Rasmussen R e p o r t . UCS makes u s e of a u t h o r i t i e s i n two o t h e r ways. F i r s t , it uses t h e

media t o p r e s e n t i n ormation-- through a d s , s t o r i e s , p r e s s r e l e a s e s , e t c . Second, i n i t s l i t e r a t u r e i t . c i t e s a ~ a ? . i e t y ' . o fa u t h o r i t i e s a s s u p p o r t i n g

. i t s p o s i t i o n s (Wall S t r e e t J o u r n a l , MITRE Corporation--a

V i r g i n i a think-tank,

S i n s u r a n c e companies, Ralph Nader, t h e AEC r e g u l a t o r y s t a f f , U G e o l o g i c a l Survey, e t c . ) .

VT RELATIONS lr

WITH. OPPONENTS

The UCS. d e s c r i b e s - t h e n u c l e a r - power i n d u s t r y a s u s i n g d e c e i t , e v a s i o n , amd s u b t e r f u g e , and a s w i l l i n g t o s a . c r i f i c e t h e p u b l i c good f o r i t s own narrow interest: d e s p i t e t h e d a n g e r s t o h e a l t h .and s a f e t y from accide.nts., s a b o t a g e ,

and n u c l e a r . w a s t e s , t h e . i n d u s t r y is t r y i n g t o push t h e c o u n t r y t o become more

' dependent on n u l c e a r power 'and i s t r y i n g t o c a p i t a l i z e on t h e f e a ' r s o f - a n

energy s h o r t a g e by making u n t r u e c l a i m s , a b o u t t h e need f o r n u c l e a r energy. The UCS a t t r i b u t e s t h i s t o t h e i n d u s t r y . b e i n g more'concerned w i t h p r o t e c t i n g

i t s own i n v e s t m e n t s t h a n w i t h t h e s a f e t y and h e a l t h of t h e p o p u l a t i o n .
. 1

i1 ,

'

Informant s a y s t h e i n d u s t r y i s becoming more d e s p e r a t e b e c a u s e of mounting economic and p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e c a p i t a l c o s t s of c o n s t r u c t i n g p l a n t s , problems o f l i a b i l i t y ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e Price-Anderson Act i s r e p e a l e d ) . There i s no i n d i c a t i o n of any - r e l a t i o n s h i p between UCS and t h e pronuke moyement.

.
I
HISTORY

MOBILIZATION FOR SURVIVAL (MES)

I n e a r l y 1976, Sidney Lens p u b l i s h e d "The Doomsday S t r a t e g y " i n The P r o g r e s s i v e which c r i t i c i z e d t h e U.S. weapons.

e f f o r t t o a t t a i n s e c u r i t y through n u c l e a r

During t h e n e x t y e a r , h e g a t h e r e d s e v e r a l o t h e r p u b l i c f i g u r e s i n t o a

d i s c u s s i o n of t h e need f o r a n u m b r e l l a o r g a n i z a t i o n t o combat t h i s t h r e a t . Members, of e s t a b l i s h e d - p e a c e organizations--AFSC, WILPF, WRL, eti.--were

approached, and in A p r i l 1977.120-130 p e o p l e r e p r e s e n t i n g 60-70 o r g a n i z a t i o n s met i n P h i l a d e l p h i a . T h i s group a p p o i n t e d a committee t o c o n t i n u e t h e d i s c u s -

s i o n , and t h i s l a t t e r group suggesed t h e f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e new organizaP

tion--the

Mobilization f o r Survival.

I n December 1977, 400 p e o p l e met i n

Chicago f o r t h e f i r s t n a t i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e ; t h e y set an agenda f o r t h e i r work together.

.
.

During t h e i n t e r v e n i n g months, t h e r e were l o c a l l y - o r i e n t e d a c t i o n s

around t h e arms r a c e and i t s c o s t s . E From t h e t i m e .of i t s founding, M S ' s a w i t s e l f a s t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n which would j o i n t o g e t h e r many d i v e r s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , and t h e r e b y b o t h p u t . more p r e s s u r e on t h e government and h e l p reawaken p u b l i c awareness of t h e n a t u r e and s c a l e of ' t h e ' problem.. MES' s e t s i t s o w n ' n a t i o n a l p r i o r i t i e s and encourages c o n s t i t u e n t groups t o u n d e r t a k e t h e i r own programs; i n e a c h , i t s u p p o r t s b o t h l e g a l a c t i v i t i e s and n o n v i o l e n t c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e .

MFS h a s been involved i n many of t h e major

demonstrat i o n s i n c l u d i n g t h o s e a t B a r n w e l l , SC; . Rocky F l a t s , CO; Bangor, WA; t h e Hollywood Bowl; i n New York and

an

F r a n c i s c o ( i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e UN S p e c i a l I n 1980 i t o r g a n i z e d " s u r v i v a l

Assembly on Disarmament), and a t Seabrook.

s&nerl'

a s an e f f o r t t o g e t . t h e i s s u e s - o u t i n t o communities throughout t h e n a t i o n .

I1

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE F The M S i s a c o a l i t i o n of o r g a n i z a t i o n s and i n d i v i d u a l s .

Its l i t e r a t u r e

d e s c r i b e s i t as u n i t i n g .more t h a n 200-250 p e a c e , environmental, r e l i g i o u s , s t u d e n t , women's, s o c i a l . j u s t i c e , and l a b o r g r o u p s , and having t i e s w i t h s i m i l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n s

.-.

& other countries.

(Some of t h e s e groups which a r e p a r t of M S .are.l o c a l M S F F

c h a p t e r s ; o t h e r s a r e l o c a l o r n a t i o n a l groups which a f f i l i a t e w i t h MFS.)

I have l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e of MFS.

There i s

a n a t i o n a l s t a f f ( b u t I d o n ' t know how many.members, o r w h e t h e r . t h e r e i s a

r e g i o n a l , s - t a ff ) , and a c o o r d i n a t i n g - committee which o v e r s e e s i k p l e m e n t a t i o f i o f '
.,'

d e c i s i o n s made a t .th; a n n u a l c o n f e r e n c e .

I . d o n ' t have a n i t h i n g s s p e c i f . i c i n
.

. .

our w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l s o r interview about t h e n a t i o n a l conference o r represen. t a t i o n of a f f i l i a t e s , b u t I g a t h e r from i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s t h a t t h e n a t i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e i s r e l a t i v e l y ' open, and t h a t a modified v e r s i o n . of concensus i s used i n formulating n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s .
MFS h a s f i f t e e n t a s k f o r c e s ; however, t h e

o n l y o n a about which I have any i n f o r m a t i o n i s t h e r e l i g i o u s t a s k f o r c e . O r g a n i z a t i o n s may a f f i l i a t e w i t h MFS i n two ways.

A " c o o p e r a t i n g organ-

i z a t i o n " may u s e t h e MFS's name on i t s l i t e r a t u r e , and t h e n a t i o n a l M S o f f e r s F t o s u p p o r t i t s a c t i v i t i e s through s u p p l y i n g l i t e r a t u r e , s p e a k e r s , and c o n t a c t s . Nat.iona1 M S may u s e t h e g r o u p ' s name. on' its l i t e r a t u r e . F .In a d d i t i o n , t h e group

a g r e e s t o g i v e s p a c e t o p u b l i c i z e MFS- a c t i v i t i e s i n i t s n e w s l e t t e r and t o encourage

i t s members t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s .

"Supporting o r g a n i z a t i o n s t ' do a l l

t h i s p l u s p r o v i d e a f i n a n c i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n and some s t a f f t i m e f o r promoting and/or implementing M S program. F

-I have no i n f o r m a t i o n about' t h e r a t i o of s u p p o r t i n g ' t o

c o o p e r a t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s , whether t h e r e i s . any c o o r d i n a t i o n among t h e s t a f f s , o r whether supportingjorganizations have a d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n t o decision-making ( e i t h e r f o r m a l l y o r in o r i n a l l y ) . From i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s , I g a t h e r t h a t t h e r e have been some problems around o r g a n i z a t i o n a l i s s u e s : s t a f f , g a i n i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g s u p p o r t from e s t a b 1

l i s h e d g r o u p s , and q u e s t i o n s about whether any group Ghich wants t o a f f i l i a t e

.

should b e allowed t o do s o , even i f e x i s t i n g members have r e s e r v a t i o n s about t h e p r o s p e c t i v e one.

I11

GOALS AND TARGETS

MFS d e s c r , i b e s i t s e l f a s "a n o n v i o l e n t movement of o r g a n i z a t i o n s and i n d i v i d u a l s d e d i c a t e d t o awaken p e o p l e t o t h e growing t h r e a t s t o human s u r v i v a l and

.. -

t o c h a n n e l t h a t awareness i n t o massive p u b l i c a c t i o n . " s t a t e d i t s purpose - a s

I.ts 1977 " C a l l t o Action"

..>

t o reawaken p u b l i c awareness of t h e s c a l e of t h e t h r e a t which f a c e s u s a l l ; t o c h a n n e l t h i s awareness i n t o d r a m a t i c and e f f e c t i v e a c t i o n s ; t o t a k e t h e i n i t i a t i v e from t h o s e w i t h a v e s t e d i n t e r e s t i n t h e arms ' r a c e ; t o b u i l d a t r u l y massive movement which can change t h e p o l i c i e s and d i r e c t i o n of t h e n a t i o n , and t.0 a c h i e v e a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of conscious-n e s s o n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l , i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h groups a c t i v e i n .Europe, A s i a , and t h e Third World. ( r e p r i n t e d i n - P r o g r e s s i v e , 9/77) The M S i d e n t i f i e s f o u r i n t e r r e l a t e d long-term - g o a l s : F no .'nuclear weapons,

ban n u c l e a r power, s t o p t h e arms r a c e , and meet human n e e d s ; and f o u r i n t e r i m

, "
a

goals:

a s u b s t a n t i a l c u t i n m i l i t a r y programs and r e d i r e c t i n g t a x e s from m i l i t a r y

t o s o c i a l programs, f u l l employment through c o n v e r t i n g l o c a l n u c l e a r and m i l i t a r y program9 t o c o n s t u c t i v e s o c i a l . p r o g r a m s , a complete moratorium on n u c l e a r power and. weapons, and ending arms s a l e s and m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e t o f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s . Thus, w h i l e e n d i r g t h e u s e of n u c l e a r power i s one of t h e c e n t r a l i s s u e s , i t i s s e e n a s o n l y one p i e c e o u t of a l a r g e r . s e t of ' i s s u e s . M S h a s a d i v e r s e program and s o i t s p r o j e c t s have a r a n g e of t a r g e t s . F
1t i s n o t c l e a r whethet it id'ent i f i e s t h e - f e d e r a l government o r c o r p o r a t i o n s a s

t h e main opponent; i t ' m a y . s e e ' t h e m i l i t a r y - i n d u s t r i a l complex a s t h e main t a r g e t

.

and t h i s a s being .comprised of some governm&ntal and. some c o r p o r a t e components. Much of i t s work i s aimed a t a r o u s i n g t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c t o t a k e p a r t i n p r o t e s t s ; i n t h i s s e n s e , t h e p u b l i c i s a major t a r g e t of i t s m o b i l i z a t i o n e f f o r t s .
Iv

TACTICS AND STRATEGY

M S encompasses a wide r a n g e of s t r a t e g i e s and t a c t i c ' s . F l e v e l , M S s t r a t e g y a p p e a r s t o have two r e l a t e d components: F

A t the national

. f i r s t , , t o join the .

s c a t t e r e d p r o t e s t s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s . t o g e t h e r s o t h e y c a n p r e s e n t t h e i r demands t o t h e government more f o r c e f u l l y ; and second, t o m o b i l i z e t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n t o take part i n these a c t i v i t i e s ; To accomplish t h e f i r s t , ?ll?S makes i t q u i t e

easy f o r o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o a f f i l i a t e w i t h i t ; t h i s a l l o w s MFS;:to s p e a k i n
.

t h e name 'of . t h o s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , and t o t a k e p a r t i n a s e r i e s of s i g n i f i c a n t demonstrations. To accomplish t h e second, MFS s p o n s o r s a n d . e n c o u r a g e s much

.

. -

e d u c a t i o n a l work, r a l l i e s , a n d , o t h e r f o r m s . ~ outreach--both and t o d i s p l a y p u b l i c s u p p o r t f o r i t s agenda.

'

t o inform t h e p u b l i c

A t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l , M S h a s a t i m e l i n e of a c t i v i t i e s which h a s been F

approved by t h e a n n u a l convent-ion. 'conferences;rallies,

These i n c l u d e - l e g a l g a t h e r i n g s such a s

a n d . t e a c h - i n s ; and n o n v i o l e n t c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e a t n u c l e a r , Some of t h e n a t i o n a l e v e n . t s a r e d e s i g n e d t o have

.

m ' i l i t a r y , and c o r p o r a t e s i t e s . l o c a l components, e . g . , Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

s i m u l t a n e o u s a c t i o n s t o commemorate t h e bombings of L o c a l M S a f f i l i a t e s are e x p e c t e d F

to

take part in these

' '

a c t i v i t i e s and t o p l a n t h e i r o w n . l o c a 1 o n e s , t o o . .

N a t i o n a l M S a l s o produces F leaf lets

l i t e r a t u r e and i n f o r m a t i o n a l p a c k e t s t o a s s i s t i n l o c a l - o r g a n i z i n g , e . g . ,

about W, r e p r i n t s a b o u t s p e c i f i c i s s u e s s u c h a s t h e m e d i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of n u c l e a r powey, and a mimeographed m a n u a l a b o u t how t o o r g a n i z e a t e a c h - i n . While

M S does d e m o n s t r a t e i n Washington t o i n f l u e n c e government p o l i c y , I have found F no i n d i c a t i o n s of l o b b y i n g o r r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s , except t h e c i r c u l a t i o n of a p e t i t i o n f o r a n u c l e a r moratorium. The major i n n o v a t i o n .in M S t a c t i c s a p p e a r s t o . h a v e been . t h e 1980 S u r v i v a l F Summer, evoking t h e . examples of t h e 1964 M i s s i s s i p p i Freedom Summer and t h e 1967 ~ i e t n k Summer.
I t s p u r p o s e was td;..educate communities throughout t h e n a t i o n on

M S i s s u e s ; i t r e l i e d p r i m a r i l y on young. p e o p l e going door-to-door, F

. .

making pre-

s e n t a t i o n s a t c h u r c h e s and d t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , l e a f l e t t i n g a t shopping c e n t e r s , and speaking on r a d i o and TV.

W e have some, s c a t t e r e d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t s t r a t e g y ,
'

e.g.,

the national

s e c r e t a r y k v i e w s on v i o l e n t p r o t e s t s and a n a l y s i s of t-he May 6 d e m o n s t r a t i o n , and t h e r e l i g i o u s t a s k f o r c e ' s c a l e n d a r of e v e n t s .

.
.

However, I ' v e no i n d i c a t i o n

how b r o a d l y t h e s e r e p r e s e n t MFS.

For i n s t a n c e , Bob Moore, t h e n a t i o n a l s e c r e t a r y ,

i s v e r y e x p l i c i t . a b o u t t h e n o n v i o l e n t b a s e $or t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ; however t h e
m a t e r i a l s w e have do n o t i n d i c a t e t h a t commitment t o n o n v i o l e n c e .is a c r i t e r i o n f o r p a r t i c i p a t i n g , and once a n o r g a n i z a t i o n d o e s j o i n , i t can u s e MFS's name on
a

i t s l i t e r a t u r e , whatever i t s a c t i v i t i e s .

RESOURCES
'

I h a v e - n o i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e e x t e n t of M S f i n a n c e s o r s t a f f , o r about F
t h e s o c i a l composition o f i t s membership--even t h e proportion r e c r u i t e d a s indiv-

i d u a l s , a s members of M S g r o u p s , o r as members of o t h e r g r o u p s . a f f i l i a t e d w i t h MFS. F Both n a t i o n a l MFS. and. t h e l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n i t r e q u i r e r e s o u f c e s . Some of MFS's l i t e r a t u r e i n d i c a t e s a v a r i e t y of means of r a i s i n g money i n a d d i t i o n t o c o n t r i b u t i o n s and paying t o be on t h e m a i l i n g l i s t ; t h e s e i n c l u d e s a l e of Ts h i r t s . a n d bumper s t i c k e r s , s a l e of Helen C a l d i c o t t ' s Nuclear ' ~ a d n e s s i t h 40% of w t h e p r o c e e d s going t o MFS, and a f u n d - r a i s i n g a p p e a l s by Benjamin Spock f o r ' t h e S u r v i v a l Summer. The t e a c h - i n manual p r e p a r e d by n a t i o n a l M S f o r t h e l o c a l groups F

c o n t a i n s a major s e c t i o n about b o t h - t h e need f o r f u n d - r a i s i n g and some t e c h n i q u e s f o r doing i t . MFS's o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r a c c e s s t o r e s o u r c e s . It d o e s n o t make a f i n a n c i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n a r e q u i r e m e n t f o r a group t o b e p a r t of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( a l t h o u g h i t . i s n o t c l e a r whether groups must c o n t r i b u t e t o b e on t h e m a i l i n g l i s t ) . However, t h r e e c o n d i t i o n s f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n a r e t h a t

M S can u s e t h e o t h e r g r o u p ' s name on i t s m a i l i n g s , t h a t M S h a s a c c e s s t o t h e F F g r o u p ' s n e w s l e t t e r f o r p u b l i c i z i n g i t s a c t i v i t i e s , and t h a t t h e group w i l l encourage i t s members t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n FFS a c t i v i t i e s . From " s u p p o r t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s , "

M S does r e q u i r e a f i n a n c i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n and a l s o e x p e c t s some s t a f f time t o b e F g i v e n ' t o promoting . M S a c t i v i t i e s . F . The NFS n a t i o n a l s e c r e t a r y s e e s a number of e v e n t s a s being of u s e . TMI

showed p e o p l e t h a t n u c l e a r d i s a s t e r s were p o s s i b l e and would happen u n l e s s p e o p l e o r g a n i z e t o p u t a n end t o n u c l e a r power. t h e c o n t e x t f o r understanding' TMI. The movie ."China Syndrome". helped s e t

The May 6 d e m o n s t r a t i o n w a s important because

thers'i;ze.of t h e p r o t e s t showed t h i s was a n i s s u e wiGh which:.Carter had t o d e a l .

VI

ALLIANCES WITHIN THE. MOVEMENT M S s e e s i t s e l f a s a n umbrella o r g a n i z a t i o n , and s e e s i t s r e a s o n f o r being F a s t h e g r e a t e r f o r c e e x e r t e d when o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e j o i n e d t o g e t h e r .

It c o n t a i n s

.-

.-

p e a c e , e n v i r o n m e n t a l , r e l i g i o u s , s t u d e n t , women's,

social juctice,

and l a b o r

g r o u p s , and i s a l l i e d , w i t h o r g a n i z a t i o n s iri o t h e r ' c o u n t r i e s .

I have no l i s t of

t h e groups a f f i l i a t e d . w i t h M S (and presumably t h e l i s t c h a n g e s ) , b u t s e v e r a l of F t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s w e have l i s t ' s o m e a f f i l i a t e s a n d / o r like-minded g r o u p s ; c f . t h e May 25, 1979 memo, R e l i g i o u s C a l l f o r a ~ o r a t o r i u m , and Teach-in .Mini Manual. L i n d a ' s i n t e r v i e w c o n t a i n s a l o n g d i s c u s s i o n of r e l a t i o n s between PIRG,
,

;<

\,

MFS, and o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e May 6 d e m o n s t r a t i o n .

$Informan$ s a y s

t h a t a l l t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n p l a n n i n g were supposed t o .send r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t o m e e t i n g s , b u t that'MFS was t h e o n l y o r g a n i z a t i o n from o u t s i d e Washington which a t t e n d e d . ences

0%

H e a l s o d i s c u s s e s some i n t e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n f l i c t s and d i f f e r -

s t r a t e g y between M S and PIRG. F

Some i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s I have had

i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e have a l s o been c o n f l i c t s . o v e r t h e e x t e n t t o which e s t a b l i s h e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i l l s u p p o r t MFS.

VII

RELATIONS WITH AUTHORITIES

..

There a r e . s e v e r a l s c a t t e r e d comments a b o u t r e l a t i o n s w i t h a u t h o r i t i e s , b u t . MFS 1 i t . e r a t u r e does e x p r e s s d i s t r u s t of

n o t enough t o make a c o h e r a n t a s s e s s m e n t . t h e ' government, e . g . ,

t h e o r i g i n a l " C a l l t o Action" s a y s "We a r e angry t h a t

Government l e a d e r s have thought u s s u c h - f o o l s t h a t t h e y b e l i e v e d t h e y could buy our s i l e n c e w i t h words a b o u t disarmament...'' The (quoted i n - P r o g r e s s i v e 9/77).
It

a l s o l i n k s government and i n d u s t r y a s b o t h making t h e c l a i m s t h a t America needs

b

n u c l e a r power f o r i t s energy f u t u r e and

Campaign f o r a Nuclear Moratorium")

. Informant_-criticizes the

weapons f o r d e f e n s e (cf " J o i n t h e

\

,
/

establi-shinent - media

c o v e r a g e of t h e May 6 d e m o n s t r a t i o n a s h a v i n g g i v e n i n o r d i n a t e a t t e n t i o n t o J e r r y Brown and J a n e Fonda r a t h e r t h a n t o o t h e r s p e a k e r s who had more t o s a y t h a n d i d

.

Brown.

On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e Teach-in Mini Manual s e c t i o n on p u b l i c i t y ' a n d media

r e l a t i o n s emphasizes t h e importance of u s i n g t h e media; s o d i d Survival.Summer. The Mini Manual a s l o s u g g e s t s f o u n d a t i o n s as a p o s s i b l e s o u r c e of funding. F r o m . i t s f o u n d i n g , M S h a s had s u p p o r t from some p r o m i n e n t ' p e o p l e ( s e e F t h e l i s t in - P r o g r e s s i v e 9/77). The It c o n t i n u e s t o make some u s e of thyis form

. -

of s p o n s o r s h i p , e . g . , t h e f u n d - r a i s i n g l e t t e r by Spock l i s t s s p o n s o-r.s on t h e f r o n t
/
. - - -

and e n d o r s e r s of MFS's March f o r a Non-Nuclear World on t h e b a c k . ' - 1 n f 0 ~ : a l s ot a l k s a b o u t t h e importanc-e of h a v i n g r e p u t a b l e s - c i e n t i s t s sp.eak o u t a b o u t t h e d a n g e r s of nuclear d i s a s t e r s , e.g., i n r e l a t i o n t o TMI.

T h e r e i s v e r y l i t t l e m a t e r i a l i n t h e f o l d e r a b o u t r e l a t i o n s w i t h opponents.
\ -

in for^ d e s c r i b e d h i s e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t t h e n u c l e a r power i n d u s t r y would mount a n

a t t a c k t o c o u n t e r t h e a n t i - n u k e movement, and d e s c r i b e d some i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t MFS had a b o u t i n d u s t r y p l a n s . T h i s i n c l u d e d a campaign by t h e i n d u s t r y t o say t h a t

TMI showed how s a f e n u c l e a r power r e a l l y i s , m i l i t a r y c o n t r a c t s f o r r e a c t o r s , and

P

t h e . e x p o r t .of r e a c t o r s .
-

He a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t t h e i n d u s t r y would w a i t u n t i l g a s

and o i l p r i c e s r i s e , and t h e n s a y t h a t t h e s e a r e d e p l e t a b l e r e s o u r c e s , and s o America h a s no c h o i c e b u t t o commit i t s e l f t o n u c l e a r power.

\
S'

I n f o r . ' a l s o d i s c u s s e s s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s of harassment and s u r v e i l l a n c e by utilities. None of t h e m a t e r i a l s w e have g i v e s any i n d i c a t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n between M S o r i t s a f f i l i a t e s and any pro-nuke g r o u p s . F Given t h e n a t u r e of M S a c t i v i t i e s , F

however, I would assume t h a t t h e r e must b e some i n t e r a c t i o n , a t l e a s t on t h e l o c a l level.

SIERRA CLUB

HISTORY

, -The S i e r r a Club was founded by ~ o h n ' ~ u i r ^ i n ' l 8 9" t o - enable. more 2

people t o explore, enjoy

and c h e r i s h t h e woodlands t h a t a r e t h e i r h e r i t a g e . "

.

S i n c e t h e n , i n a d d i t i o n t o e n c o u r a g i n ~ a p p r e c i a t i o nof t h e w i l d l a n d s , t h e S i e r r a Club h a s been - i m p o r t a n t i n s h a p i n g n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a t i o n f o r p r e s e r v a t i o n and c a r e of s u c h a r e a s , e . g . ,

.

'through t h e N a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e ,
.

'7'

F o r e s t S e r v i c e , W i l d e r n e s s P r e s e r v a t i o n System, Wild and S c e n i c R i v e r s System, e s t a b l i s h m e n t of n a t i o n a l p a r k s , d e f e n s e of p a r k s a g a i n s t dams, c u r t a i l l i n g overcutting i n national'forests, e t c .

F o r s e v e r a l y e a r s , S i e r r a Club d e b a t e d i s s u e s a r o u n d n u c l e a r power. Some members argued t h a t n u c l e a r - power c o u l d t a k e up t h e s l a c k > f environm e n t a l c o n t r o l s , which S i e r r a Club backed, p u t a c e i l i n g on c o a l and o i l prod.uction.- T h i s . d e b a t e was r e s o l v e d i n 1974 when' t h e S i e r r a Club Board of D i r e c t o r s v o t e d f o r a' moratorium o n . \ , c ~ n s t r u c t i o n .new n u c l e a r power of plants.
I1
k .'

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE s i e r r a Club i s a ,mass-membership o r g a n i z a - t i o n , w i t h 153,000 members i n 46 c h a p t e r s ( r o u g h l y , s t a t e s ) and 200 l o c a l groups. .About h a l f t h e

members a r e i n C a l i f o r n i a , and':less t h a n o n e - t h i r d 1 i v e . e a s t of t h e Mississippi.

i ow ever ,

t h e number . o f e a s t e r n and s o u t h e r n members is, growing.

.
.

S i e r r a Club h a s a Board of D i r e c t o r s e l e c t e d by t h e membershfp. Apparently t h e c a n d i d a t e s f o r t h e Board p r e s e n t p o l i c y ' s t a t e m e n t s . 1974 a Board was e l e c t e d which opposed n u c l e a r power. In

T h e i r e l e c t f o n was

a p p a r e n t l y i n t e r p r e t e d a s b e i n g t h e membership s t a t e m e n t on t h i s i s s u e

'
. .

which had been d e b a t e d ' w i t h i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s ; t h e r e a f t e r t h e m a t t e r was.consider.ed d e c i d e d . c a l l i n g f o r a moratorium on new r e a c t o r s . T h i s Board passed a r e s o l u t i o n

.

I have no i n d i c a t i o n i f members

have any o t h e r ways of i n f l u e n c i n g p o l i c y o t h e r t h a n v o t i n g i n s y m p a t h e t i c members of t h e Board.

S i e r r a Club o f f e r s i t s members many b e n e f i t s ( t r i p s , magazines, e t c . ) ; T h i s means t h a t t h e membership

therefore,,many people j o i n f o r t h e b e n e f i t s .

i n c l u d e s c o n s i d e r a b i e d i v e r s i t y of o p i n i o n on i s s u e s o t h e r t h a n c o n s e r v a t i o n .
A s a r e s u l t , S i e r r a Club d o e s
.

..

t a k e a s t r o n g stand i n proposing l e g i s l a t i o n

ii

f o r c o n s e r v a t i o n i n g e n e r a l and energy c o n s e r v a t i o n , b u t does n o t f o r m u l a t e a comprehensive energy p o l i c y . There i s a S i e r r a Club Legal Defense Fund.

I have no i n f o r m a t i o n

a b o u t i t s formal r e l a t i o n t o t h e S i e r r a Club, b u t i t may w e l l be a s e p a r a t e

.-.. -

legal entity;
I have no i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t S i e r r a C l u b ' s budget o r f u n d i n g s o u r c e s

e x c e p t t h a t t h e membership i s $15 p e r y e a r - I f . t h e 153,000 members each pay would r e c e i v e a b o u t $2,000,000 p e r y e a r from t h e s e f e e s . that, ~ i e r r a . C l u b
.
.

GOALS AND TARGETS S i e r r a C l u b ' s primary g o a l i s c o n s e r v a t i o n of t h e n a t u r a l environment.

It sees i t s e l f a s d e f e n d i n g n a t u r e a g a i n s t " b l i n d p r o g r e s s , " and, a g a i n s t

- t h o s @who s e e w i l d e r n e s s a s mere w a s t e s p a c e .

~ n v i r 6 n m e n t a lp r o t e c t i o n , . .

r a t h e r t h a n energy, i s t h e primary c o n c e r n a l t h o u g h t h e two o v e r l a p considerably.

..

S i e r r a Club i s concerned w i t h t r y i n g t o p r e v e n t t h e e x h a u s t i o n of

n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and w i t h c o n t r o l l i n g p o p u l a t i o n and s o a c h i e v i n g a b e t t e r b a l a n c e between technology and t h e n a t u r a l world. S i e r r a C l u b ' s t h r e e main energy p r i o r i t i e s a r e c o n s e r v a t i o n , s t r i c t p r o t e c t i o n of t h e n a t u r a l environment, and c o u n t e r i n g p r o p o s a l s which would l e a d t o ~ p e e d y d e v e l o ~ m e n t energy w i t h o u t assessment of t h e impact on t h e of environment.

Its r e s o l u t i o n opposing n u c l e a r power s'tresses t h e s e e l e m e n t s ;

i t c a l l s f o r a moratorium on new c o n s t r u c t i o n pending development of p o l i c i e s

t o . c u r b e n e r g y ' o v e r L u s e and unnecessary economic growth, r e s o l u t i o n of s i g n i f i c a n t s a f e t y problems, and e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a d a q u a t e r e g u l a t o r y machinery. S i e r r a C l u b ' s primary t a r g e t s a p p e a r t o b e t h e f e d e r a l and. s t a t e a u t h o r i t i e s whom t h e y want t o e n a c t and e n f o r c e c o n s e r v a t i o n measures. It

C!&%e.cts much of i t s work toward e d u c a t i o n o f t h e p u b l i c .

I n .addi.t$,~n,.. . . i.t

opposes c o r p o r a t i o n s whom i t sees a s p u r s u i n g p o l i c i e s which damage t h e environment. STRATEGY. AN D TACTICS S i e r r a Club u s e s l e g a l t a c t i c s .

A major p a r t of i t s w o r k ' h a s involved
.
.

l o b b y i n g , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h t h e C a l i f o r n i a d e l e g a t i o n where i t h a s a p p r e c i a b l e s t r e n g t h because o f t h e s i z e of i t s membership. S i e r r a Club members - r e c e i v e

a monthly magazine and have t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e c e i v e S i e r r a Club books a t

-.

a 'discount.

S i e r r a Club a l s o o r g a n i z e s t r i p s and o t h e r g a t h e r i n g s jwhere .. I n a d d i t i o n , a t l e a s t on t o t r y t o require t h a t those

members can m e e t o t h e r s w i t h outdoor i n t e r e s t s . o c c a s i o n , S i e r r a Club h a s gone t o c o u r t , e . g . ,

d e v e l o p i n g c o a l f i e l d s f i l e - i n t e r s t a t e e n v i r o n m e n t a l impact s t a t e m e n t s r a t h e r than j u s t l o c a l ones..

..
.
li

Beyond p a s s i n g t h e 1974 r e s o l u t i o n c a l l i n g f o r a moratorium on b u i l d i n g new r e a c t o r s , and j o i n i n g w i t h - o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o c r i t i c i z e P r e s i d e n t C a r t e r ' s proposal. t o . r e o r g a n i z e t h e NRC i n , w a y s t h e y s a i d would

k.'

. a c c e l e r a t e l i c e n s i n g ' o f n u c l e a r p l a n t s w i t h o u t enhancing s a f e t y o r i n c r e a s i n g p u b l i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n d e c i s i o n s , I have no i n f o r m a t i o n on S i e r r a Club's anti-nuclear a c t i v i t i e s . ( T h i s p r o b a b l y r e f l e c t s t h e l a c k of m a t e r i a l s

*

r a t h e r t h a n . S i e r r a C l u b ' s l a c k of a c t i o n , ' a l t h o u g h i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t
i t h a s n o t t a k e n more a c t i o n b e c a u s e of i t s d i v e r s e membership.)

S i e r r a ' C l u b had 153;000 members a s o f 1976.

/

The membership i s

predominantly upper-middle c l a s s ; many members have communication and r e s e a r c h s k i l l s and so a r e i n f l u e n t i a l i n l o c a l p o l i t i c s . The members

c a n be counted on t o . g i v e s u p p o r t t o c o n s e r v a t i o n and environmental

\

g o a l s ; beyond t h a t t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e d i v e r s i t y ' ( e . g . , t o r e l y on .governmental' c o n t r o l s o r market mechanisms).

a b o u t whether T h i s means t h e r e
'

a r e p e o p l e w i t h i n S i e r r a Club w i t h d i v e r s e views on n u c l e a r power.

I have no i n f q r m a t i o n a b o u t s o u r c e s of income e x c e p t ! t h a t i t , h a s t h e b a s i c $1 5 membership f e e .

,.

31
L

VI

ALLIANCES WITHIN THE M V M N OE ET

.

I have v e r y l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t S i e r r a Club r e l a t i o n s w i t h
Among environmental g r o u p s , i t i s one of t h e prime
I have o n e example of a l e t t e r c r i t i c -

other organizations.

i n i t i a t o r s of. conservation policy.

R i z i n g t h e C a r t e r a d r n i n i s t r i t i o n ' s proposed r e o r g a n i z a t i b n of t h e ' N C s i g n e d by S i e r r a Club, C r i t i c a l . .Mass Energy P r o j e c t , . N a t u r a l Resources Defense Council, Environmental P o l i c y Center, and F r i e n d s of t h e E a r t h .
VII

RELATIONS W I T H AUTHORITIES

s i e r r a Club h a s a r e p u t a t i o n f o r . d e f e n d i n g t h e environment and h a s become t h e most famous of t h e environmental l o b b i e s .

'It h a s a p a r t i c u l a r

i n f l u e n c e on t h e C a l i f o r n i a c o n g r e s s i o n a l delegation--most

of whose members

want' t o s t a y . o n t h e r i g h t s i d e of t h i s d r g a n i z a t i o n which h a s a b o u t 78,000 members i n ' C a l i f o r n i a . S i e r r a Club's h e a d q u a r t e r s i s i n ' t h e , d & s t r i c t of

P h i l l i p Burton who h a s been an i m p o r t a n t power b r o k e r i n t h e House and a

i

l e a d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s t on t h e House I n t e r i o r Committee.

It i s n o t c l e a r from t h e l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n I have j u s t who s i e r r a

Club would c o n s i d e r i t s opponents beyond a f o r m u l a t i o n such as " t h o s e comm3tted t o b l i n d p r o g r e s s . " . I n p r a c t i c e , i t h a s opposed t h o s e whom i t s e e s This h a s included

a s p u r s u i n g p o l i c i e s which would harm t h e environment.

o p p o s i t i o n t o dams which.would have endangered Yosemite and Grand Canyon n a t i o n a l p a r k s and. Dinosaur Monument; u s i n g t h e c o u r t s t o tr$ to. f o r c e t h o s e d e v e l o p i n g t h e Wyoming-Montana c b a l f i e l d s t o submit i n t e r s t a c e
.

environmental impact s t a t e m e n t s ; and t r y i n g t o r e f o p t h e F o r e s t S e r v i c e s o

i t would c u r t a i l o v e r c u t t i n g of n a t i o n a l f o r e s t s and make a n a d a q u a t e s t u d y

of r o a d l e s s a r e a s a s p o t e n t i a l w i l d e r n e s s e s .

( I t i s n o t c l e a r t o what e x t e n t

S i e r r a Club views t h e k o r e s t S e r v i c e , f o r i n s t a n c e , a s an a l l y o r a s a n opponent;

i t h e l p e d lobby f o r t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e F o r e s t S e r v i c e . ) .

FRIENDS OF THE EARTH HISTORY Friends of the Earth (FOE) was foundedin 1969, primarily by David Brower who had been the chief executive of Sierra Club. In Sierra Club, Brower led the

organization tb take militant stands on several.environmenta1issues; this involves him in controversy within that organization. After his supporters lost an election, he resigned and formed FOE to carry on a vigorous program which would be forth-' rightly political in orientation. FOE began with a staff of -experiencedenvironmentalists and has worked on traditional conservation and environment issues through lobbying, testimony, organizing, and publications, In the mid 19701s,FOE was increasingly involved in controversy over nuclear power and the connections between nuclear power and other environmental concerns, During the last two years, it has been making connections between nuclear power and nuclear weapons. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE FOE 'is both a grassroots organization and an international one, In its first year, it had between 5500 and 7000 members; by mid-1971, it had about 20,000 and was growing at a rate of about 2000 per month; but by 1976, it had grown only to 25,000, 'FOE is still trying to increase its membership, however, I have no later figures, From its beginning,-FOEhad offices in several cities--New.York, San Francisco, Washington, and Albuquerque. (None of the sources discusses why, but it appears that

at least some of the staff simply stay where they are, located and form an office there),
t

By 1980, FOE'S "pr-incipalUS offices" were in New York,San Francisco, Seattle, and Washington; in addition, it had eight field offices in the US and one in London, and "sister organizations" in 22 countries, I have no information about the relation between FOE in the US and these groups in other countries. a In 1970, FOE had a 15-member Board of ~irectors,and 6-member executive domuittee to set policies, 12 full-time staff and a few volunteers and temporary

workers.

I n 1980 i t had a somewhat l a ' r g e r Board (21 members) and a n e x e c u t i v e

.

---;

c o n b i t t e e which i n c l u d e d 1 3 p e o p l e drawn from t h e Board and s t a f f .

..

.FOE had

about 40 s t a f f members and a n o t h e r 1 0 on t h e s t a f f of i t s n e w s l g t t i r , Not ManApart. I n . a d d i t i o n , . t h e r e i s a F r i e n d s of t h e E a r t h . Foundation, b u t I have

no i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e . r e l a t i o n between . t h e Foundation and t h e p a r e n t - group. During t h e f i r s t year;

,

t h e s t a f f d i s c o u r a g e d members 'from s t a r t i n g l o c a l

c h a p t e r s because t h e y thought t h i s would d r a i n t h e new o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s e n e r g y ,

t i m e , and'money.

However, i n 1971, FOE began a c t i v e l y forming c h a p t e r s .

At

t h e same t i m e , i t was i n v e s t i n g h e a v i l y i n p u b l i s h i n g environmental books.

I
1
la

, I n 1972, e i g h t members'of t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l . s t a f f , c o n s u l t a n t s , and v o l u n t e e r s

1

r e s i g n e d from FOE t o form t h e Environmental P o l i c y C e n t e r ; t h i s p u t a s t r a i n

d
on FOF, e s p e c i a l l y i t Washington o f f i c e which was l e f t w i t h o n l y two members.

k '

,:.

Those who l e f t b e l i e v e d FOE was p u t t i n g t o o much emphasis on p u b l i s h i n g and b u i l d i n g c h a p t e r s ; t h e y c r e a t e d t h e EPC t o b e a s t a f f o r g a n i z a t i o n devoted t o l o b b y i n g and l i t i g a t i o n . However, t h e s p l i t t o o k p l a c e "with a minimum
I

of acrimony," and t h e two o r g a n i z a t i o n s c o o p e r a t e w i t h one a n o t h e r a s does FOE w i t h S i e r r a Club from which it s p l i t . Allies. )
I . , .

( S e e below under R e l a t i o n s w i t h

-. .- -- I I

t
I

F D E ~ S i~r s t y e a r s , it had f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s , b u t grew r a p i d l y . f

he

f i r s t y e a r , i t s .income was p r i m a r i l y from membership f e e s , b u t I do n o t I n March 1970, i t d i d n o t h a v e : t h e money t o pay.

know how much i t r e c e i v e d .

t h e l a r g e b i l l s i t had i n c u r r e d d u r i n g t h a t . y e a r ; b u t t h e Washington s t a f f w a s a b l e t o r a i s e $50,000 and a c c e p t e d s a l a r y c u t s , and t h e Board borrowed $150,000 i n t e r e s t - f r e e . FOE t h e n set i t s 1971 budget a t $900,000 which w a s I n e a r l y 1972, FOE w a s s t i l 1 . i n f i n a n c i a l

more t h a n t w i c e t h e 1970 budget. difficulty.

Itsdebtwas$250,~andittrimmed.someactivities. 1twas

a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t t h e EPC s p l i t o f f , i n p a r- t o v e r disagreement over how . FOE was a l l o c a t i n g r e s o u r c e s .

.
: .

I do not have information about.FOE'S current financial state, but it . .

.

s e e s to have become a,considerably larger operation than it was in.the 'early 1970's. In 1979, FOE became,a client forafund-raiser who 2s attempting fo

'
111

do ,for .ti.h&raJ.causes what Viguerie &as done for conservatives. -. GOALS AND TARGETS

- . -

From the beginning, FOE'S primary emphasis has been on traditional conservation and ecological goals, e.g., protection of wilderness, wildlife, and clean air, and opposition to strip mining, pesticides, and toxic wastes, More broadly, it has tried -to expose the.undesirability of incessant material growth, and works to preserve, restore, and use the Earth and its.resourcesrationally, Opposition to nuclear power has been part of these concerns, though not the over-riding one. Initially, FOE'S major arguments were environmental ones and

economic ones based'on the work of Amory Lovins (FOE'S United Kingdom representative) which emphasizes resolving energy issues through '"soft paths"' (see below under Strategy). More recently it has begun emphasizing the links between nuclear power
. .

and nuclear weapons, again based on the work of Lovins,

I do not have any information on FOErs overall analysis and strategy. Most of
its work .involves lobbying .and testifying before Congressional committess, publications, some work on national issues (usually in coalition with other organizations, see below in Relations with Allies), and encouraging local projects.

I have no indications of FOE using civil disobedience or other illegal tactics.

Most of FOE'S activities are on environmental issues. 1nitially.it was instrumental in opposing supersonic transportation (.the SST)~helping assure a supply of water to the Everglades National Park and opposing placement of the Miami jetport close to the Park, and helping conservationists in South Carolina in their struggle against a controversial -~ B ~ s t i c s factory which would have endangered water

t/

and fishi'n'g. These helped establish that FOE was an organization to be taken seriously.

FOE's o p p o s i t i o n t o n u c l e a r power i s p a r t of i t s concern w i t h a l a r g e r set o f e n e r g y - r e l a t e d i s s u e s , e . g . , ' n e g a t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s ' o f massive u s e of coal--the greenhbuse e f f e c t , s t r i p - m i n i n g ,

etc.

FOE emphasizes t h e a n a l y s i s p u t f o r t h by
-. .

Amory Lovins which i s , b r i e f l y , as f o l l o w s :

r
I

Many p e o p l e have a c c e p t e d n u c l e a r power on t h e b a s i s t h a t i t i s cheap

-.

and e f f i c i e n t , b u t i t i s n e i t h e r .

T r a d i t i o n a l l y , energy h a s been t r e a t e d that increasing e l e c t r i c i t y However, t h i s i s n o t t h e

as though it were something homogeneous, e . g.,

'

o u t p u t would a p p r e c i a b l y d e c r e a s e t h e need f o r o i l . case:

energy i s used f o r many d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s and d i f f e r e n t forms. of energy

.
.

are most ef.f i c i e n t depending on t h e p u r p o s e s .

I n t h e US, about 8%.of t h e

:.

energy needs r e q u i r e . e l e c t r i c i t y f o r u s e s . o t h e r t h a n low-temperature h e a t i n g

. .

and c o o l i n g .

Butwe use electricity

f o r many of these-low-grade p u r p o s e s

( e . g . , h e a t i n g and c o o l i n g o u r h o u s e s ) which could b e done mu.ch more e f f i c i e n t l y u s i n g o t h e r ' means.

~s a

r e s u l t , t h e US i e e t s 13% of i t s energy needs t h r o u g h .

..

. ..-..- .

t. -

e l e c t r i c i t y , and g e n e r a t i n g t h i s e l e c t r i c t y u s e s 29% of o u r f o s s i l f u e l s . N u c l e a r . power i s a . way of g e n e r a t i n g s t i l l more e l e c t r i c i t y (and producing very high temperatures, e s s e n t i a l l y t o b o i l water). very expensive,
-

Rather t h a n go through t h a t
I
J

and i n e f i f i c i e n t p r o c e s s of t r a n s f o r m i n g energy from one form

. I

t o a n o t h e r a n d . t r a n s p o r t i n g i t over. l o n g d i s t a n c e s , w e should. c o n c e n t r a t e on . matchning energy needs w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e energy s o u r c e s . T h i s "so t . p a t h t t

I'

means u s i n g d i v e r s e . t e c h n o l o g i e s , each a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e s p e c i f i c s of t h e t a s k , s c a l e , and l o c a l i t y . Although t h e " s o f t path". argument h a s .been picked up by. many who oppose c o r p o r a t i o n s and t e c h n o l o g y , t h e argument i s n o t i n t r i n s i c a l l y h o s t i l e t o either. What i t d o e s oppose 'is l a r g e - s c a l e technologies b e i n g used under
,

c i r c u m s t a n c e s where t h e y a r e i n e f f i c i e n t ( " c u t t i n g b u t t e r w i t h a c h a i n saw"). L o v i n ' s and FOE's argument has been t h a t w e should develop t h e r e l a t i v e l y low t e c h n o l o g i e s which w i l l e n a b l e t h e n e c e s s a r y d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n .

.-

I n 1980.Lovins and o t h e r s p u b l i s h e d a n argument l i n k i n g n u c l e a r power and n u c l e a r ,weapons. I n . i t t h e y c h a l l e n g e t h r e e a s s u m p t i o n s which t h e y s a y

u n d e r l i e commitment t o n u c l e a r power:
.: .
I-

t h a t world wide s p r e a d of n u c l e a r power

,

i s d e s i r a b l e , t h a t i t would be ndceksary t o r e d u c e dependence on o i l , and

.

that

i t can b e r e g u l a t e d s o i t w i l l ' n o t l e a d t o t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n of n u c l e a r

weapons.

The f i r s t two a s s u m p t i o n s are t r e a t e d above.

For- t h e l a s t , t h e y
.

s a y t h a t t h e w a s t e s f r o m n u c l e a r power p l a n t s can be u s e d . & bombs a s "good" a s t h o s e made from weap.ons-grade p l u t o n i h . - R e a c t o r s a r e a l r e a d y producing

s u c h w a s t e s o r can b e made t o do s o w i t h o u t , g r e a t l y i n c r e a s i n g c o s t s o r b e i n g d e t e c t e d ; s o t h e r e a r e no s a f e g u a r d s .
.
.

However, by ending t h e p r o d u c t i o n of

n u c l e a r power, a i l t h e c a s e s which c u r r e n t - l y . a r e ambiguous and t h e c a s e s where b r e a c h e s do o c c u r would become unambiguously m i l i t a r y i n i n t e n t . . . F u r t h e r , t h e government need n o t t a k e up a n anti-nuclear-power stance.

W h a t . l t does need t o do i s s t o p making h e r o i c m e a s u r e s . t o prop u p : n u c l e a r . power. The market f o r c e s w i l l r a p i d l y f o r c e n u c l e a r power g e n e r a t i o n o u t of

business.
FOE a s a n o r g a n i z a t i o n u s e s n u c l e a r power a s one of t h e i s s u e s around

which t o o r g a n i z e .
''

I t h a s p u b l i s h e d L o v i h s l s a r t i c l e s and h a s made a s p e c i a l

i s s u e of Not Man Apart devo'ted t o t h e power-weapons c o n n e c t i o n and Lovins' argument. Not Man Apart r e g u l a r l y c a r r i e s a column d e a l i n g w i t h n u c l e a r i s s u e s .

I n a d d i t i o n , FOE encourages i t s members t o form a n t i - n u k e g r o u p s , e . g . , ' ' a l l i a n c e s " a l o n g t h e l i n e of t h e C l a m s h e l l , and l o c a l groups t o oppose c o n s t r u c t i o n of n u c l e a r p l a n t s .
.
.

RESOURCES FOE h a s a v a r i e t y of. t y p e s of r e s o u r c e s on which t o draw. It began.with.

a n e x p e r i e n c e d s t a f f , drawn p r i m a r i l y f r o m . . S i e r r a Club and o t h e r environmental .groups.

his' enab;led i t t o g e t i n t o i t s t h r e e maj o r a c t i v i t i e s - - l o b b y i n g

. p u b l i s h i n g , and organizing--immediately.
-

I n i t i a l l y , i t s s t a f f .was i n a

name of a l a r g e e s t a b l i s h e d o r g a n i z a t i o n .

----

weaker p o s i t i o n f o r lobbying t h a n t h e y h a d been when t h e y c o u l a s p e a k i n t h e ' However, FOE e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f by

a combination of p o l i t i c a l s u c c e s s e s ( t h e SST, E v e r g l a d e s , e t c .)
p o l i t i c k i n g , and w e a t h e r i n g t h e f i n a n c i a l c r i s i s .
, q u i t e r a p i d l y a$ a major envi;onmental

skillful

It e s t a b l i s h e d . i t s e l f

lobby.

--

-.

--

S i n c e FOE does l o b b y , c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o i t a r e n o t tax-exempt;

however,
.
.

FOE does . n o t have t o pay t a x e s s i t s e l f , and i t does q u a l i f y , f o r a non-prof i t m a i l permit.. FOE planried t o r e l y h e a v i l y on membership c o n t r i b u t i o n s and. t h e
I have no i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t o t h e r s o u r c e s of income.

s a l e of i t s books.

a l s o have no i n f o r m a t i o n about FOE'S c u r r e n t membership ( i n . 1 9 7 6 a b o u t 25,OO.O) , o r i t s s o c i a l c o m p o s i t i o n . FOE h a s a n o t h e r major r e s o u r c e : A f f a i r s a r t i c l e , "Energy s t r a t e g y : Amory Lovins. L o v i n s ' s 1976 F o r e i p n

The road n o t taken?'' had a major impact

on t h e whole d e b a t e o v e r energy ' i s s u e s and h a s r e d e f i n e d t h e terms of t h e argument. T h i s i s t r u e n o t only w i t h i n t h e environmental and anti-nuke many
:!.

movements, b u t a l s o w i t h i n t h e government: and energy industry--although disagree with h i s analysis.

,
..

The e d i t o r . o f Energy . D a i l y s a y s Lovins's.'

p i e c e p r o v i d e s an u m b r e l l a f o r a v e r y l a r g e segment of t h e i n t e l l i g e n s i a i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e young., t h a t h a v e been l o o k i n g f o r a p r o p h e t , a new And-hels.done . way, t h a t a r e s u f f e r i n g from a k i n d of f u t u r e shock i t a l m o s t e f f o r t l e s s l y , because h e ' s done i t through t h e medium of one thing--energy "

....

VI

RELATIONS WITH ALLIES FOE . a p p e a r s t o work w i t h o t h e r groups w i t h i n t h e environmental movement, b o t h l o ' c a l l y and n a t i o n a l l y . I t seems t o . have m a i n t a i n e d some bonds b o t h

w i t h t h e S i e r r a Club (from which i t broke o f f ) and t h e Environmental P o l i c y C e n t e r (which' b r o k e o f f from i t )

1t::also c o l l a b o r a t e s . w i t h some of t h e

as Nader .groups . ( c o n g r e s s Watch and t h e C r i t i c a l M s Energy P r o j e c t )

N a t u r a l Resources . ~ eefn s e C o u n c i l , and o t h e r s .

t-he.

One o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h

which FOE *has had p a r t i c u l a r l y c l o s e r e l a t i o n s i s . t h e League of C o n s e r v a t i o n

----

.-

Voters.

(FOE e s t a b l i s i e d t h e LCV..in 1970, as a "ay t o e n d o r s e and .assist Although t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s w e r e s e p a r a t e , FOE l e a d e r s h i p played

candidates.

a major p a r t - i n t h e LCV, e . g .

f i v e of t h e s i x members of t h e L V s t e e r i n g C
I ' d o n ' t know. i f t h e L V c o n t i n u e s C

committee were FOE o f f i c e r s and s t a f f .)

.-I

to exist.
, .
.

.FOE s t a f f and o f f i c e r s a l s o s e r v e on. a v a r i e t y of environmental c o a l i t i o n s . A s a v a t t e r of p o l i c y . FOE encourages members t o g e t involved i n l o c a l

//

-.

.i

V
issues.

--

T h i s h a s meant working c l o s e l y w i t h l o c a l p e o p l e and o r g a n i z a t i o n s , the

and sometimes b e i n g i n s t r u m e n t a l i n s t a r t i n g up new o r g a n i z a t i o n s , e . g . , anti-i.luke " a l l i a n c e s .

I'

Lovins i s widely-known w i t h i n t h e a n t i - n u k e movement.

., .
'

While t h e r e i s on t h e

a l o t . of s u p p o r t f o r h i s p o s i t i o n s , ' t h e r e i s some o p p o s i t i o n , e . g . , b a s i s t h a t i t is not s u f f i c i e n t l y a n t i-corporat ion.

.
VII

RELATIONS WITH AUTHORITIES Much of FOE'S work i s w i t h a u t h o r i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e f e d e r a l l e v e l . FOE e t a f and o f f i c e r s lobby, t e s t i f y a t c o n g r e s s i o n a l - h e a r i n g s , and work
' b

w i t h s t a f f of t h e I n t e r i o r and o t h e r d e p a r t m e n t s .

Lovins-served a s a con-

s u l t a n t t o t h e Energy Research and' Development . A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (ERDA), a f t e r p u b l i c a t i o n of h i s 1976 a r t i c l e . During i t s f i r s t two y e a r s , FOE e s t a b l i s h e d

i t s e l f a s a n . i m p o r t a n t environmental lobby; i t h a s m a i n t a i n e d t h i s r e p u t a t i o n . .. However, FOE d o e s not s e e t h e ' f e d e r a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s a s kympathetic t o environmental i s s u e s . uniformly poor.
It viewed t h e ~ o r d d m i n i s t r a t i o n r e c o r d as almost a

For t h e f i r s t two y e a r s , i t saw t h e C a r t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n environmental issues--a

a s- much s t r o n g e r on .

s t a f f member, now t h e p r e s i d e n t

of FOE, c o o r d i n a t e d a s t a t e m e n t s i g n e d by. more t h a n 30 environmental l e a d e r s , which c a l l e d C a r t e r I

s

environinental r e c o r d " o u t s t a n d i n g . I '

. . .

But s i x months
.

l a t e r , FOE w a s v e r y c r i t i c a ' l of C a r t e r ' s p o s i t i o n s on l o g g i n g , w i l d e r n e s s

~-

p r o t e c t i o n , and energy.

FOE, and o t h e r environinental g r o u p s , were v e r y

c r i t i c a l of C a r t e r ' s 1979 energy program which t h e y saw a s a v i c t o r y f o r Energy S e c r e t a r y James S c h l e s i n g e r ( a major s u p p o r t e r of n u c l e a r power and o t h e r "hard-path" t e c h n o l o g y ) . .They saw C a r t e r a s backing away from h i s

e a r l i e r commitments and a s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n e p t i n handling environmental i s s u e s . With r e g a r d t o n u c l e a r power s p e c i f i c a l l y , FOE was a t f i r s t o p t i m i s t i c and t h e n p e s s i m i s t i c about t h e c a r t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . I t s e e s t h e NRC 9 s

favoring t h e industry rather than regulating the industry t o protect t h e i public.

L - 1 -

--

--

FOE h a s been a b l e t o g e t media coverage of i t s s t a n c e s on s e v e r a l environmental issues.

It s e e s t h i s a s i m p o r t a n t i n terms of g e t t i n g p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n and concern

about t h e i s s u e s ; some o t h e r s have c r i t i c i z e d FOE f o r t h i s , c h a r a c t e r i z i n g i t a s " h e a d l i n e grabbing;" and some .!Idministration s t a f f members have c r i t i c i z e d FOE f o r paying t o o much a t t e n t i o r i t o such "media" i s s u e s , and n o t enough t o important p i e c e s of l e g i s l a t i o n on which t h e i r h e l p was needed.

RELATIONS WITH OPPONENTS FOE'S r e l a t i o n s w i t h i t s opponents a r e p r i m a r i l y i n t h e l e g i s l a t i v e and l e g a l a r e n a s , and through Lovins, t o some e x t e n t i n p u b l i c d e b a t e , Because of i t s s t a n c e s

on environmental i s s u e s , FOE. p e r i o d i c a l l y opposes u t i l i t i e s , c o r p o r a t i o n s , and t h e i r s u p p o r t e r s i n Congress.

It s e e s t h e s e ' g r o u p s a s having much more money t o spend
i

t h a n does, FOE (and t h e r e s t of t h e environmental and anti-nuke movements), and a s b e i n g w i l l i n g t o u s e u n t r u e propaganda.

I d o n ' t have i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e d e t a i l s

of t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n , nor any i n f o r m a t i o n about c o n f l i c t w i t h groups which might b e c o n s i d e i e d p a r t of t h e c o u n t e r s o c i a l movement.

CAMPAIGN F R ECONOMIC DEMOCRACY O HISTORY Campaign f o r Economic Democracy . (CED) emerged from Tomas Hayden's 1976'campaign f o r t h e US Senate.
,

Subsequently, C D h a s f i e l d e d p r o g r e s s i v e E

candidates i n c a l i f or& rent control initiative.

e l e c t i o n s , and l o b b i e d . f o r s o l a r commissions and

1 .. 1

ORGANIZATIONAL

STRUCTURE

mst

of t h e m a t e r i a l I have f o c u s e s on t h e two key f i g u r e s i n CED: Some d e s c r i b e . i t a s a " g r a s s r o o t s p o l i t i c a l

Tom ~ a ~ d e n J a n e Fonda. and organization,

"

b u t I have l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e a c t u a l s t r u c t u r e . Most of

CED.has a b o u t 300 a c t i v e members.(as o f t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1980).

t h e d e c i s i o n s a r e made byHayden who i s ' t h e formal head of CED; t h o s e who h a v e . c h a t l e n g e d h i s l e a d e r s h i p have l e f t o r been f r o z e n o u t .
.

I have n o . i n ormation about CED' s b u d g e t .

some of t h e s o u r c e s of i t s funding.

See "Resources" f o r

11 1

GOALS AND TARGETS The g o a l of C D is t o c r e a t e a new p o p u l i s t movement which w i l l E

/'
make fundamental changes i n t h e e x i s t i n g system. It s e e s a need f o r democ r a t i c c o n t r o l o v e r t h e major c o r p o r a t i o n s (which i t s e e s a s c o n t r o l l i n g government), and t h e need t o make t h e system accoun'table t o t h e people.
. .

2 '

There a r e a number of elements t o t h i s program:

d e a l i n g w i t h t h e problems

o f p o v e r t y and u~employment, working f o r r e n t c o n t r o l , h o l i s t i c medicine, a p p r o p r i a t e technology, p u b l i c f i n a n c i n g of e l e c t i o n s , and s u p p o r t f o r t h e arts. Concern w i t h energy i s a p a r t of t h i s program: C D maintains t h a t E
.

w i t h energy c o n s e r v a t i o n and c o n v e r s i o n t o s o l a r and wind ~ o w e r , i t would b e p o s s i b l e t o abandon n u c l e a r power i n l e s s t h a n a decade. CED's major t a r g e t i s c o r p o r a t e power. 1 t . s e e s corporations a s

d e d i c a t e d t o p r o f i t s ; C D wants t o make t h e economic system response t o E t h e nkeds of p e o p l e i n s t e a d of j u s t t o , p r o f i t s .

I t ' s program i s t o m o b i l i z e

.-

--

a mass g r a s s r o o t s movement by which p e o p l e t a k e back c o n t r o l of t h e i r communities and economic d e s t i n i e s .

IV

STRATEGY AND TACTICS

. .

CED's a n a l y s i s i s t h a t t h e . l i b e r a l promis-es c a n n o t b e a c h i e v e d ,

t h a t . mos t i n i t i a t i v e s w i l l come from t h e R i g h t , and t h a t b a s i c changes

..!

:,

w i l l have t o be made i n t h e system.

C u r r e n t l y , t h e c o u n t r y f a c e s economic

d e c l i n e and i n f l a t i o n .

Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , most p e o p l e y e a r n f o r a

r e t i i r n t o t r a d i t i o n a l - v a l u e s , b u t t h e d i s m a l s i t u a t i o n and i n a b i l i t y of t h e c u r r e n t system t o s o l v e t h e s e problems w i l l make p e o p l e more sympathetic) t o t h e - i d e a of changing t h e system. --,

d

- --

C E D ' s p o l i t i c a l s t r a t e g y i n v o l v e s coming , a c r o s s a s r e s p e c t a b l e and

p a t r i o tii,, and ' p l a y.n_ i g do-? -

Hayden. s and Fond?! s +dica$isn,i

--

eFg:-,- inakkng no '

s e r i o u s a t t a c k s on t ' h e ' m i l i t a r y b u d g e t , s u p p o r t i n g I s r a e l and c r i t i c i z i n g PLO t e r r o r i s m , and a v o i d i n g i s s u e s s u c h a s b u s s i n g and a b o r t i o n . . C D E champion4, t h e p e o p l e ' s r a g e a t - g i v i n g money.away w h i l e f a i l i n g t o p r e v e n t e r o s i o n of f a m i l y and community l i f e . From t h i s b a s e , i t makes sweeping

,
'

,
/

a t t a c k s on c o r p o r a t i o n s which i t sees a s i g n o r i n g p e o p l e ' s h e a l t h and w e l f a r e needs. C o r p o r a t i o n s a r e greedy t o t h e p o i n t of b e i n g c r i m i n a l , Corporations a r e

e. g . ,
. .

t h e i r a v a r i c e i s c r e a t i n g a n empidemic o f c a n c e r .

e s s e n t i a l l y unAmerican:

d e s p i t e - t h e needs of the c o u n t r y , t h e y send

c a p i t a l and j o b s abroad; and buy o f f . o u r government.

CED u s e s l e g a l t a c t i c s t o , do p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z i n g .

One f a c e t i s

electoral politics. t o do s o a g a i n . California. and Hayden.

.

Hayden h a s r u n f o r o f f i c e and a p p e a r s t o be p l a n n i n g

F u r t h e r , C D h a s supported cand?dates, especi&lly i n E t a c t i c h a s been s p e a k i n g t o u r s by Fonda

A second, r e l a t e d

I n 1979 t h e y s p e n t a month s p e a k i n g i n 5 2 . c i t i e s . a b o u t econI n a d d i t i o n , CED h a s a

omic democracy and o p p o s i t i o n t,o n u c l e a r power.

t e n a n t s ' r i g h t s program i n which i t h a s t r i e d t o o r g a n i z e arbund pocketbook i s s u e s s u c h a s r i s i n g r e n t s and c o n v e r s 6 i o n of aparments . t o condominiums.

-B-

\ !

RESOURCES
0

The materials I have focus on.Hayden and Fonda as CED's main resources. Hayden formulates CED's political positions and runs the organization; Fonda provides much of the income. Both draw the attention of the media and public, Fonda uses her role as a star and her control

although Fonda more than Hayden.

over the production company to.make political statements. CED had about 300 active members by early 1980. They were mainly young, white, and college educated. It is not clear how large CED's tenants'

rights program' is, or who is involved in it.

I have no information about CED's income or details about its' sources.

Fonda contributes a m a j ~ rportion of her salary as a star, and much of the proceeds from her film production company and other enterprises.
7

Hayden and.

1
'\

Fonda also raise money through

their speaking tours.

Fonda is so in demand

as a star that knowledgeable Hollywood agents say that with a good string of pictures, she should earn between $10-15,000,000 in 1980-1985, Both ~ayden's 1976 campaign and the 1979 Hayden-Fonda tour were well received publicly. Hayden recieved 1,200,000 votes in the primary. The tour

tended to speak to sold-out crowds on college campuses and to provide access to a number of audiences. positive element. Students were the largest and most demonstratively

The tour went to 40 campuses ranging from elite schools to Their appearances

state universities to working-class community colleges.

were generally sold-out well in advance, and the students responded with wild applause. Speaking at anti-nuclear rallies, Hayden and Fonda combined their

The China economic analysis with Fonda's role in -- Syndrome.. Their appearance at least temporarily revitalized local groups such as the ones around Harriburg, in which the local people were still concernerned about the issues but exhausted. Almost everywhere they went, Hayden and Fonda made contact with citizen action groups; at least some of these groups used Hayden and Fonda for their own fund-raicing and mobilization efforts.
/ I /

Fonda spoke with women's i

groups; although secretaries seemed guarded when she raised the issue of

<

economic democracyl they gave sufficient response to be encouraging to CED,

Unions h a v e been more a m b i v a l e n t i n r e s p o n s e .

Usually there are

some s y m p a t h e t i c u n i o n members ( o f t e n a woman o r former SDS member);. b u t i n many c a s e s , t h e s y m p a t h e t i c members have n o t been a b l e t o p e r s u a d e t h e unipn t o g i v e p i l b l i c s u p p o r t because o f . o t h e r p r e s s u r e s - - e i t h e r of CED's a n t i - n u c l e a r
. I .

because
.

s t a n c e o r ' b e c a u s e groups such a s t h e VFW m a i n t a i n

t h a t CED i s u n p a t r i o t i c . One o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n of p u b l i c s u p p o r t f o r Fonda. ( a l t h o u g h i t i s

' '

n o t c l e a r t o what e x t e n t t h i s a l s o r e p r e s e n t s a c c e p t a n c e of CED's agenda),'\

i s a p u b l i c o p i n i o n p o l l i n which h a l f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s s a i d t h e y h e l d

\AL\ '4
..

Fonda i n "high" o.r "somewhat high" r e g a r d ; and more t h a n h a l f s a i d s h e should have been a p p o i n t e d t o t h e C a l i f o r n i a A r t s C o u n c i l ( s e e below under " R e l a ~ i o n s to Authorities"). Hayden and Fonda have used t h e c o n n e c t i o n between The China Syndrome and TMI. The major l e s s o n they drew from TMI i s t h a t p e o p l e must n o t l e t t h e heads o f c o r p o r a t i o n s and u t i l i t i e s l o o k a f t e r t h e p u b l i c good- because such p e o p l e ' w i l l c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e ' d e m a n d s of t h e i r jobs--for despite the risks to high profits--

the

public.

VI

RELATIONS WITH 'ALLIES C D a p p e a r s t o hav@ a mixed s e t of r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h p o t e n t i a l a l l i e s , E On t h e one hand, Hayden and Fonda a p p e a r t o be a v a l u a b l e r e s o u r c e f o r o t h e r groups. For i n s t a n c e , on t h e 1979 t o u r , M a s s a c h u s e t t s F a i r S h a r e used them

e x h a u s t i v e l y f o r f u n d - r a i s i n g and m o b i l i z a t i o n of s u p p o r t e r s ; s i m i l a r l y ,
'

t h e y came t o D e t r o i t a s p a r t of a n ADA f u n d - r a i s e r .

I n a d d i t i o n , . f o r groups s u c h .

- ..

a s t h o s e i n t h e H a r r i s b u r g a r e a , t h e v i s i t was a n i n s p i r a t i o n and helped rev i t a l i z e phe group, a t l e a s t t e m p o r a r i l y .

.

.On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t r u s t and antagonism between C D and o t h e r groups and i n d i v i d u a l s . E and g r o u p s . c r i t i c i z e CED--mainly Hayden--as Leftist activists

being o p p o r t u n i s t i c , claiming

c r e d i t f o r achievements i n . w h i c h CED had o n l y a s m a l l p a r t , u s i n g o t h e r s , and w b e i n g u n w i l l i n g . t o , w ~ r k i t h t h o s e who e x p r e s s any d i s a g r e e m e n t . Further,

'some - have been

c r i t i c a l of Haydents p o l i t i c a l a m b i t i o n s , e . g

., p l a c i n g

himself

as

t h e head of CED and u s i n g what was supposed t o b e a ' . t o u r . f o c u s s i n g on i s s u e s

a s a means of p o l i t i c k i n g . Hayden's response.. t o c r i t i c i s m s h a s been t o d i s m i s s t h e c r i t i c s as j e a l o b s because <hey have bo g r d u p s , no programs, and no s u p p o r t .

. ..& .

Because h e
.
\
,.

i s o f t e n contemptuous of o t h e r s , some p b t e n t i a l a l l i e s whom h e h a s n o t wronged wind

up d i s l i k i n g him.
An a p p a r e n t except i o n h a s b e e n . t h e r e l a t i o n between .CED and
' ,

: , I /
.
,

Govern.or J e r r y Brown -of C a l i f o r n i a . .

Although Hayden and Fonda d i d n o t endorse

..

any c o n d i d a t e on t h e 1 9 7 9 t o u r , t h e y s a i d p u b l i c a l l y t h a t Brown had been very good on n u c l e a r p o w e r . ( s e e s e c t i o n on R e l a t i o n s w i t h A u t h o r i t i e s ) .

I t i s n o t c l e a r what r e l a t i o n e x i s t s between t h o s e o r g a n i z i n g around

t e n a n t s ' . r i g h t s and CED.

CED does have a t e n a n t s ' r . i g h t s program; however, i n

l a t e 1979 t h e C D t e n a n t s ' r i g h t s s p e c i a l i s t s a i d t h a t i f a i l went w e l l i n t h e i r E .-organzing e f f o r t , t h e t e n a n t groups would work i n t h e 1980 campaigns, but n o t
.

a s a p a r t of CED.
. .

VII.

RELATIONS WITH AUTHORITIES

'

CED was b a s i c a l l y ' c r i t i c a l of t h e C a r t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n :

welcoming i t s

e l e c t i o n because t h i s would h e l p e x p o s e . t h e bankruptcy of l i b e r a l i s m , c r i t i c a l

, -

of C a r t e r ' s assessment c h a t t h e a c c i d e n t 'at Tllf -_would make n u c l e a r power s a f e r .

CED i s even more c r i t i c a l . o f . " t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t
:I1

t h e u t i l i t i e s and corpora-'

t i o n s ' c a n n o t b e t r u s t e d t o l o o k a f t e r t h e p u b l i c w e l f a r e , and t h e y buy o f f t h e government. CED s a y s t h a t t h e p e o p l e are f e d up w i t h b e i n g ignored by t h e government and trampled by t h e o i l companies.
I t c a l l s f o r a s t r o n g government r o l e , e . g . ,

a new energy a u t h o r i t y t o develop r e s o u r c e s on p u b l i c l a n d s and f o r r e s t r i c t i o n s

.
,

on o i l companies' c o n t r o l of o t h e r t y p e s of energy r e s o u r c e s and t e c h n o l o g i e s . R e l a t i o n s between CED' and C a l i f o r n i a Governor J e r r y Brown have been f a i r l y cordial. a p o t e n t i a l New C D p r o v i d e s . ~ r o . w n i t h a c c e s s t o t h e a n t i - n u k e movement and E w

h eft c o n s t i t u e n c y .

~ r o & h a s a p p o i n t e d Hayden (and less o f t e n , These c o n t a c t s p r o v i d e a l e g i t i m a t e way f o r

Fonda) t o minor s t a t e commissions.

..

.
.

. -

'

. 4 5 .
.

'

iL

.-

t h e media t o g i v e ' t h e m a l o t of co.verage.

.In t a l k i n g with a report,er covering

CED f o r Mother Jones.,, t h e CED p o l i t i c a l d i r e c t o r argued s t r e n u o u s l y t h a t Brown

was t h e most c l e v e r p o l i t i c i a n t h e y knew, and t h e d n l y one from whom..they had learned -anything.

V I I I ...

RELATIONS WITH OPPONENTS

CED' s e e s i t s e l f as opposing t h e u n b r i d l e d power of ,major c o r p o r a t i o n s .
". It s e e s . t h e a c t i o n s of t h e s e c o r p o r a t i o n s t o b e due t o . t h e c o r p o r a t i o n s s o c i a l
.
:*

r o l e (making p r o f i t s ) r a t h e r t h a n t o e v i l i n d i v i d u a l s .

Its s o l u t i o n is t h a t t h e

c o r p o r a t i o n s and government must b e made more a c c o u n t a b l e t o t h e p u b l i c .

CED s e e s t h e o p p o s i t i o n t o i t s program from groups on t h e Right a s

being. an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t C D i s a t t a c k i n g t h e important i s s u e s and defending E t h e ' r i g h t s , of o r d i n a r y c i t i z e n s a g a i n s t t h o s e .of b i g b u s i n e s s .

It.. i s m i s s e s d

t h e c r i t i c i s m s ,from t h e L e f t as. b a s i c a l l y i r r e l e v a n t ( s e e above under with . Allies)

elations

The Young Americans f o r Freedom conducted a mock t r i a l of Fonda, charging h e r w i t h d i s h o n o r i n g America by h e r v i s i t t o Hanoi,, a i d i n g and a b e t t i n g t h e enemy, and i g n o r i n g t h e p l i g h t of t h e b o a t people. They used t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n t o what C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e Senator

s h e s t a n d s f o r as p a r t of t h e i r m o b i l i z a t i o n e f f o r t s .

P a u l C a r p e n t e r used $63,000 of h i s own money f o r newspaper a d s denouncing Fonda and Hayden,::.and l e d t h e o p p o s i t i o n t o Fondal.s appointment t o t h e C a l i f o r n i a A r t s Council. The Edison E l e c t r i c I n s t i t u t e s e n t " t r u t h squads1' t o f o l l o w Hayden and
I have no i n f o r m a t i o n

Fonda o n ' t h e i r t o u r and t o c o u n t e r t h e i r p r e s e n t a t i o n s . about s p e c i f i c r e a c t i o n s by C D t o any of t h e s e a c t i o n s . E

The Nuclear I n f o r m a t i o n Resource S e r v i c e (NIRS)

1.

HISTORY

..

NIRS was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1978.

It a r o s e o u t of a concern by t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l f u n d e r s o f . t h e . a n t i - n u k e movement who were g e t t i n g numerous p r o p o s a l s f o r c l e a r i n g - h o u s e s . and o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a l s e r v i c e s . The

f u n d e r s h i r e d c o n s u l t a n t s t o c a n v a s s . a wide r a n g e of a c t i v i s t groups-r a d i c a l , l i b e r a l , and c o n s e r v a t ive--to t h e y wanted.

see what k i n d s of s e r . v i c e s t h e y

~ h c o n s u l t a n t s made two s t u d i e s , and i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e i r k clearinghouse f o r

f i n d i n g s , t h e f u n d e r s s e t up NIRS a s a tax-exempt
'

t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n on n u c l e a r - energy and on o r g a n i z i n g around t h e issue. (The f u n d e r s w e r e p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d i n n u c l e a r power i s s u e s ,

a n d . few a c t i v i s t s asked f o r i n f o r m a t i o n about n u c l e a r weapons, s o NIRS c o n c e n t r a t e s on n u c l e a r energy i s s u e s . )

2.

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE NIRS i s a s t a f f o r g a t i i z a t i o n , ' n o t .a g r a s s r o o t s one. Although

t h e s t a f f s h a r e t h e b r o a d e r movement i d e a l s of concensus decision-making and n o n - h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e s ,

-, .
'

'

-. ,

\
f

L i n d a ' s informant"

sees t h e s e

a s b e i n g more a p p r o p r i a t e f o r g r a s s r o o t s o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h a n f o r p u b l i c i n t e r ' e s t groups. NIRS i s l o c a t e d i n Washington and must r e l a t e t o o t h e r

p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s ; f o r t h e s e reasons, i t i s organized h i e r a r c h i .tally.

I n t e r n a l l y , w h i l e n o t r u n c o l l e c t i v e l y , . i t i s r e l a t i v e l y democratic.

3 . ' TARGETS / GOALS

The t a r g e t of NIRS' work i s t h e . n u c l e a r power i n d u s t r y which i t
..

s e e s a s ;very p o w e r f u l and v e r y w e l l i n t e g r a t e d f i n a n c i a l l y and p o l i t i c a l l y . NIRS i d e n t i f i e s w i t h what-it goals:

sees a s t h e a n t i - n u c l e a r power movement ' s

s t o p p i n g nucl.ear power and having t h e p u b l i c g a i n c o n t r o l o v e r t h e

power i n d u s t r y and o v e r r e l a t e d d e c i s i o n s which a f f e c t p e o p l e ' s l i v e s .

-I n - r e s p o n s e t o q u e s t i o n s about t h e g o a l of d e s t r o y i n g monopoly
: \

c a p i t a l i s m , I n f o r , . makes t h r e e p o t n t s .

F i r s t , t h e a n t i - n u k e movement Second, ..

~. ,.?
<

does p r o v i d e . a means f o r s e e i n g some of t h e i s s u e s i n v o l v e d .

.

b r i n g i n g down t h e monopoly c a p i t a l i s t . s y s t e m would t a k e a much broader

. ..
4 .

c o a l i t i o n t h a n t h e anti-nuke movement,. one which i n c l u d e s a l l segments .of society. T h i r d , d e s p i t e c h a r g e s from t h e n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y t h a t t h e

a n t i - n u k e movement i s t r y i n g t o d e s t r o y t h e systefn and d o e s n ' t c a r e about n u c l e a r power, t h e g o a l . o f t h e a n t i - n u k e movement i s t h a t p e o p l e g a i n more c o n t r o l o v e r d e c i s i o n s on n u c l e a r energy which a f f e c t t h e i r l i v e s and communities

4A.

M V M N STRATEGIES OE ET
A good d e a l of t h e i n t e r v i e w c e n t e r e d on r e l a t i v e l y broad i s s u e s
i

of movement s t r a t e g y . ( I t i s n o t c l e a r t o what e x t e n t I n f o r . was r e p r e s e n t i n g NIRS' v%ews on t h e s e m a t t e r s ; c e r t a i n l y he was n o t c l a i m i n g t o

,

speak f o r t h e whole a n t i - n u k e movement which h e d e s c r i b e d a s c o n t a i n i n g dozens ,of p o l i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s .) l i n k s among i s s u e s , e . g . Some of t h e d i s c u s s i o n was about

t h e d i s c u s s i o n of o p p o s i t i o n t o monopoly c a p i -

t a l i s m ; some was more s p e c i f i c a l l y about s t r a t e g i e s f o r t h e anti-nuke movement.

\

~ n f o r m a n t ' sGiew i s t h a t t h e s o c i e t y i s i n a s t a t e of c r i s i s :

during

c r i s e s , p e o p l e ' s l i v e s a r e d i s r u p t e d ,and t h c y r e s i s t whatever' i s d i s r u p t i n g t h e s e r o u t i n e s ; however, . it i s p o s s i b l e f o r p e o p l e t o t r a n s c e n d t h e i r r o u t i n e s and t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e s e d i s r u p t i o n s , and t o . r e v o l u t i o n i z e what i s happening. The anti-nuke movement i s n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o h e l p

make t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n and won't be u n l e s s i t expands i t s c o a l i t i o n markedly. Energy i s s u e s have t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r l i n k i n g many i s s u e s t o g e t h e r .

Inf.. ' s e e s some hope 'of b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r a wide v a r i e t y of movements, even some which a p p e a r v e r y r e a c t i o n a r y , b e c a u s e . h e s e e s them a s a l l wanting t o g e t more'-.'say o v e r d e c i s i o n s and a b e t t e r d e a l f o r t h e i r members.

,\I n f-r . gave c o n s i d e r a b l e emphasis t o t h e need f o r t h e anti-nuke o movement t o l i n k w i t h o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n c i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y l a b o r , b u t a l s o t h e church and o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s i n which p e o p l e have c o n f i d e n c e .
,

>

He

d e s ~ r i b e dmost u n i o n s a s having a n o b j e c t i v e i n t e r e s t i n b e i n g f o r n u c l e a r
.
.

e n e r g y , and s a i d t h a t , t h e anti-nuke movement won't b e a b l e . t o g e t t o t h e u n i o n s u n t i l i t s a y s t o them b o t h t h a t , i t cannot- g u a r a n t e e t h e members u n i o n - s c a l e j o b s , and t h a t what i t d o e s c & r e about i s t h a t everyone have d e c e n t j o b s and u n i o n p r o t e c t i o n . . A c t i v i s t s need t o f a c e u i t o t h e m i n o r i t y i s s u e s , t o o . The p o i n t
'

i s n o t t o f e e l g u i l t y t h a t m i n o r i t i e s a r e n o t p a r t i c i p a t i n g , b u. t r. a t h e r t o
a s k whether t h e movement i s doing something d e t r i m e n t a l . t o m i n o r i t i e s o r

whether t h e movement i s i g n o r i n g b a s i c f i g h t s i n which m i n o r i t i e s a r e engaged. The a n t i - n u k e movement h a s made a n e f f o r t t o l e a r n from t.he a n t i w a r movement. W have a legacy of h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e s , sexism, r a c i s m , ' a n d e
- A t t h e same t i m e , t h e r e

o t h e r forms of e x c l u s i o n i n t h e name of democracy. a r e t h o u s a n d s of wonderful, d e d i c a t e d p e o p l e . movement makes a d e l i b e r a t e e f f o r t t o c r e a t e

..

T h e r e f o r e , t h e ant.i-nuke community-oriented, g r a s s r o o t s
A t t h e ' s a m e time, t h e

o r g a n i z a t i o n s and t o a v o i d having p o w e r f u l l e a d e r s .
.
.

movement i s t r y i n g t o - h a v e a - n a t i o n a l p r e s e n c e and t o a f e c t n a t i o n a l p o l i c y ; t h i s i s c o n t r a d i c t o r y , b u t i s a r e s p o n s e t o t h e n a t i o n a l n a t u r e of t h e n u c l e a r i I n o r ? s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n d u s t r y ( s e e below i n " R e l a t i o n s t o A u t h o r i t i e s " )

< -

o f t h e Seabrook l e g a l d e m o n s t r a t i o n i s t h a t t h e Clamshell A l l i a n c e had been advocating and.developing l o c a l c o n t f o l over i s s u e s . The l o c a l p e o p l e ob-

j e c t e d t o . t h e p r o p o s a l of a n o t h e r i l l e g a l occupa.tion, and f i n a l l y p r e v a i l e d . T h i s had a profound impact on everyone i n t h e Clam; now t h e r e i s a l o t l e s s r e g i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i b n , . and much more of a c o a l i t i o n among d e c e n t r a l i z e d groups.

.4B. NIRS STRATEGY AND TACTICS

NIRS i s a n e d u c a t i o n a l f o u n d a t i o n .

I t s major a c t i v i t i e s a r e p u b l i s h i n g

Groundswell and being a c l e a r i n g h o u s e f o r t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n on n u c l e a r

-5.
RESOURCES

T h e r e is only a l i t t l e s c a t t e r e d , i n f o r m a t i o n about NIRS' r e s o u r c e s .

I t began a s a p r o j e c t amo.ng t h e f u n d e r s of t h e . a n t i-nuke movement who included

t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p u b l i c i n t e r e s t f u n d e r s , i n d i v i d u a l s , c h u r c h e s , and l i b e r a l s .
I t i s now n o t s o c l o s e l y . t i e d t o t h e s e f u n d e r s .
..!

I have no i n f o r m a t i o n about
. .

t h e ' s i z e of t h e - b u d g e t , . o r , s p e c i f i c s a b o u t f u n d e r s . .

I a l s o have no i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e s i z e o r c o m p o s i t i o n ' o f t h e

s t a f f e x c e p t t h a t t h e s t a f f does n o t c o n t a i n anyone who h a s e x p e r t i s e on n u c l e a r weapons.

\
j

-.

~ n k o r hsees b o t h t h e Seabrook d e m o n s t r a t i o n and TMI a s having helped t h e movemerit. s e a b r o o k ' s impact i s d e s c r i b e d above under "Movement S t r a t e g i e s . "

TMI i s imporrant. b e c a u s e i t helped a l o t of p e o p l e see t h a t t h e anti-nuke

movement was r i g h t about i s s u e s even i f i t was a f f l u e n t and e l i t i s t , and s o

TMI p r o v i d e s a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h e movement t o make some bonds w i t h l a b o f .

'

:1nfor;'believes

t h a t t h e c u r r e n t a n t i - n u k e movement does n o t a p p e a l H e s a y s t h a t energy i s s u e s a r e i n c r e a s -

t o g h e t t o blacks, but t h a t i t could.

i n g l y on t h e agenda of b l a c k o r g a n i z e r s , and t h a t n u c l e a r power p l a n t s a r e a l a r g e p a r t o f . why i n n e r c i t y e l e c t r i c r a t e s a r e s o h i g h and why t h e e l e c t r i c industry

is

not labor intensive.

( S e e a l s o t h e s e c t i o n of movement s t r a t e g i e s

f o r h i s d i s c u s s i o n of t h e need f o r a c t i v i s t s t o f a c e m i n o r i t y i s s u e s . ) ,.r.. . . - ~..f o r ..? , : a l s o s e e s i n c r e a s i n g p u b l i c d i s t r u s t of i n d u s t r y and under. s t a n d i n g of t h e n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y .

H e .says t h a t w h i l e p e o p l e might n o t 'have-

p r o t e s t e d r i s i n g u t i l i t y b i l l s o r n u c l e a r power p l a n t s e a r l i e r , w i t h t h e growing a n t i - n u k e movement t h e r e a r e p r e c e d e n t s , and t h e p u b l i c i s more e a s i l y mobilized

6.

ALLIANCES There i s l i t t l e e x p l i c i t i n ormat i o n a b o u t a l l i a n c e s between NIRS

and o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

I n f o r : s a y s NIRS c o o p e r a t e d i n o r g a n i z i n g t h e

May 6 Demonstration, b u t i n d i c a t e s t h i s was a temporary, and uneasy, c o a l i t i o n .

-energy and o r g a n i z i n g .
.

I n a d d i t i o n , i t cooperated w i t h o t h e r groups, f o r
I t does n o t

i n s t a n c e , i t a s s i s t e d i n : o r g a n i z i n g t h e May 6 d e m o n s t r a t i o n . lobby,, do d i r e c t a c t i o n , o r fund o t h e r s ' p r o j e c t s .

Groundswell c o v e r s l o c a l - a n d f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n , and t h e p o s i t i o n s o f . t h e e x e c u t i v e b r a n c h on n u c l e a r energy i s s u e s .

It describes the s t a t e

of t h e a n t i - n u k e movement and l i s t s a c a l a n d e r of l o c a l and n a t i o n a l d i r e c t a c t ion.

It a l s o . c o m p i l e s a b i b l i o g r a p h y on n u c l e a r e n e r g y , .and on movement

t a c t i c s a n d p h i l o s o p h y , and r e v i e w s e d u c a t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s on energy i s s u e s . Groundswell c o n t a i n s p u l l o u t f a c t s h e e t s which can b e reproduced by l o c a l groups. I n a d d i t i o n t o Groundswell, NIRS m a i n t a i n s a r e s o u r c e d e s k and

W T l i n e s o a c t i v i s t s c a n make i n q u i r i e s d i r e c t l y . AS NIRS p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e p o l i t i c s of e n e r g y , p a r t i c u l a r l y n u c l e a r power p l a n t s .

I t h a s some i n f o r m a t i o n about renewable energy a l t e r n It has l i t t l e

a t i v e s , and l e s s a b o u t a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e s s u c h a s s o l a r . i n f o r m a t i o n about n u c l e a r weapons.

I t . r e f e r s a c t i v i s t s t o o t h e r corninunity

groups f o r i n f o r m a t i o n a b b u t t h e s e o t h e r t o p i c s .
. it h a s i n ormat i b n dn' o r g a n i z i n g :

I n a d d i t i o n t o energy,

'

what o t h e r groups have done, how t o w r i t e

proposals, e t c .

NIRS, d i s t r i b u t e s a wide r a n g e of i n f o r m a t i o n , some of which

is c o n t r a d i c t o r y i n . p o l i t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n o r s t r a t e g y .

NIRS. d i s t r i b u t e s Groundswell t o a l l . a n t i - n u k e groups f o r which i t can l o c a t e ' a d d r e s s e s . asks--activists.

I t s p o l i c y i s t o p r o v i d e . i n f o r m a t i o n t o anyone who

(whether involved i n l e g a l o r i l l e g a l a c t i v i t i e s ) , s c h o l a r s ,

o r i n d i v i d u a l s who j u s t want more i n f o r m a t i o n . Two e a r l y i d e a s were t h a t NIRS have an "energy k i t t y " of money t o d i s t r i b u t e t o groups which had p a r t i c u l a r l y t i m e l y and c r u c i a l a c t i v i t i e s , and t h a t NIRS would have r e g i o n a l d i r e c t o r s t o t r a i n a c t i v i s t s and p r o v i d e technical expertise; When NIRS was s t a r t e d , and t h e d e c i s i o n was t o have

i t b e a s t r i c t l y e d u c a t i o n a l . f o u n d a t i o n , i t d e c i d e d n o t t o have t h e energy

kitty.

Because of f i n a n c i a l l i m i t a t i o n s , i t d i d n o t h i r e r e g i o n a l d i r e c t o r s ;

however, t h e t e l e p h o n e r e s o u r c e d e s k s e r v e s some of t h e purposes t h e r e g i o n a l

- .-

H e a l s o a l l u d e s v e r y f a v o r a b l y . t o a s p e c i f i c s m a l l p r o j e c t a s a n example of

t h e k i n d s of 1o.w-profile o r g a n i z i n g which a r e v e r y i m p o r t a n t . On t h e o t h e r hand, mLch o f t h e i n t e r v i e w d e a l s w i t h s t r a t e g i c i s s u e s a b o u t f o r g i n g . l i n k s w i t h i n t h e a n t i - n u k e movement and between t h e a n t i - n u k e

..
'

.and o t h e r movements (most of t h i s i s covered. i n t h e s e c t i o n on movement

:

s t r g t d g y absve)

H& d e s c r i b e ? t h e a n t i - n u k e movement. a s c o n t a i n i n g dozens

of , p e r s p e c t i v e s and many d i f f e r e n t t a c t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s .

He. indicates. that

t h i s sometimes makes f o r . uneasy a l l i a n c e s , b u t t h a t t h e a l l i a n c e s do work when t h e y a r e n e e d e d . ( e . g demonstration).

-

, ; .

f o r t h e t h r e e weeks of p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e May 6

He a l s o says t h a t t h e r e . a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h which NIRS

d o e s n o t g e t a l o n g , , b u t does n o t say which t h e s e a r e . ( L i n d a ' s notes--not i n t e r v i e w - -. c o n t a i n . a l i s t of o r g a n i z . a t i o n s w i t h

S which' NIRS h a s a p p a r e n t l y been i n c o a l i t i o n s : .WILPF , W P ,. Greenpeace, . .

.

Environmental P o l i c y C e n t e r , S u p p o r t e r s of Silkwood, C i t i z e n s Energy P r o j e c t AFSC, MFS, CM, and Another Mother f o r P e a c e . )

,

1nf or. ' a l s o spoke. about c o n t r a d i c t o r y p r e s s u r e s w i t h i n t h e a n t i - n u k e movement, between i t b e i n g d e c e n t r a l i z e d and community-oriented, and i t , h a \ i i n g

a n a t i o n a l p r e s e n c e and a f f e c t i n g n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s .

H e does n o t i n d i c a t e

p a r t i c u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n s which emphasize one o r t h e . o t h e r of t h e s e , o r s p e c i f i c i n t e i ~ r ~ a n i z a t i o n r e l a t i o n s ( c o o p e r a t i v e o r c o m p e t i t i v e ) a r i s i n g from t h i s al tension.

7.

'

RELATIONS WITH AUTHORITIES' Two components o f NIRS r e l a t i o n s w i t h f e d e r a l a u t h o r i t i e s a r e d i s c u s s e d .

F i r s t , from t h e t i m e NIRS was founded, i t was a tax-exempt o r g a n i z a t i o n , and

,
.

s o s u b j e c t t o p o l i t i c a l r e s t r i c t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i t was p r o h i b i t t e d from lobbying

'

Second, t h e r e a s o n . t h a t members of g r a s s r o o t s o r g a n i z a t i o n s f e e l

t h e y need t o c r e a t e a ' n a t i o n a l p r e s e n c e i s t h a t t h e , f e d e r a l government p r o v i d e s a n a t i o n a l s u p p o r t system f o r t h e n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y through t h e F e d e r a l R e g u l a t o r y Commission, Department of Energy, Department of A g r i c u l t u r e loans. t o REAs. e t c .
r

'

I n f o r . r s o n l y a l l u s i o n t o t h e media was t h a t t h e media a l s o h a s

p o i n t e d o u t t h e movement's need t o expand i t s c o a l i t i o n .

8.

RELATIONS WITH OPPONENTS . .

12i$b&& o f f e r s s e v e r a l 'examples of r e l a t i o n s between t h e n u c l e a r . - ~

?,I

i n d u s t r y and t h e anti-nuke,movement, b u t d o e s n o t t a l k s p e c i f i c a l l y . a b o u t r e l a t i o n s between NIRS and t h e i n d u s t r y o r pro-nuke movements. He d e s c r i b e s

t h e n u c l e a r i n d u s t r y p e o p l e a s r a n g i n g from bumbling i d i o t s t o v e r y s o p h i s t i c a t e d and well-moneyed p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s p e o p l e .

H e s a y s t h a t even b e f o r e

TMI t h e more s o p h i s t i c a t e d p a r t s of t h e i n d u s t r y were s h i f t i n g t h e i r emphasis t o g r a s s r o o t s o r g a n i z i n g , advocacy, and g e t t i n g p e o p l e t o l o b b y ; and t h a t t h i s was a r e s u l t of t h e t h r e e y e a r s of o r g a n i z i n g by t h e a n t i - n u k e movement, combined w i t h m a j o r i n d u s t r y e r r o r s , l a c k of government s u p p o r t , and t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s of r e g u l a t i o n .
H e sees t h i s k i n d of i n d u s t r y o r g a n i z i n g a s

a major t h r e a t , b u t t h i n k s t h a t f o r a v a r i e t y of p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s , t h e i n d u s t r y may h a v e t o c o n c e n t r a t e on i s s u e s of f i n a n c e and s o a t t e n d more t o i n v e s t m e n t b a n k e r s , s t o c k h o l d e r s , and major C o n g r e s s i o n a l r e g u l a t o r s t h a n t o grasssoots organizing. H e says t h a t i n doing r a t i o n a l c a p i t a l i s t planning,

t h e major i n d u s t r y problem i s d e a l i n g w i t h u n c e r t a i n t y ; and s o t h e i n d u s t r y a t t a c k s r e g u l a t i o n and t h e a n t i - n u k e s (whom t h e y l a b e l " a n t i-energy1' p e o p l e ) campaign had a major impact on t h e

One way i n which t h e p r o - n u c l e a r

a n t i - n u k e movement .was t h a t o r i g i n a l l y t h e a n t i - n u c l e a r p e o p l e t a l k e d a b o u t t h e i n d u s t r y b u i l d i n g a "bomb i n . y o u r backyard." The i n d u s t r y a t t a c k e d t h a t -

argument, and s o now a n t i - n u c l e a r power a c t i v i s t s a r e d i s i n c l i n e d t o t r y t o . o r g a n i z e around t h e c o n n e c t i o n s between n u c l e a r power and n u c l e a r weapons. On t h e o t h e r hand,'.Infor: s a y s t h a t t h e r e i s j u s t no s e n s e t o t h e pro-nuke

c h a r g e s t h a t t h e a n t i - n u k e p e o p l e deny m i n o i . i t i e s ; m o b i l i t y and a s h a r e i n prosperity: b l a c k s d o n ' t g e t what j o b s t h e r e a r e a t n u c l e a r i n s t a l l a t i o n s ,

and t h e j o b s a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y non-union o n e s .

CLAMSHELL ALLIANCE

HISTORY The r o o t s o f t h e . c o n t r o v e r s y a t t h e Seabrook n u c l e a r p l a n t preceed t h e f o r m a t i o n o f , t h e Clamshell A l l i a n c e i n t h e summer o f 1976. f o u r . s e t s o f a c t o r s werk a l r e a d y i n p l a c e : By t h e n ,

.
'

t h e P u b l i c S e r v i c e company' of

New Hampshire (IPSC) which was b u i l d i n g t h e p l a n t ; s t a t e a u t h o r i t i e s - ('espe-. c i a l l y t h e governor and e d i t o r of t h e -major s t a t e newspaper) who v i g o r o u s l y s u p p o r t e d c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e p l a n t ; e n v i r o n m e n t a l , economic, and p o l i t i c a l g r o u p s ' w h i c h opposed b u i l d i n g t h e p l a n t , and l o c a l c i t i z e n s drawn i n t o t h e c o n f l i c t because of i t s p r o x i m i t y . I n 1969, -PSC had bought l a n d . i n Seabrook,' New Hampshire, on which t o b u i l d a n u c l e a r power p l a n t . I n i t i a l l y t h e p e o p l e o f t h e town responded However, o p p o s i t i o n

favo~ably because PSC promised economic b e n e f i t s . mounted from s.evera1 sour-ces.

. .

I n 1972, when PSC a p p l i e d f o r a s t a t e l i c e n s e

t o b e g i n c o n s t r u c t i o n , e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s t s began o r g a n i z i n g o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e proposed c o n s t r u c t i o n o n - t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s i t e . Over t h e n e x t f o u r y e a r s

t h e f e d e r a l l i c e n s i n g a u t h o r i t i e s and PSC were r e l a t i v e l y u n r e s p o n s i v e t o p u b l i c concerns and o p p o s i t i o n mounted drawing i n a d d i t i o n a l environmental g r o u p s , t h e New England C o a l i t i o n on Nuclear P o l l u t 5 o n , and lawyers from t h e N a t i o n a l Resource Defense Council. The l o c a l l y - o r g a n i z e d S e a c o a s t Anti-

~ollution League (.SAPL) played a major r o l e i n b r i n g i n g . t h e i s s u e b e f o r e the public. T h e s e . g r o u p s used o n l y l e g a l methods, p r i m a r i l y t a k i n g p a r t i n t h e hearing process. P a r t of t h e s t r a t e g y o f t h o s e o r g a n i z i n g l e g a l i n t e r v e n -

t i o n s was t o ' d o p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n and g e t l o c a l c i t i z e n s i n v o l v e d i n opposition t o .the plant. These groups were a b l e t o have some o f t h e l i c e n s i n g The h e a r i n g s

h e a r i n g s moved t o Seabrook, and t o g e t l o c a l p e o p l e t o a t t e n d .

i n c r e a s e d l o c a l o p p o s i t i o n ; townspeople w e r e e s p e c i a l l y u p s e t by t h e d i s c u s s2on of i s s u e s s u c h a s how t h e p l a n t would b e d i s m a n t l e d i f i t became t o o

radioactive.

A group of l o c a l r e s i d e n t s formed Concerned C i t i z e n s of Sea-

brook (CCSB) and used a s e r i e s of r e f e r e n d a i n t h e town e l e c t i o n s - t o r a i s e the issue. plant. I n March 1976 t h e town v o t e d 768-632 a g a i n s t c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e

However, PSC i g n o r e d t h e v o t e because i t was n o t b i n d i n g . Meanwhile, d u r i n g 1973--1976, e v e n t s nearby and i n o t h e r p a r t s of

New England h e l p e d produce a l l i e s who j o i n e d i n t h e s t r u g g l e . . .

I n 1973,

Olympia O i l Company began p l a n s t o b u i l d a n o i l r e f i n e r y o f f t h e - ~ e w Hamp. .

s h i r e coast. these plans;

.
.
:

~ o c a l p p o s i t i o n mounted r a p i d l y and f o r c e d Olympia t o abandon o The most. a c t i v e p a r t i t i p a n t s i n t h i i p r o t e s t were r e c r u i t e d

into:the

e f f o r t t o oppose Seabrook, and were i n s t r u m e n t a l i n b u i l d i n g .up

l o c a l o p p o s i t i o n t o t o . t h e p l a n t through SAPL. Also i n 1 9 7 3 , N o r t h e a s t u t i l i t i e s announced p l a n s ' t o b u i l d a n u c l e a r power p l a n t a t Montague, Massachusetts.

A s m a l l group o f l o c a l p e o p l e opposed
.

t h e p l a n t , and i n February 1974 one of them, Sam Lovejoy, t o p p l e d t h e weather tower as a p r o t e s t .

H e t u r n e d himself i n and used h i s t r i a l as a n o p p o r t u n i t y

t o r a i s e q u e s t i o n s about t h e s a f e t y of n u c l e a r power.

A l t e r n a t i v e media

p u b l f c i z e d Love joy.' s a c t i o n w i d e l y , Lovej oy t r a v e l l e d around New England s p e a k i n g about t h e dangers of n u c l e a r power, and t h e group i n Montague formed an A l t e r n a t i w e Energy CoalTtion t o c o n t i n u e t h e o p p o s i t i o n . I n 1974, t h e G r a n i t e S t a t e A l l i a n c e (GSA) formed t o h e l p p r o g r e s s i v e s o c i a l change groups ( w e l f a r e r i g h t s o r g a n i z a t i o n s , food coops, women's groups, e t c . ) h e l p each o t h e r and complement one a n o t h e r ' s impact on New Hampshire p o l i t i c s . Its s t r a t e g y was t o o r g a n i z e t h e poor, consumers, and

s o c i a l change a c t i v i s t s around pres,si.ng pocketbook i s s u e s . .

Its most a c t i v e

p r o j e c t was t h e P e o p l e ' s . Energy P r o j e c t (PEP) which. opposed Seabraok on t h e b a s i s t h a t i t would d r i v e up u t i l f t y r a t e s . I n 1975, t h e GSA n e w s l e t t e r
. .

began paying more a t t e n t i o n t o s a f e t y , environmental, and r a d i a t i o n i s s u e s . showed u p . a t I n l a t e 1975, members. of t h e Greenleaf Harves.ters Guild (.GHG)-

5 PEP meeting and o f f e r e d t o p r i n t 10,000 l e a f l e t s on Seabrook f q r GSA. (GHG

was a group of s o c i a l a c t i v i s t s committed t o n o n v i o l e n t c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e , and opposed t o e x c e s s i v e dependence on t e c h n o l o g y . of t h e i r income f o r p r o g r e s s i v e s o c i a l c a u s e s . ) .They s e t a p a r t a p o r t i o n

By l a t e 1975, t h e l e a d e r s from t h e s e groups began meeting and codrdinating t h e i r efforts. By t h i s . t i m e , some opponents o f t h e Seabrook p l a n t One member o f t h e GHG wanted

'began e x p l o r i n g p r o t e s t demonstrations t h e r e .

t o t a k e a p e r s o n a l s t a n d a n d s u g g e s t e d d e s t r o y i n g t h e Seabrook weather tower. Members o f GSA and CCSB persuaded him t h a t d e s t r u c t i o n o f p r o p e r t y would b e counter-productive, s o i n s t e a d h e had a s y m b o l i c v i g i l on t o p o f t h e weather I n A p r i l 1976, .members o f t h e GHG w i t h t h e h e l p

:'..tower on J a n u a r y 4 - 5 , 1976.

of GSA o r g a n i z e d a march from Manchester t o Seabrook; a t Seabrook, CCSB:.dist r i b u t e d food and t h e r e were speeches and music. E a r l y i n 1976, t h e l o c a l s t a f f member from t h e American F r i e n d s ~ e d i c e Committee. (,Al?SC) p u l l e d t o g e t h e r a c o a l i t i o n 'of groups opposed t o r t ~ Seabrook, t h e S a f e ' ~ n e A l ~e r n a t i v e s , League (SEAL).
. SEAL

combined envtron-

m e n t a l groups which emphasized l e g a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s and s o c i a l change groups a s s o c i a t e d ~ 5 t h S which wanted t o do community o r g a n i z i n g through v i g o r o u s GA p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n and d e m o n s t r a t i o n s . However, a f t e r a few months, SEAL

b r o k e up o v e r i s s u e s of t a c t i c s and s t y l e . .By t h e ~ p r i n g f 1976, even some of t h o s e who had been r e l y i n g on o

. .

. p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n and l e g a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s ' w e r e becoming convinced t h a t t h e f e d e r a l and s t a t e a u t h o r i t i e s and PSC would merely i g n o r e t h e i r arguments, and t h a t some s o r t of d i r e c t a c t i o n was n e c e s s a r y . They d e c i d e d t o w a i t

u n t i l t h e NRC a c t u a l l y gave p e r m i s s i o n t o s t a r t p l a n t c o n s t r u c t i o n i n o r d e r t o show t h a t t h e y had gone through a l l t h e ' l e g a l c h a n n e l s a v a f l a b l e , . O n J u l y 7 t h e NRC d5d g r a n t PSC a c o n s t r u c t i o n l i c e n s e , ' a n d on J u l y 13, 1976, t h e Clamshell A l l i a n c e was'formed. "The Clam" was t o b e a n umbrella o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r 15 anti-nuke groups
L

f n New. England:

p e o p l e from t h e New Hampshire seacoa.se n e a r Seabrook, w e s t e r n I t was formed e x p l i c i t l y t o do d i r e c t a c t i o n . For

M a s s a c h u s e t t s , and Maine.

t h e f i r s t few months, i t w a s ' b a s i c a l l y a n i n f o r m a l meeting t o c o o r d i n a t e , demonstrations. I t s f i r s t a c t i o n was f o r 1 8 , p e o p l e t o tresspass on t h e The p a r t i c i p a n t s and t h e i r . s u p p o r t e r s were p l e a s e d
. .

s i t e on August 1st.

w i t h t h i s p r o t e s t , and s o planned a n o t h e r l a r g e r p r o t e s t f o r which .each of t h e o ' r i g i n a l - 1 8 was' t o , b r i n g t e n peopbe . t o occupy t h e s i t e on.August 22nd.
.

Again t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s saw t h e i r

a s s u c c e s s f u l , and planned

third

o c c u p a t i o n f o r October; i t was t o b e t e n t i m e s a s l a r g e a s t h e August 22nd one.

.'- -

As t h e y planned f o r t h e October' o c c u p a t i o n , Sam Lovejoy argued

s t r e n u o u s l y . t h a t Clam was p u t t i n g t o o m u c h . e f f o r t i n t o o c c u p a t i o n s , and n o t enough i n t o . p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n .

.

So Clam ' d e c i d e d t o have a ','Natural. Energy The Oc.

F a i r " i n s t e a d , and t o s c h e d u l e i t s n e x t o c c u p a t i o n f o r A p r i l 1977.

t o b e r - f a i r drew 3000 p e o p l e , . and d e l a y i n g . t h e o c c u p a t i o n u n t i l . A p r i l enabled C l a m t o r e c r u i t more p e o p l e and t o . o r g a n i z e t r a i n i n g f o r them.' f a l l and w i n t e r , C l a m made b a s i c d e c i s i o n s , a b o u t i t s s t r u c t u r e : ~ u % i tn ~ he

i t would

make d e c i s i o n s by concensus, and. a l l t h o s e who wanted t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n occ u p a t i o n s would b e o r g a n i z e d i n t o a f f i n i t y groups t o r e c e i v e a n o r i e n t a t i o n and t r a i n i n g i n n o n v i o l e n c e . Clam's A p r f l . 1 9 7 7 o c c u p a t i o n was a . s p e c t a c u l a r s u c c e s s i n .many respects. More:than 2 5 0 0 . p e o p l e p a r t i c i p a t e d of,whoin 1414 were a r r e s t e d .and Clam r e c e i v e d a

h e l d f o r ' up t o two weeks i n a r m o r i e s around ' t h e s t a t e .

tremendous amount of p u b l i c i t y which r e s u l t e d i n 'an i n c r e a s e i n members and c o n t r i b u t i o n s , and h e l p e d i n f o r m a t i o n o f l o c a l groups. I n a d d i t i o n , groups The i n c a r -

t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y s p r a n g up, modeled on t h e Clamls example.

c e r a t i o n i n t h e a r m o r i e s had a marked e f f e c t on s h a p i n g Clam's s e n s e of i t s e l f and i t remained - symbolic i n c i d e n t i n Clam's h i s t o r y . the However, some key' p a r t i c i p a n t s were e x h a u s t e d by t h e immense amount o f work p r e p a r i n g f o r t h e o c c u p a t i o n and t h e n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e problems o f 140.0 p e o p l e b e i n g d e t a i n e d ( i n p r e v i o u s o c c u p a t i o n s , p r o t e s t e r s had been

released t h e next day).

,

Also, some i n t e r n a l .problems a r o s e from t h i s occu-

pation:

l o c a l s e a c o a s t p e o p l e f e l t t h e y were n o t - r e c e i v i n g t h e i r s h a r e of
..

t h e c r e d i t , and some p a r t i c i p a n t s o b j e c t e d t o t h e way concensus was used and t o . making t h e o c c u p a t i o n merely symbolic. I n November 1977, Clam h e l d a major meeting t o d e c i d e on a n o t h e r action. Although t h e r e were d f s a g r e e m e n t s , Clam decided t o have a n o t h e r By s p r i n g ,

o c c u p a t i o n i n June ,1978 and p l a n s went ahead through t h e , w i n t e r .

key members from t h e s e a c o a s t a r e a were u n w i l l i n g t o a g r e e . t o a n o t h e r i l l e g a l occupation. Under t h i s p r e s s u r e , t h e c o o r d i n a t i n g committee c a n c e l l e d t h e

: : ' o c c u p a t i o n a few weeks b e f o r e i t was . t o have happened, and i n s t e a d c a l l e d f o r a l e g a l r a l l y and energy f a i r . w i t h i n Clam because T h i s d e c i s i o n caused g r e a t c o n s t e r n a t i o n many p e o p l e had been working toward

, on

t h e one harid,

t h i s o c c u p a t i o n and saw such p r o t e s t s a s t h e i r r e a s o n f o r b e i n g p a r t of t h e ~ l l i a n c e lb.u t on t h e o t h e r hand, most a g r e e d t h a t i t made no s e n s e . t o impose an o c c u p a t i o n on t h e l o c a l anti-nuke a c t i v i s t s i.f they f e l t i t would b e counter-product h e . I n June 1978, a b o u t 10,000 p e o p l e d i d come t o t h e l e g a l r a l l y .

:'

However, t h i s s h i f t i n p l a n s e x a c e r b a t e d t h e growing r i f t s i n Clam, and a t t h e r a l l y t h o s e who o b j e c t e d most s t r o n g l y t o h a v i n g i t b e l e g a l formed a c a u c u s . w i t h i n Clam-, c a l l e d Clams f o r Democracy (CFD).
. .

CFD argued t h a t t h e

Clam should o r g a n i z e ' an o c c u p a t i o n which would a c t u a l l y t a k e c o n t r o l of t h e s i t e and s t o p c . o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e p l a n t ;

i t o b j e c t e d t o concensus on t h e

b a s i s t h a t a small minority could block a c t i o n .

O t h e r s , i n c l u d i n g many of t h e

s e a c o a s t r e s i d e n t s , t h e o f f i c e s t a f f , and ' e a r l y members, urged t h e importance of s t r i c t noriviolenc; and of a c t i o n which.would m o b i l i z e t h e l o c a l c o n s t i t u e n c y . Both o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and s t r a t e g i c m a t t e r s were a t i s s u e . There were

s t r u c t u r a l problems r e s u l t i n g from Clam's growth, p a r t i c u l a r l y q u e s t i o n s

. . of how t o i n c l u d e t h e .many s c a t t e r e d groups i n t h e decision-making.

There

was disagreement o v e r t h e u s e of concesus, t h e r o l e of s t a f f and t h e coordin-. a t i n g committee, and t h e weight t h a t s h o u l d b e g i v e n t o t h e o b j e c t i o n s of

s e a c o a s t r e s i d e n t s . Also t h e r e were p h i l o s o p h i c and s t r a t e g i c disagreements o v e r t h e meaning and p r a c t i c e of nonviolence a r t i c u l a t e d around t h e i s s u e of whether . i t was p e r m i s s i b l e t o d e s t r o y p r o p e r t y .
.

During t h i s p e r i o d , e v e n t s o u t s i d e Clamshell shaped t h e p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t of i t s p r o t e s t s .

.. ..

F i r s t , i n October 1977', PSC o b t a i n e d a $.27,000,000

- r a t e i n c r e a s e , $20;000,000 of which was t o pay f o r " c o n s t r u c t i o l i works p r o g r e s s " o r CWIP ( i . e . ; t o pay f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n a t ' . S e a b r o o k ) ;

in

The p u b l i c

was o u t r a g e d and e a r l y i n 1978, t h e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e outlawed CWIP, b u t Governor Thomson v e t o e d t h e b i l l . s t a t e election: T h i s made CWIP a major i s s u e i n t h e 1978

Thomson campaigned on an a n t i - t a x p l a t f o r m , and h i s opponent Many p e o p l e saw t h e e l c t i o n as

charged t h a t CWIP was Thomson's hidden t a x . a statewide referendum on seabrook.

Thomson l o s t , a i d i n May 1979, t h e new With t h e end of CWIP, Seabrook ceased

..

governor s i g n e d a b i l l o u t l a w i n g . CWIP. . t o b e a s much of a s t a t e w i d e i s s u e .

I n - t h e c o n t e x t of t h e growing c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r CWIP, Clam t r i e d . t o work o u t i t s program a f t e r - t h e l e g a l r a l l y i n June 1978,

.

By t h i s time, t h e

PSC had c o n s t r u c t e d a f e n c e around t h e s i t e ; t h e r e f o r e , any occupat.ion would need t o d e v i s e ways t o g e t beyond t h e f e n c e . Clam c o u l d n o t a g r e e on how During

t o o r g a n 5 i e , a n o t h e r m a j o r o c c u p a t i o n , b u t i t d i d .design two p r o t e s t s .

t h e f a l l , l o c a l C l a m groups. organized "wave a c t i o n s " i n which s m a l l g r o u p s . came on d i f f e r e n t d a y s and t r i e d t o climb th'e f e n c e s and occupy t h e s i t e , Also by f a l l , p l a n t c o n s t r u c t i o n had p r o g r e s s e d t o t h e p o i n t a t which PSC would have t o b r i n g t h e p r e s s u r i z e d r e a c t o r v e s s e l soon. both The Clam organized .In t h e
,

s e a and l a n d b l o c k a d e s i n hopes of p r e v e n t h g 2 t s d e l i v e r y .

s p r i n g of 1979, PSC -moved t h e r e a c t o r d e s p i t e Clam's b l o c k a d e .

Another major e v e n t o u t s i d e t h e C l a m was t h e a c c i d e n C . a t TMI i n t h e

. .

spr2ng o f 1979.

T h i s .had. mixed e f f e c t s on t h e Clam.

I n t h e wake of t h e

. a c c i d e n t , many p e o p l e s o u g h t o u t Clam a f f i l i a t e s .

A t t h e same time, n u c l e a r

power took' on more of t h e dimensions of a n a t i o n a l i s s u e , and TMI became t h e c u r r e n t n a t i o n a l symbol,

Through t h e s p r i n g of 1979, t h e r e was i n c r e a s i n g b i t t e r n e s s between f a c t i o n s w i t h i n Clam, and b i c k e r i n g and.maneuvering o v e r . p r o c e d u r e s . CFD.

d e s i g n e d a n o c c u p a t i o n , b u t could n o t g e t t h e rest of Clam t o a g r e e t o i t . I n J u n e , d i s s i d e n t s broke away from Clam and formed "Clams f o r D i r e c t Action a t ' SeabrooP1 (CDAS)

The C l a m s h e l l A l l i a n c e , a s s u c h , was n o t a b l e t o o r g a n i z e anot.her major p r o t e s t .

.

However, i n t h e f a l l of 1979 t h e r e were two s i g n i f i c a n t aco n October 6 t h , CDAS had i t s occu-

t i o n s which i n v o l v e d Clamshell members:

p a t i o n a t Seabrook, and on d c t o b e r 2 9 t h , ' a c o a l i t i o n , p r o t e s t e d t h e . connection between c . o r p o r a t e c a p i t a l i s m and n u c l e a r power w i t h d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a t Wall Street. I n J a n u a r y 1980, Clam t r i e d t o p a t c h up i t s i n t e r n a l d i f f e r e n c e s , . T h e r e f o r e , ' . ' i t d e c i d e d t h a t C l a m would no l o n g e r .Both f a c t i o n s w i t h i n Clam

b u t was u n a b l e t o do s o .

h o l d a c t i o n s , b u t would o n l y endorse a c t i o n s .

planned a c t i v i t i e s f o r t h e 'summer of 1980, b u t n e i t h e r mounted major. a c t i o n s , n o r seems t o have been a b l e t o m a i n t a i n a v i a b l e s t r u c t u r e . . C l a m s h e l l ' s h i s t o r y , t h e n , might b e summarized i n t e r m s of s e v e r a l periods.

( ) A p r e - h i s t o r y b e f o r e i t s founding i n 1976 w a s . c h a r a c t e r i z e d 1

by l e g a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s by e n v i r o n m e n t a l groups , w h i l e PSC s o u g h t a p p r o v a l of i t s p l a n s f o r t h e p l a n t , and s c a t t e r e d a c t i v i t i e s by a n t i - n u k e and s o c i a l change groups.

( 2 ) J u l y 1976 through A p r i l 1977 was Clam's f o r m a t i v e ' p e r i o d :

i t Gas p r i m a r i l y a n i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n wh'ich d e s i g n e d r a l l i e s and p r o t e s t s .

(3) From A p r i l 1477 t o J u n e 1978, Clam was . a t i t s h e f g h t :

i t gained n a t i o n a l

prominance, many p e o p l e j o i n e d , l o c a l .af i l i a t e s formed, and p e o p l e i n o t h e r p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y formed a l l i a n c e s modeled on t h e C l a m .

( 4 ) Between ~ u n e

1978 .and June 1979., f a c t i o n s w i t h i n Clam became more pronounced and Clam .. a c t i v i t 2 e s tended t o b e l o c a l l y o r g a n i z e d . Clam as a n e n t i t y d e c l i n e d .

( 5 ) ~ f t e t h e s p r i n g o f 1979, the r

.I1

ORGANIZATION During C l a m ' s f i r s t y e a r , i t s e t down t h e b a s i c s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n which a l l l a t e r d e c i s i o n s (and d i s a g r e e m e n t s a b o u t decision-making) would b e worked o u t .

. .

Clam was b e g u n , a s a n u m b r e l l a of f i f t e e n a n t ? - n u c l e a r was committed t o ' u s i n g d i r e c t a c t i o n as w e l l a s e d u c a t i o n .

g r o u p s , and

I t emphasized

t h e importance o f l o c a l o p p o s i t i o n t o n u c l e a r power, and a t t h e same t i m e t h a t t h e i s s u e s a f f e c t e d a f a r w i d e r a r e a t h a n j u s t t h e l o c a l community. . . T h e r e f o r e , . i t or.ganized i t s e l f a s an a l l i a n c e of groups throughout New England, w i t h a major o b j e c t i v e o f m o b i l i z i n g t h e l o c a l c o n s t i t u e n c y . Through October, Clam f u n c t i o n e d a s a n i n f o r m a l meeting t o c o o r d i n a t e p l a n s .
I t began as a network i n which members t a l k e d o v e r i s s u e s u n t i l t h e y reached

..

an-agreement. I n . p l a n n i n g f o r t h i October - a c t i o n , Clam a p p a r e n t l y made t h e d e c i s i o n t o c 0 n s t r u c t . a more d u r a b l e movement, and s o i t c e n t e r e d t h e October a c t i o n on e d u c a t i o n and m o b i l i z i n g a w i d e r c o n s t i t u e n c y , planned t o m o b i l i z e through t h e w i n t e r , and t h e n t o have a b i g o c c u p a t i o n , i n A p r i l 1977. t h e s e d e c i s i o n s , i t began c r e a t i n g a more f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . concensus decision-making
As it.made It adopted

( i n t r o d u c e d by members from a n organization--AJ?SC--

which r o u t i n e l y u s e d concensus) a s a way t o promote d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n , f a c i l i t a t e f u l l membership p a r t i c i p a t i o n , and enhance group s o l i d a r i t y by e l i m i n a t i n g unrepresented m i n o r i t i e s . regional basis.
It d e c i d e d t o have r e p r e s e n t a t i o n on a

It c r e a t e d "congresses" open t o a l l Clam members, which

c o u l d make b i n d i n g d e c i s i o n s , "conferences"

t o be educational gatherings,

and a c o o r d i n a t i n g committee comprised o f r e g i o n a l r e p r e s e l t a t i v e s t o d i s c u s s ~ s s u e s ,b u t n o t t o make d e c i s i o n s .

I t d e c i d e d t h a t Clam would n o t have any-

f o r m a l o f f i c e r s , b u t ' r a t h e r would h a v e t a s k - o r i e n t e d

committees.

Clam a l s o

d e c t d e d t o r e q u i r e a19 p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e A p r i l o c c u p a t i o n t o b e o r g a n i z e d i n t o a f f i n i t y groups and t o have a p e r i o d o f o r i e n t a t i o n and n o n v i o l e n t

- 6 1; ,--..
-

training.'

(See s e c t i o n on T a c t i c s f o r how- ~ 4 a : ~ ' b e c a . m e com.$.tte.d t o a f f i n i t y

'

groups and t r a h i n g .I

During t h e w i n t e r of 1976-1977, :Clam implemented t h e s e d k c i s i o n s . Through 1976, Clam had s p a c e . w i t h i n t h e AFSC -of i c e ;
,

i n December

i t opened

i t s own o f f i c e .

'

T h e o f f i c e was i n t e n d e d a s a r e s o u r c e c e n t e r , a switchboard, Clam saw t h e r o l e o f t h e s t a f f a s . coordina-

and. a p l a c e f o r Clam t o g a t h e r .

t i n g cormnunication, g a t h e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , and p e r f o r m i n g t a s k s d e l e g a t e d by members, b u t n o t making d e c i s i o n s .

I t had no s t a f f of i t s own u n t i l a f t e r

A p r i l 1977; b e f o r e t h e n , s t a f f from GSA worked f u l l t i m e on

!'.

f lam shell' o f f i c e

work and r e c r u i t i n g through i t s networks., .and AFSC s t a f f and v o l u n t e e r s o r . . ganized nonviolence t r a i n i n g . T h r o u g h . t h e w i n t e r , Clam r e c r u i t e d people t o

t a k e p a r t 5n t h e A p r i l o c c u p a t i o n ; b i ~ ts i n c e . t h e s e . p e o p l e were ' b e i n g r e c r u i t e d f o r one s p e c i f i c e v e n t , few got. d e e p l y i n v o l v e d i n - s h a p i n g d e c ' i s i o n s .

"

Clam's growth r e s u l t e d i n a c l u s t e r of problems a b o u t how t o extend

concensus t o a much l a r g e r number o f p e o p l e s p r e a d througho.ut New%England.. Clam' s s o l u t i o n c e n t e r e d around t h e c o o r d i n a t i n g commit tee (.CC) process of consultation.

and- a n - , e x t e n s v e i

The CC t a l k e d through i s s u e s and t h e n r e f e r r e d The l o c a l groups s e n t r e s p o n s e s

them t o t h e l o c a l g r o u p s f o r d i s c u s s i o n .

t o t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s ( o r sometimes had a n i n t e r m e d i a t e s t e p o f s t a t e w i d e m e e t i n g s ) , and t h e n t h e CC r e c o n s i d e r e d t h e m a t t e r t o see i f a n agreement

.

c o u l d b e reached.

I f n o t , t h e p r o c e s s was r e p e a t e d u n t f l t h e r e was agreement. Clam hoped 'to b e

Clam a l s o h e l d . c o n g r e s s e s i r r e g u l a r l y , a s t h e need a r o s e .

It i s n o t c l e a r j u s t who was on t h e CC. Cohen s a y s t h a t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e r e were no f i x e d number of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s from a r e g i o n t o t h e CC, and t h a t r e g i o n a l - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n was n o t f o r m a l i z e d u n t i l Nov,ember 1977 (pp. 109-111, 1 4 8 ) . An e a r l y p a r t i c i p a n t r e p o r t s t h a t t h e r e w e r e ' a b o u t f i f t e e n members a t t h e beginning, h a l f from t h e s e a c o a s t and h a l f regional representatives. S e v e r a l p a r t i c i p a n t s r e p o r t t h a t t h e r e were problems c a r r y i n g on d i s c u s s i o n s b e c a u s e t h e same p e o p l e d i d n o t always a t t e n d CC m e e t i n g s a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . L a t e r , ,when Clam had an o f f i c e , s t a f f members and s e a c o a s t r e s i d e n t s o f t e n a t t e n d e d CC m e e t i n g s , although t h e y were n o t f o r m a l l y members. 1 t ' i s . n o t c l e a r t h a t p e o p l e who claimed t o have t h e r i g h t t o a t t e n d were e x c l u d e d , even when o t h e r s doubted whether they were r e p r e s e n t a . t i v e s o r when t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i d n caused d i f f i c u l t i e s .

a b l e t o work o u t d e c i s i o n s i n which a l l would concur.

'

However, i t never if

r e s o l v e d t h e q u e s t i o n of whether a b s o l u t e concensus was r e q u i r e d ( i . e . , one p e r s o n i n one l o c a l group could b l o c k a d e c i s i o n ) .

Wasserman ( P r o g r e s s i v e , 1/77:43) s a y s t h a t d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r , Clam f a c e d s e v e r e l e g a l a n d . . f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s , and t h a t i t s s u r v i v a l was uncertain

., However,

h e g i v e s no d e k a i l s

During t h e '1977 o c c u p a t i o n and imprisonment i n t h e a r m o r i e s , Clam

.
. . .

triid

to

u s e a s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e which would p e r m i t decision-making t o move However, t h e s i z e a n d d i v e r -

forward smoothly .and s t i l l p r e s e r v e concensus. s i t y o f t h e group, -and t h e s i d e r a b l e s t r a i n on t h e p r o c e s s .

t o make d e c i s i o n s q u i c k l y , p l a c e d conEach a f f i n i t y group s e 1 e c t e d . a "spoke."

. .

The s p o k e s came t o g e t h e r t o - f o r m t h e "deciSion-making body."

However, be-

c a u s e o f t h e t i m e p r e s s u r e , u n c e r t a i n t i e s of t h e s i t u a t i o n , and u n f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h t h e p r o c e s s , t h e concensus-building p r o c e s s f a l t e r e d and some a f f i n i t y groups d i s s e n t e d . By t h e second day of t h e o c c u p a t i o n , t h e p r o c e s s was

working more s a t i s f a c t o r i l y , b u t t h e n t h e o c c u p a t i o n was broken up by t h e authorities. I n t h e a r m o r i e s , Clam t r i e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e a f f i n i t y groups

and a g a i n t r i e d t o c r e a t e a l a r g e r s t r u c t u r e of decision-making which would 'keep c o n t r o l d e m o c r a t i c . Both a t t h e occupat5on and. i n t h e a r m o r i e s , c e n t r a l members of t h e Clam saw t h e need f o r t h e group t o r e a c h t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e d e c i s i o n under
.
.

t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , and t h e n t o a c c e p t i t r a t h e r t h a n t r y t o work o u t a
"

.
.

p e r f e c t s o l u t i o n t o each q u e s t i o n .

T h e i r e f f o r t s t o a c t r e s p o n s i b l y brought
.
'

them Tnto c o n f l i c t w i t h o t h e r s : b o t h t h o s e who d 2 s t r u s t e d 'anyone 'making d e c i s i o n s i n t h e name o f t h e group, and more p a r t i c u 1 a r l y " a s e t of p e o p l e who saw t h e p r o t e s t i n . m o r e c o n f r o n t a t i o n a l t e r m s . Boston-based g r o u p s ' . i n t h e s e c t i o n on s t r a t e g y . )

(:See d i s c u s s i o n of t h e These subgroups were n o t

a b l e t o r e s o l v e t h e i r d i s a g r e e m e n t s o v e r t h e n a t u r e of t h e p r o t e s t , and each saw t h e o t h e r a s misusTng t h e deciston-making procedure.

The ' ' r e s p o n s i b l e

l e a d e r s " saw t h e ' " d i s s i d e n t s " a s - b e i n g u n w i l l i n g t o l i s t e n t o o t h e r s ' views and u n w i l - l i n g t o t r y t o work o u t agreements which t o o k account of o t h e r s ' views. The " d i s s i d e n t s " saw t h e " r e s p o n s i b l e l e a d e r s " a s t o use
. .

t h e forms of concensus, b u t a s a c t u a l l y s t i f f l i n g open d i s c u s s i o n and prev e n t i n g m i n o r i t y .views from b e i n g p r e s e n t e d . F o r most of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s , whatever t h e problems, t h e A p r i l occ u p a t i o n and imprisonment were c e n t r a l e x p e r i e n c e s i n d e f i n i n g what p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n Clam was a b o u t . Clam b u i l t a s e n s e of s o l i d a r i t y , and t h e p a r t i -

c i p a n t s g a i n e d c o n s i d e r a b l e e x p e r i e n c e and i n f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g t h e workshops
." and oth'er a c t i v i t i e s of t h o s e two -weeks.

I n . t h e p e r i o d which f o l l o w e d , , t h e

expans i o n o f Clamshell was b u i l t around t h i s e x p e r i e n c e . The A p r i l 1977 o c c u p a t i o n r e s u l t e d i n tremendous growth f o r Clam.

It had a b o u t 250 a c t i v e members by t h i s , t i m e .

C o n t r i b u t i o n s flowed i n ,

e n a b l i n g Clam t o h i r e i t s own s t a f f .

P e o p l e who had p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e
\

o c c u p a t i o n r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r own communities and s t a r t e d l o c a l gr.oups which a f f i l i a t e d w i t h Clam.. Although t h e s e g r o u p s , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e o r i g i n a l 1 5 , d i d n o t have a p r e - e x i s t i n g i d e n t i t y , because o f Clam's s t r u c t u r e t h e y f u n c t i o n e d a s independent groups and t h e A l l i a n c e d i d n o t . e x e r i any c o e r c i v e c o n t r o l o v e r them. Clam -continued t o s t r u g g l e w i t h ' t h e i s s u e s of how i t
.
.

could draw a l l t h e s e . s c a t t P r e d groups t o g e t h e r and. make. g e n u i n e l y c o n c e n s u s a l decisions.

A t t h e November 1977 c o n g r e s s , Clam e s t a b l i s h e d r e g i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n on t h e c o o r d i n a t i n g committee. . Also, i t s e t up a committee t o s t u d y concensus, b u t t h e committee was n o t a b l e t o propose k o l u t i o n s t o t h e problems, I n t h e s p r i n g t h e CC c a n c e l l e d t h e o c c u p a t i o n and decided t o havq a l e g a 3 r a l l y - i n June i n s t e a d ( s e e S t r a t e g y . s e c t i o n f o r d i s c u s s i o n of what was
.
'

a t issue)-.
.

The CC d i d not: have t h e r i g h t t o make t h i s d e c i s i o n , a.nd t h e r e While some members

was c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n s t e r n a t i o n about f t . h a v i n g done s o . .

a c c e p t e d t h a t i t was probably n e c e s s a r y under t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e Boston

a f f i l i a t e was i n a n u p r o a r .

A t t h e J u n e r a l l y , t h o s e who d i s a g r e e d most

s t r o n g l y w i t h t h e d e c i s i o n t o h a v e a l e g a l r a l l y formed th.e CFD; t h i s was p r i m a r i l y Clams from Boston, n o r t h e r n Vermont, Long ' I s l a n d (NY), and Rhode Island. The n e x t y e a r . w a s marked by t h e i n c r e a s i n g i m p o r t a n c e , o f c o n f l i c . . .. .

t i n g , f a c t i o n s w i t h i n t h e Clam.

CFD . s a w . i t s e l f a s a m i l i t a n t caucus w i t h i n . t h e Clam, .and t r i e d t o

.
.

f o r c e t h e i s s u e s i t saw a c r u c i a l o u t i n t o t h e open ( s e e S t r a t e g y f o r t h e content of t h i s .dispute). However, when Clam c a l l e d a c o n g r e s s t o t a l k e

a b o u t t h e J u n e d e c i s i o n a n d . f u t u r e program, t h e f a c t i o n s t a l k e d p a s t each'
:"

other.

CFD was a m i n o r i t y w i t h i n Clam, and f e l t t h a t i t was always t h e .

group which had t o g i v e i n .

A s CFD g o t more o r g a n i z e d by t h e n end of 1978,

i t was less w i l l i n g t o g i v e up i t s demands; when. i t could n o t g e t o t h e r s . t o ..

a g r e e w i t h i t , i t . u s e d t h e procedure t o its advantage (e.g.,

refusing t o

a g r & e t o o t b & r s f d e c i s i o n s "on a n y t h i n g u n l e ~ si t s own p l a n s were a c c e p t e d ) . I n J a n u a r y 1979, Clam r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f whether i t s h o u l d u s e h i g h

m a j o r i t y when i t c o u l d . n o t .reach concensus ( i . e . , a . m a j o r i t y of 80%); i n March i t a g r e e d t o th2.s change,. Meanwhile, CFD had been d e s i g n i n g a n occu-

p a t i o n i n ' accordance w i t h i t s i d e a s ; b u t a t t h e J u n e meeting, i t could no.t g e t a h i g h m a j o r i e y t o approve t h e p l a n . The most i t could g e t was a Clam I n reaction, a

endorsement f o r a d e m o n s t r a t i o n o r g a n i z e d o u t s i d e o f Clam; group formed' CDAS

.
Newburyport The.

CDAS; l i k e CFD, drew most of i t s s t r e n g t h . f r o r n Boston Clamshell ( a l though t h e r e were o t h e r a f f i n i t y groups. s y m p a t h e t i c too--e;g.,

a n d Providence)., and d i f f e r e d p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y from Clam ( s e e S t r a t e g y ) .

s t r o n g e s t o p p q s i t i o n . t o CDAS and CFD came from a f a c t i o n which i n c l u d e d t h e o f f i c e s t a f f , t r a i n i n g committee, AFSC, and o t h e r s ' who i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e s e a c o a s t r e s i d e n t s 1 c o n c e r n s o r who argued f o r s t r i c t n o n v i o l e n c e . p e o p l e d i d n o t belong t o e i t h e r f a c t i o n . Most

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e ' c o n f l i c t s between

t h e s e f a c t i o n s , g i v e n Clam's decision-making p r o c e d u r e s , made i t i m p o s s i b l e

f o r Clam t o a g r e e o n any a c t i o n s .

For example, t h e W a l l S t r e e t a c t i o n was

o r g a n i z e d by Clam members, b u t o u t s i d e Clam a p p a r e n t l y o n l y b e c a u s e t h e r e was s o much d i s s e n t i o n w i t h i n t h e Clam. T h e r e f o r e , i n J a n u a r y 1980, Clam

h e l d a c o n g r e s s t o t r y t o . b r i n g t h e s t r i c t n o n v i o l e n c e p e o p l e and C A DS together. But- Clam concluded t h a t r a p p r o a c h k n t was i m p o s s i b l e , and t h a t

'

each s i d e w o u l d . b l o c k t h e o t h e r on any p r o p o s a l .

T h e r e f o r e , Clam decided

i t could no l o n g e r h o l d a c t i o n s , b u t r a t h e r would e n d o r s e a c t i o n s which met

four c r i t e r i a :

t h e a c t i o n had t o b e c a l l e d by a Clam group, i t had t o main-

t a i n n o n v i o l e n c e toward p e o p l e , i t had t o u s e a f f i n i t y group s t r u c t u r e , and t h e r e had t o b e some s o r t of p r e p a r a t i o n o f p a r t i c i p a n t s . ( - t h e y c o u l d n ' t a g r e e even on whether t o c a l l , t h i s "training'.').
.
.

I TI

GOALS AND TARGETS The groups which opposed t h e Seabrook p l a n t b e f o r e Clam (and t h e n became i n v o l v e d t o v a r y i n g d e g r e e s i n Clam) had a v a r i e t y of g o a l s and t a r gets. The e n v i r o n m e n t a l groups began by o b j e c t i n g t o p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t s of

t h e , p l a n s and s i t e ; t h e i r t a r g e t s w e r e t h e . l i c e n s i n g a u t h o r T t i e s and PSC.

,' /

GSA i n i t i a l l y opposed Seabrook b e c a u s e i t e x p e c t e d t h e p l a n t t o r e s u l t i n r a t e i n c r e a s e s ; i t i t r i e d t o u s e S e a b r o o k ' a s a way t o m o b i l i z e . i t s c o n s t i t u ency. The group i n Montague was t r y i n g t o s t o p n u c l e a r power whi.ch i t saw

a s v e r y dangerous; i t s main t a r g e t w a s . . t h e p u b l i c which i t w a n t e d - t o e d u c a t e and a r o u s e to. a c t i o n . SAPL andCCSB f o c u s s e d mainly on t h e . S e a b r o o k p l a n t ;

t h e i r t a r g e t s were b o t h t h e a u t h o r i t i e s and l o c a l r e s i d e n t s . During C l a m s h e l l ' s f i r s t y e a r , i t s primary g o a l was t o s t o p construct i o n a t Seabrook,

It saw t h i s a s a way t o c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e dangers of

n u c l e a r power, and i t b e l i e v e d t h a t p u b l i c p r o t e s t would show PSC t h a t t h e r e was t o o much o p p o s i t i o n f o r PSC t o c o n t i n u e c o n s t r u c t i o n . three targets. Clam i d e n t i f i e d

The f i r s t was t h o s e w i t h power t o make d e c i s i o n s (PSC, s t a t e

and f e d e r a l r e g u l a t o r s and l e g i s l a t u r e s , P u b l i c s e r v i c e Commission, and b u s i n e s s e s , e s p e c i a l l y e l e c t r i c companies).

A second t a r g e t was i t s c o n s t i t u e n c y

which i t saw as havi.ng power t o s t o p n u c l e a r power through i t s members' l i v e s (e.g., c o n s t r u c t i o n workers r e f u s i n g t o b u i l d t h e p l a n t ) , and through p u t t ' i n g The t h i r d t a r g e t was t h e b r o a d e r p u b l i c beyond t h e immediate
.

p r e s s u r e on PSC. area.

Beginning a f t e r t h e A p r i l 1977 o c c u p a t i o n , and i n c r e a s i n g s h a r p l y

.

a f t e r t h e J u n e 1978 l e g a l ' r a l l y , t h e r e w a s i n t e n s e i n t e r n a l d i s c u s s i o n w i t h i n

.'

Clamshell a b o u t whether i t s g o a l was symbolic p r o t e s t s ' o r a r e a l o c c u p a t i o n of t h e s i t e . T h i s had p a r t l y t o do w i t h c o n f l i c t i n g a n a l y s e s ( s e e below Those who argued f o r

under S t r a t e g y ) , and p a r t l y w i t h c h o i c e o f t a r g e t s .
II

s t r i c t nonviolence" ( i . e . ,

no d e s t r u c t i o n of p r o p e r t y ) i n c l u d e d t h o s e con.

cerned w i t h m o b i l i z i n g l o c a l - o p p o s i t i o n a s y e l l ' a s t h o s e p h i l o s o p h i c a ' l l y . committed t o n o n v i o l e n c e . Those who wanted " r e a l o c c u p a t i o n " argued t h a t

t h e symbolic p r o t e s t s were merely a p p e a l s t o i l l e g i t i m a t e a u t h o r i t i e s , and t h a t concerned p e o p l e must t a k e t h e m a t t e r i n t o t h e i r own hands i n o r d e r t o show o t h e r s t h a t p e o p l e could have c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r own l i v e s .

A s l o c a l groups g o t s t a r t e d , t h e y had l o c a l t a r g e t s a s w e l . l . a s t h e
shared concern about Seabrook. Many of them focused on a l t e r n a t i v e energy

i s s u e s a s w e l l a s on o p p o s i t i o n t o n u c l e a r power. I n 1978 and 1979,. t h e r e was i n c r e a s i n g d i s c u s s i o n . of - t h e r o l e of c a p i t a l i s m and t h e s t a t e . The CFD f a c t i o n and C A saw n u c l e a r power a s an DS I n t h e Wall S t r e e t Action (October 1979),

example o f t h e a b u s e s of c a p i t a l i s m .

t h e primary o b j e c t i v e was t o show t h e c o n n e c t i o n s between n u c l e a r power and corporations; Clam. Also by. 1979 and 1980, Clam was making more c o n n e c t i o n between n u c l e a r power and n u c l e a r weapons.
.

t h i s was t h e f i r s t e x p l t c i t l y a n t i - c a p i t a l i s t p r o t e s t by t h e

IV

STRATEGY AND TACTICS P r i o r t o t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e Clamshell, t h r e e main k i n d s of t a c t i c s were b e i n g used i n o p p o s i t i o n t o Seabrook. The environmental groups mainly ~ o t h environ-

used l e g a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s i n t h e l i c e n s e - h e a r i n g p r o c e d u r e s .
..

mental and s o c i a l change groups used a number o f l e g a l e d u c a t i o n a l t a c t i c s : . . p u b l i c i z i n g t h e i s s u e s through t h e p u b l i c media and t h e i r , own n e w s l e t t e r s , c i r c u l a t i n g p e t i t i o n s , h o l d i n g r a l l i e s and marches, and g e t t i n g . t h e i s s u e on the'town ballot.
. .

' F i n a l l y , t h e r e were a few a c t s of symbolic c i v i l disobed-

i e n c e L m o s t n o t a b l y Lovejoy's t o p p l i n g of t h e w e a t h e r tower.
.

Clamshell was founded e x p l i c i t l y t o do d i r e c t a c t i o n on t h e b a s i s t h a t l e g a l i n t e r v e n t i o n and e d u c a t i o n had n o t been s u f f i c i e n t . .

Its i n i t i a l

a n a l y s i s was t h a t i t could u s e exemplary c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e because t h e del i b e r a t e and p u b l i c u s e of i l l e g a l i t y would draw a t t e n t i o n t o . t h e s e r i o u s n e s s of t h e i r - p r d t e s t , and s o wduld p u t p r e s s u r e on PSC. T h e r e f o r e , they were
'

concerned a b o u t - t h e qua-lf t y of t h e p r o t e s t , n o t j u s t . t h e s i z e .

Clam was

committed t o u s i n g nonviolence, b u t t h e r e was n o t agreement about what t h i s meant,

..
.

Some members saw t h i s a s a p h i l o s o p h i c a l i s s u e , o t h e r s a s a m a t t e r For : t h o s e who saw- n o n v i o l e n c e ' a s a . p h i l o s o p h y , i t was a way of

of t a c t i c s .

t r e a t i n g everyone w i t h r e s p e c t ; a t t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e r e was agreement i n

C l a m ' t h a t t t was i m p o r t a n t t o s e e t h e . c o n s t r u c t i o n workers', p o l i c e , and o t h e r s

a s p e o p l e ddibg t h e i r j o b s and a s n e i g h b o r s - t o b e persuaded, r a t h e r t h a n a s "enemies." T h e r e f o r e , w h i l e Clam p r o t e s t o r s d e l i b e r - a t e l y t r e s s p a s s e d and

would n o t cooperate i n . t h e i r a r r e s t s , . b e f o r e t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n Clam informed t h e a u t h o r i t i e s what t h e y would do, how many p e o p l e would b e i n v o l v e d , e t c , ; and a f t e r t h e 2 r a r r e s t s , t h e p r o t e s t e r s c o o p e r a t e d w i t h t h e a u t h o r i t i e s . , There was agreenient t h a t n o n v i o l e n c e i n c l u d e d t a c t i c s such a s p u b l i c demons t r a t i o n s b u t a l s o one-to-one conversations. Some members a l s o saw i t a s

p a r t ' of a l a r g e r p h i l o s o p h i c a l approach which would' a l s o i n c l u d e p r a y e r and fasting. During the f i r s t y e a r , Clam used b o t h c i v i l . d i s o b e d i e n c e arid l e g a l

68 - - - , approaches. One o f i t s main s t r a t e g i e s was e s c a l a t i n g c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e .

From i t s e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e August 1976 d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , i t d e v i s e d ' i t s s t r a t e g i e s o f u s i n g a f f i n i t y groups and t r a i n i n g .

I t s f i r s t a c t i o n was t h e August 1, 1976 c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e t o . show

i t s o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e groundbreaking f o r t h e p l a n t .
t h o s e b e i n g a r r e s t e d s h o u l d b e f r o n New Hampshire,
,_-CL~

It d e c i d e d t h a t a l l Between 500-600 p e o p l e

from a l l o v e r New England came, t o t h e r a l l y , and 1 8 t r e s p a s s e d and were

arrested.

A t t h e . news c o n f e r e n c e . f o l l o w i n g t h e i r a r r e s t s , Clam :announced

On August 22nd, 1500 p e o p l e a t t e n d e d

a n o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n f o r August- 22nd.

" - t h e r a l l y and 180 were a r r e s t e d , and Clam announced i t s n e x t o c c u p a t i o n f o r October

.

.
From t h e s e f i r s t two o c c u p ~ t ' i o n s ,Clam drew s e v e r a l ~ o n c l u s i o n s . Eighteen people.

F i r s t , i t planned on e s c a l a t i n g t h e c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e . had b e e n w i l l i n g t o b e a r r e s t e d f o r t h e f i r s t one,

'

Clam planned t o have One hundred e i g h t y

them each b r i n g t e n p e o p l e t o t h e August 22nd a c t i o n .

were a r r e s t e d on August, and Clam p l a n n e d t o have each o f them b r i n g t e n more t o t h e n e x t o c c u p a t i o n . Although Clam changed t h e October a c t i o n t o
,

a N a t u r a l Energy P a t r an,d postponed t h e o c c u p a t i o n u n t i l A p r i l 1977, t t s s t r a t e g y o f h a v i n g t e n t i m e s a s many remained t h e same. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s t r a t e g y o f h a v i n g a f f i n i t y groups and t r a i n i n g emqrged o u t of t h e e x p e r i e n c e d u r i n g t h e f i r s t two d e m o n s t r a t t o n s . Those

who were t o t r e s p a s s on August 1st g o t t o g e t h e r a number o f t i m e s t o prep a r e themselves f o r doing c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e . They were u n c e r t a i n about
.

what might happen and were a p p r e h e n s i v e a b o u t i t , s o t h e n i g h t b e f o r e . t h e i r p r o t e s t , an AFSC s t a f f member h e l p i n g them p r e p a r e s u g g e s t e d t h a t they r o l e p l a y t o g e t a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e i r own r e a c t i o n s and t h o s e of o t h e r s (-especially t h e police)-. They were s o impressed w i t h t h e e x t e n t t o which

t h e s e m e e t i n g s and r o l e - p l a y i n g i n c r e a s e d t h e i r s e n s e o f s o l i d a r i t y and prep a r e d n e s s , t h a t Clam d e c i d e d t h a t t h o s e who wanted t o p a r t i c k p a t e on August

..

22nd s h o u l d b e o r g a n i z e d i n t o s m a l l groups and h a v e o r i e n t a t i o n and t r a i n i n g . Again

. Clam was v e r y p l e a s e d . w i t h t h e r e s .u l t s , and s o made t h e s e a s t a n d a r d

p a r t of i t s p r o c e d u r e s .

Clam saw t h e t r a i n i n g a s s t r e n g t h e n i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s '

commitment t o n o n v i o l e n c e , i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r a b i l i t y t o s t a n d t h e s t r e s s f u l s i t u a t i o n , and a s promoting group s o l i d a r i t y . ,Clam was p l e a s e d w i t h t h i s o c c u p a t i o n and saw i t . a s showing t h e immense p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f u s i n g o r d e r l y p r o t e s t f o r s o c i a l change.
.

I n Whyl,

Germany, c i t i z e n s had occupied t h e s i t e o f a proposed n u c l e a r p l a n t and so. prevented its c o n s t r u c t i o n . Come members of Clam e n v i s i o n e d i t o r g a n i z i n g

:''

a s i m i l a r ' p r o t e s t a t Seabrook.
.
.

However, a s Clam planned f o r t h e O c t o b e r . a c t i o n , some members,,par.

.

titularly Lovejoy, argued t h a t i t was a bad s t r a t e g y t o c o n t i n u e h a v i n g oc-

cupations:

Clam was n o t s t r o n g enought t o mount a n o t h e r l a r g e r one; and Clam decided

i t Aeeded t o do e d u c a t i o n a i work a s w e l l a s . h a v e p r o t e s t s .

t o change t h e October a c t i o n t o .a N a t u r a l Energy F a i r i n t h e hopes of a t t r a c t i n g more d i v e r s e p e o p l e , and e s p e c i a l l y . s e a c o a s t r e s i d e n t s who opposed n u c l e a r power b u t were u n w i l l i n g t o b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e . In this Clam

way i t would a l s o do more e d u c a t i o n and o r g a n i z i n g around t h e i s s u e s .

was p l e a s e d t h a t 300.0 p e o p l e a t t e n d e d , many o f whom w e r e l o c a l r e s i d e n t s . Clam s p e n t t h e w i n t e r p r e p a r i n g f o r t h e A p r i l 1977 o c c u p a t i o n , Some

of t h e main i s s u e s w e r e r e c r u i t i n g , k e e p i n g t h e p r o t . e s t w e l l o r g a n i z e d , and e s p e c i a l l y making s u r e t h e r e would be no v i o l e n c e .

I have no s p. e c i f i c . i n f o r .

mation a b o u t r e c r u i t m e n t , o t h e r t h a n t h a t h o s e a l r e a d y i n v o l v e d used t h e i r networks,

.

A major p a r t of t h e e f f o r t t o keep t h e p r o t e s t w e l l o r g a n i z e d and

n o n v i o l e n t - c e n t e r e d around t r a i n i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s , and, g i v e n t h e si-ze, t g a i n i n g trainers, Clam used i t s own p e o p l e and a l s o p e o p l e from o t h e r n o n v i o l e n t d i r e c t

a c t i o n g r o u p s (gee R e l a t i o n s w i t h A l l i e s ) , and developed t r a i n i n g m a t e r i a l s , Because Clam was concerned t h a t no one p a r t i c i p a t e e x c e p t t h o s e who had been t r a i n e d , i t worked o u t . e x t e n s i v e p r o c e d u r e s , forms, and r e c o r d s .

I n a d d i t i o n , Clam t r i e d ' t o c o n s t r u c t g u i d e l i n e s of a c c e p t a b l e nonv i o l e n t conduct. However, t h i s brought o u t d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , e . g . ,

w h e t h e r b l o c k i n g workers and d e s t r u c t i o n o f p r o p e r t y s h o u l d b e allowed ( s i n c e by t h i s t ' i m e c o n s t r u c t i o n had begun). ' T h e s e i s s u e s were n o t f u l l y r e s o l v e d ; C l a m d i d work o u t g u i d e l i n e s , b u t l e f t some o f t h e unresolved i s s u e s t o b e d e c i d e d by t h e o c c u p i e r s a t t h e s i t e . Clam r e g a r d e d t h e A p r i l 1977 o c c u p a t i o n as a major s u c c e s s , and t h i s remained a . d e f i n ' i t i v e ' e x p e r i e n c e f o r t h e A l l i a n c e . p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e o c c u p a t i o n and 1414 w e r e a r r e s t e d , About 2500 p e o p l e ,(The a f f i n i t y groups

were o r g a n i z e d w i t h members who would n o t b e a r r e s t e d s o t h e y could p r o v i d e s u p p o r t s e r v i c e s f o r t h o s e who were, e . g . , media.) c o n t a c t i n g t h e i r f a m i l i e s and t h e

S i n c e t h e a u t h o r i t i e s would' n o t release a l l t h e p r o t e s t e r s on t h e i r

own r e c o g n i z a n c e , many c h o s e t o remain i n c u s t o d y u n t i l a l l were r e l e a s e d . The a u t h o r i t i e s p u t t h e d e m o n s t r a t o r s i n n a t i o n a l guard a r m o r i e s , and t h e p r o t e s t e r s o r g a n i z e d a v a r i e t y of a c t i v i t i e s t h e r e f o r themselves'. ( I n t h e August 1976 d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , t h e p e o p l e a r r e s t e d had been r e l e a s e d t h e n e x t day. Although Clam d i d t h i n k through some of t h e implit h e r e would b e did not plan

c a t i o n s o f h a v i n g t e n t i m e s a s many p e o p l e a r r e s t e d - - s i n c e

no New Hampshire f a c i l i t i e s l a r g e enough t o h o l d them a l l - - i t f o r t h e p r o t e s t e r s t o b e d e t a i n e d f o r two weeks.

T r y i n g t o f i n d o u t where

d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e were b e i n g h e l d , making c o n t a c t w i t h t h e i r f a m i l i e s , a r r a n g i n g b a i l f o r t h o s e who wanted i t , e t c . p l a c e d a tremendous s t r a i n ,on c o r e members who were n o t i n t h e a r m o r i e s , and e s p e c i a l l y on t h e s e a c o a s t

supporters. 1
Following t h e A p r i l 19.77 o c c u p a t i o n , Clam's major a c t f v i t y was expanding eh.e o r g a n i z a t i , o n , e s p e c i a l l y s t a r t i n g up new l o c a l groups. I n ad-

d i t i o n , t h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t whether Clam s h o u l d have a n o t h e r o c c u p a t t o n , and i f s o , how i t s h o u l d d i f f e r from t h e one i n A p r k l , Clam saw h t e p u b l i c i t y and p u b l i c r e a c t i o n t o t h e A p r i l ' o c c u p a t i o n a s showing t h a t t h e r e was an anti-nuke constituency t o be,organized, Many

of t h o s e who p a r t i c i p a t e d . w e n t back t o t h e i r own communi.ties and s t a r t e d up a n t i - n u k e groups which g o t i n v o l v e d i n l o c a l issues--some a l t e r n a t i v e energy s o u r c e s , and some around o t h e r i s s u e s . anti-nuke, some

I n a d d i t i o n , people

i n more d i s t a n t p l a c e s began a l l i a n c e s modelled on t h e Clam, and t h e r e was some c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t r y i n g t o weld t o g e t h e r a t r u l y n a t i o n a l movement.

.. ..

W i t h i n t h e Clam t h e r e was d i s c u s s i o n b o t h o f how t o i n c l u d e ' a l l t h e s e

C l a m planned a n o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n f o r

new members and a b o u t what t o do n e x t .

t h e l a t e summer, b u t d i d n o t g e t i t o r g a n i z e d because some o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e d members were e x h a u s t e d from t h e A p r i l o c c u p a t i o n and i t s a f t e r m a t h . But, i n

a d d i t i o n , t h e r e were some s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e v a l u e o f a n o t h e r occup a t i o n , and s o Clam c o n s i d e r e d a l t e r n a t i v e a c t i o n s .

A number of arguments were r a i s e d a g a i n s t h a v i n g a n o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n .

.Some p e o p l e were concerned a b o u t t h e d a n g e r s o f such disturbances.

l a r g e p r o t e s t s and of

I f t h e a u t h o r i t i e s were w i l l i n g t o a r r e s t 1400 p e o p l e , and

i f t h a t d i d n l t , p e r s u a d e PSC t o s t o p c o n s t r u c t i o n , ' b r i n g i n g , a few'more p e o p l e would h a v e l i t t l e impact. PSC was c o n t i n u i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n and w a s t h e r e f o r e

f n c r e a s i n g l y . committed t o completing t h e p l a n t ( i n c o n t r a s t . t o whYl where no c o n s t r u c t i o n had been begun). F u r t h e r , a n o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n would n o t a t t r a c t Occupations a t -

t h e media and would impiy t h a t Clam c o u l d do n o t h i n g e l s e .

.
.

t r a c t t e d p e o p l e w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e . l i f e styles, b u t might r e p e l 1 ' t h e more moderate social activists. F i n a l l y , t h e l o c a l ' s e a c o a s t r e s i d e n t s and t h o s e

s e r i s k t i v e t o them p o i n t e d t o t h e monumental need f o r l o g i s t i c a l s u p p o r t , There were a l s o o b j e c t i o n s b y . t h o s e who saw t h e A p r i l o c c u p a t i o n '

. .

a s n o t h a v i n g been a s t r o n g enough s t a t e m e n t ,

These p e o p l e questione.d whec e r t a i n l y p e o p l e werq

t h e r Clam had even i n t e n d e d t o have a n o c c u p a t i o n :

n o t p r e p a r e d t o spend s i x months o r a y e a r on t h e s i t e , and crsope.ration w i t h t h e p o l i c e and o t h e r a u t h o r i t i e s i m p l i e d a n a c c e p t a n c e of t h e i r . l e g i t i m a c y .

.

Some of t h e s e . Clam members argued t h a t t h e a u t h o r g t i e s were n o t l e g i t i m a t e . Aft'er much d i s c u s s f o n , Clam .approved an a c t i o n f o r J u n e 1978. w a s ' t o b e a co9bin:ed o c c u p a t i o n and r e s t o r a t i o n which C l a m hoped would This

emphasize t h e more p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s of t h e a c t i o n , fked t h a t t h e o c c u p i e r s . s h o u l d go door-to-door

I n a d d i t i o n , Clam s p e c i -

throughout t h e a r e a e x p l a i n i n g

t h e purpose of t h e p r o t e s t , and t h a t t h e o c c u p i e r s must d e v i s e ways t o b e more s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t and l e s s burden on l o c a l s u p p o r t e r s , d i d , however, i n c l u d e p l a n s f o r c i . v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e . more d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t This occupation

T h i s t i q e t h e r e was

d e s t r u c t i o n of p r o p e r t y and whether t h e a u t h o r t t i e s F i n a l l y , j u s t a few weeks b e f o r e t h e o c c u p a t i o n ,

should be t o l d t h e plans.

t h o s e who b e l i e v e d t h a t d e s t r u c t i o n of p r o p e r t y s h o u l d b e allowed gave i n , b u t on t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h i s a c t i o n would a p p l y o n l y t h i s once, However, t h e l o c a l r e s i d e n t s who w e r e a c t i v e i n clam were under i n creasing pressure.
A t - t h e c o o r d i n a t P n g committee m e e t i n g . j u s t b e f o r e t h e

o c c u p a t i o n , t h e y s a i d t h a t t h e y were u n a b l e t o a g r e e t o i.t:' o p p o s i t i o n i n the"community was mounting, t h e l o c a l p e o p l e f e a r e d t h e s i z e o f t h e crowds and t h e p r o s p e c t f o r v i o l e n t c o n f r o n t a t i o n s (.e.g., between d e m o n s t r a t o r s , and l o c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k e r s ) . tion to a legal rally.
On t h i s b a s i s t h e CC changed t h e .occupa.
.

Although. 1 2 , 0 0 0 . l o c a l p e o p l e and a b o u t 6000 Clams a t t e n d e d , Clam was n o t s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e J u n e , r a l l y . There w e r e ' two m a j o r ' i s s u e s : the

p r o c e s s by which t h e d e c i s i o n had been .made, and what k i n d s o f a c t i o n s Clam should b e organizing; The d e c i s i o n by t h e CC was c l e a r l y a v i o l a t i o n of Those more s y m p a t h e t i c w i t h

Clam p r o c e d u r e s of c o n s u l t a t i o n and concensus.

t h e s e a c o a s t r e s i d e n t s f e l t t h a t under t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i t was probably t h e b e s t d e c i s i o n , whatever t h e i r p e r s o n a l d i s a p p o i n t m e n t a t n o t 'having an0~he.r ccupation. o O t h e r s , who had j o i n e d t h e Clam t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n c i v i l

d i s o b e d i e n c e a g a i n s t n u c l e a r power wi;thin t h e k i n d o f .concensus organi'zation Clam claimed t o b e , f e l t .more b e t r a y e d b y . t h e d e c i s i o n .

.

F i n a l l y , t h e r e w e r e . some members who f e l t t h a t a p o l i t i c a l , r a l l y

.
.

was- n o t t h e k i n d of p o l i t i c a l s t a t e m e n t ehey. were w t l l i n g t o make, t h a t Ciam

s h o u l d do whatever i t t o o k t o r e a l l y occupy t h e s i t e , and t h a t t h e way t h e d e c i s i o n had been made showed t h a t "concensus" was j u s t a w a y . t o m a n i p u l a t e dissident minorities. T h i s group argued v i g o r o u s l y t h a t t h e s t a t e was i l l e . .

g i t i m a t e , and s o opposed l e t t i n g t h e a u t h o r i t i e s know t h e i r p l a n s .

.

It saw

h o l d i n g l e g a l r a l l i e s a s merely a p p e a l i n g t o t h e s e a u t h o r i t i e s (and s o g i v i n g them l e g i t i m a c y ) , and saw ending t h e r a l l y when t h e a u t h o r i t i e s t o l d them t o do s o o r c o o p e r a t i n g a f t e r a r r e g t . a s merely k n u c k l i n g under.* . .
1t' b e l i e v e d

t h a t p e o p l e s h o u l d t a k e a c t i o n s i n t o t h e i r own hands r a t h e r t h a n p l e a d i n g with t h e state.

A t t h e r a l l y , t h i s group drew i t s e l f t o g e t h e r and formed

: Clams f o r Democracy.

~ u r i n g h e .summer, Clam t r i e d t o r e s o l v e t h e s e p h i l o s o p h i c a l and t s t r a t e g i c i s s u e s , b u t t h e groups tal.ked p a s t each o t h e r ,

.

Over t h e n e x t y e a r ,

t h e s p l i t between t h e f a c t i o n s became s h a r p e r and more b i t t e r , and t h e i r proposed p l a n s d i v e r g e d i n c r e a s i n g l y , Clam c o u l d n o t a g r e e on c o n d i t i o n s under which t o h o l d a n o t h e r major occupation. Some members argued t h a t Clam s h o u l d o r g a n i z e a r e a l o c c u p a t i o n

of t h e s i t e , u s i n g w h a t e v e r forms o f c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e t h i s m i g h t r e q u i r e . Others a r g u e d a g a i n s t a l a r g e - s c a l e p r o t e s t b e c a u s e of t h e danger of a v i o l e n t c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h . c o n s t r u c t i o n worker's o r a u t h o r i t i e s . , A s a compromise, 2n t h e f a l l o f 1978, C l a m approved "wave a c t i o n s : " small groups.
,

c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e by

The f i r s t group d i d s l i p o n t o t h e s i t e and members cha2ned

themselves t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n equipment, b u t none o f t h e l a t e r waves g o t i n s i d e t h e fence. Although t h e Boston group ( t h e CFD f a c t i o n ) d i d n l . t g e t

i n s i d e , i t r e g a r d e d t t s a t t e m p t a s a s u c c e s s b e c a u s e i t had been a genuine a t t e m p t t o occupy.

.
.

Most of t h e Clam, however, was d i s a p p o i n t e d because t h e

wave a c e i o n s t o o k a l m o s t as much p r e p a r a t i o n d s a n o c c u p a t f o n , b u t d%d n o t receive the public attention.

I n t h e s p r i n g o f 29.79., Boston C l a m s h e l l , t h e .mafn cenver of thSs. group,

was. s o opposed t o demonstrat2ons. which seemed t o b e appea12ng t o t h e government, t h a t i t r e f u s e d . t t a k e p a r t i n t h e b i g May 6 demoqstl;ation i n Washington f o l ~ lowing TMI.

The o t h e r important a c t i o n d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d was t h e blockade of . t h e r e a c t o r v e s s e l . The same i s s u e s o f how m i l i t a n t t h e p r o t e s t

.

should b e and t h e meaning on nonviolence were r a i s e d , b u t t h e r e was much l e s s ' d i s a g r e e m e n t o v e r , having- t h e b l o c k a d e ' ( p a r t l y .because i t would n o t b e a t t h e Seabrook s i t e , and s o would n o t u p s e t t h e r e s i d e n t s fhere).
A g r e a t d e a l of planning went i n t o t h e b l o c k a d e b e c a u s e i t was

b e i n g b u i l t under c o n s i d e r a b l e s e c r e c y ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e p r o t e s t e r s had t o o r g a n i z e a major r e s e a r c h e f f o r t t o f i n d o u t wh@n t h e r e a c t o r v e s s e l

. .

. .

would b e needed, where i t wgs b e i n g b u i l t , and t h e r o u t e o v e r which i t would b e - t r a n s p o r t e d . Since.Clam c o u l d n o t set t h e t i m i n g of t h i s a c t i o n ,

it organized a t e l e p h o n e . t r e e
.

as

a means o f g a t h e r i n g p r o t e s t e r s when

t h e moment a r r i v e d .

There were r e l a t i v e l y e l a b o r a t e - p l a n s i n c l u d i n g a

blockade on t h e s e a by l o c a l fishermen a s w e l l a s a blockade of t h e land route. I n t h e e a r l y s p r i n g of 19.79, t h e r e a c t o r . v e s s e 1 was moved; Clam

a t t e m p t e d t o s t o p . i t , but was u n s u c c e s s f u l , . I n t h e s p r i n g o f . 1 9 7 9 , CFD made p l a n s . f o r a n o c c u p a t i o n , b u t

- .
.:

could

: , g e t t h e r e s t o f ' C l a m o n l y t o a g r e e t o e n d o r s e CFD o r g a n i z i n g
.

t h e p r o t e s t o u t s i d e of Clam.

The d i s s i d e n t s were

v e r y a n g r y about t h i s

and saw i t a s a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e of t h e power and c o n t r o l by t h e s t a f. f. and long-term members who were u n w i l l i n g t o . s h a r e power.. The d i s i d e n t s formed . ..

Clams f o r ~ i r e c t Action a t seabrook i n o r d e r t o o r g a n i z e . what t h e y conP r e p a r i n g f o r i t , t h e y gave most o f . ( e . g . , b r i n g l a d d e r s , wear g a s masks) ' t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o t a c t i c s f o r g e t t i n g on t h e site', and l e f t t h e p a r t i s i d e r e d would b e a r e a l o c c u p a t i o n . c i p a n t s r e l a t i v e l y f r e e t o do whatever t h e y c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r y once t h e y
..

got there. Meanwhile, Clam approved an e d u c a t i o n a l r a l l y , "Turning Tide," f o r J u l y 1979. T h i s r a l l y was o r i e n t e d toward t h e c o a s t a l c o n s t i t u e n c y ,

and s o was a marked change from t h e e a r l i e r o c c u p a t i o n s which had drawn p e o p l e from o t h e r p l a c e s a s a show o f -broad s u p p o r t .

Chi October 6 , 1979, C A had i t s o c c u p a t i o n i n which 1800 proDS

t e s t e r s t r i e d t o d i s m a n t l e o r p u l l down t h e f e n c e s around t h e s i t e . p o l i c e r e p e l l e d them. (Meanwhile a n o t h e r set of Clam-related p e o p l e

The

o r g a n i z e d a v i g i l i n o r d e r t h a t t h e r e would b e a . n o n v i o l e n t p r e s e n c e , d e s p i t e C A 's p l a n s .) CDAS .was d i s a p p o i n t e d b e c a u s e . t h e y thought t h e y DS

,

would b e a b l e - t o occupy t h e s i t e , a t l e a s t f o r a s h o r t . w h i l e .

The r e s t

of Clam was r e l i e v e d t h a t t h e r e - h a d n o t been more v i o l e n c e and had been no p u b l i c d e n u n c i a t i o n of a n t i - n u k e p r o t e s t . On October 28-29, 1979, t h e Wall s t r e e t Action t o o k p l a c e . This

a l s o was o r g a n i z e d by C l a m members, b u t o u t s i d e t h e Clam s t r u c t u r e (bec a u s e o f t h e wrangling w i t h i n Clam). Its o r g a n i z e r s saw t h e b a s i c i s s u e

a s t h e e x p l o i t a t i v e c a p i t a l i s t system, b u t a t t h e same t i m e were more s e n s i t i v e t o t h e concerns of t h e s e a c o a s t r e s i d e n t s t h a n was CDAS. This..

a c t ' i o n involved c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e , b u t w a s o r g a n i z e d w i t h s t r i c t nonviol e n c e and a f f i n i t y groups. York Stock Exchange. I n February 1980, Clam endorsed a c t i o n s propqsed by b o t h f a c t i o n s : a C A o c c u p a t i o n i n M a y - a n d . a s t a f f - s e a c o a s t "Seabrook Summer '80." DS
.

About 1000 p e o p l e were a r r e s t e d a t t h e New

The

C A o c c u p a t i o n was b e t t e r o r g a n i z e d . t h a n t h e ' o c t o b e r 1979 one; t h e r e was DS more d e s t r u c t i o n of p r o p e r t y , b u t no v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t workers.

CDAS was

d i s a p p o i n t e d t h a t o n l y 1 5 0 0 . p e o p l e came, t h a t .it was n o t a b l e t o g e t on t h e s i t e , and t h a t t h e r e w a s l i t t l e p u b l i c .response t o i t s e f f o r t s . . . lowing t h a t d c c u p a t i o n , C A became less committed t o t h e s t r a t e g y of DS d i r e c t a c t i o n s i n c e i t d i d n o t seem a b l e t o mount Fol-

a strong

enough a t t a c k ;

b u t i t was u n s u r e what o t h e r t a c t i c s provided a s u f f i c i e n t l y r a d i c a l a l t ernative.

The Seabrook Summer '80 was supposed t o b e a summer o f symbolic a c t i o n s i n c l u d i n g b o t h l e g a l r a l l i e s and c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e , b u t i t n e v e r g o t o f f t h e ground.

C u r r e n t l y none of t h e f a c t i o n s o f Clamshell a r e a c t i v e .

~bwever,

some of t h e l o c a l groups s t i l l remain, and t h e y a r e involved i n a v a r i e t y of t a c t i c s . For example, a number of towns around seabrook a r e p a s s i n g
,

o r d i n a n c e s a g a i n s t . c a r r y i n g n u c l e a r w a s t e s t h r o u g h t h e i r ~ c o m m u n i t i e s , and t h e r e is an e f f o r t t o g e t l a r g e r j u r i s d i c t i o n s t o pass such r e g u l a t i o n s .

RESOURCES Throughout i t s h i s t o r y , Clam was a b l e t o m o b i l i z e p e o p l e t o t a k e part i n its protests. w h i t e , well-educated, Those most a c t i v e i n t h e Clam w e r e overwhelmingly and approximately e q u a l numbers of men and women;
.

t h e r e were some low-income p e o p l e , p r i m a r i l y from New Hampshire.

.

Cohen.

c h a r a c t e r i z e s C l a m membership a s

made of New . L e f t a c t i v i s t s ,

d r a w n . i n t o t.he s t r u g g l e by environmental groups ( s e e e s p e c i a l l y - p p . 79.-80, but s c a t t e r e d allusionsaand evidence throughout). ganized Clam were 25-45 y e a r s o l d . Most of t h o s e who o r -

I n t h e A p r i l -19.77 ottcupation, p e r h a p s and a n o t h e r q u a r t e r c o l l e g e -

h a l f t h o s e a r r e s t e d w e r e i n t h e i r mid-twenties, aged; most of t h e remainder werS o l d e r . .

(1n t h e l a r g e s t armory, where s i x

hundred p.eople were h e l d , 36 were f. i f. t y y e a r s . o r o l d e r , i . e . ,

about 6%;

t h e r e werelfewer t h a n - t h a t of h i g h ' s c h o o l a g e , and no younger p e o p l e were incarcerated.)

A t t h e s u p p o r t r a l l i e s , l e g a l f. a .i r s , e t c . t h e r e was an

even wider s p r e a d o f a g e s , and probably a l a r g e r p r o p r o t i o n of middle-aged and o l d e r . p e o p l e . Those i n v o l v e d ' b e f o r e t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e C l a m tended t o b e l i n k e d i n t o environmental groups o r GSA, o r t o b e l o c a l r e s i d e n t s . of t h e s e groups a p p a r e n t l y was f a t r l y d i f f e r e n t : The composition

t h e environmental group
.

S members were o l d e r and more f i n a n c i a l l y s e c u r e , w h i l e GHG members and G A

o r g a n i z e r s were younger and "New L e f t i s. h , ' " and t h e GSA c o n s t i t u e n c y i n c l u d e d . t h e poor ( e . g . , w e l f a r e mothers) as well as p r o g r e s s i v e s o c i a l activists. .

From t h e t i m e Clam formed, i t was concerned w i t h m o b i l i z i n g l o c a l p e o p l e , and i t o f t e n measured s u c c e s s a n d / o r d e s i g n e d s t r a t e g y around t h i s

c r i t e r i o n (e..g.,. p o i n t i n g t o t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e town v o t e s a g a i n s t
. .

t h e n u c l e a r p l a n t , u r g i n g e d u c a t i o n a l programs and t a c t i c s which would n o t f r i g h t e n o r o f. f.e n d l o c a l r e s i d e n t s , and r e c r u i t i n g f i s h e r m e n f o r t h e s e a blockade). The f i r s t 1.8 p r o t e s t e r s . ~ ( A u g u s t1, 1976) were drawn from t h e

f o u n d e r s o f . t h e ' C l a m , ' and t h e 180 f o r . t h e August 22nd p r o t e s t were r e c r u i t e d

.

through t h . e i r networks:

However, a major argument a g a i n s t having a n o t h e r

o c c u p a t i o n i n October 1976 was t h a t n o t enough l o c a l residents were being included.

. A t t h e same t i m e , t h e August p r o t e s t s - - a n d
.

t h e A p r i l 19.77 occu-

p a t i o n t o a f a r g r e a t e r extent--srved
.
.

as a means of recruitmen.t t o t h e Clam.

A f t e r A p r i l 1977, many p e o p l e j o i n e d Clam and e s p e c i a l l y t h e l o c a l .groups. The l o c a l groups tended t o b e comprised of p e o p l e from t h a t commun-

i t y , and, i n some c a s e s , a l s o c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s l i v i n g t h e r e t e m p o r a r i l y . ( I c a n ' t t e l l from t h e s o u r c e s how much v a r i a t i o n t h e r e . w a s among l o c a l gro'ups) I n t h e major a c t i o n s a f t e r A p r i l 1977, t h e r e w e r e l a r g e r numbers 18-20 y e a r ' o l d s . Many o,f t h e p e o p l e who

o f younger d e m o n s t r a t o r s , e . g . ,

j o i n e d a f t e r t h e A p r i l o c c u p a t i o n d i d . n o t s h a r e t h e v a l u e s of t h e o r i g i n a l p a r t i c i p a n t s , and t h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s t r u s t w i t h i n t h e Clamas i t increased i n s i z e . A f t e r TMI, t h e r e was a n o t h e r i n f l u x of members, b o t h t o t h e Clam and t o t h e l o c a l groups. .The Clam d i d n o t develop mechanisms f o r i n c o r -

p o r a t i n g t h e s e p e o p l e ; I have no i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e l o c a l g r o u p s were a b l e t o do s o . These p e o p l e had .a b r o a d e r r a n g e of

backgrounds, e . g . , more middle-aged a s w e l l a s y o u t h f u l p e o p l e , and working c l a s s a s w e l l a s middle c l a s s .

. .

The p e o p l e who formed CFD i n 1978 and CDAS i n 1979 were drawn mainly from s p e c i f i c . a f f i n i t y groups. was t h e primary c e n t e r . I n b o t h c a s e s , ~ o s t o nClamshell

DS .Demographically, t h e members of CFD and C A Those who p a r t i c i p a t e d . i n t h e October

were s i m i l a r t o t h e r e s t o f . Clam.

1979 C A o c c u p a t i o n were mostly newer members a i d t h o s e , p u l l i n g away DS from Clam.

P e o p l e became involved i n Clamshell a c t i v i t i e s i n d i f f e r e n t ways.

.
.

Networks were an important e a r l y s o u r c e o f p a r t i c i p a n t s .

The August 1976

a n d . A p r i 1 1977 o c c u p a t i o n s were s e e n a s s u c c e s s f u l , and b o t h media cosrera g e a n d , p e r s o n a l n e t w o r k s - w e r e importance c h a n n e l s f o r .involvement on new people. I n 19.78 and 19.79., t h e r e was widespread p u b l i c o u t r a g e i n New

Hampshire o v e r CWIP; G A (no l o n g e r a c t i v e l y involved i n t h e Clam) was S one. of t h e f i r s t groups t o o r g a n i z e around - t h i s i s s u e , and t h e r e was a good d e a l o f p u b l i c involvement i n o p p o s i t i o n t o CWIP; however, i t i s n o t c l e a r t h a t t h i s brought more p e o p l e i n t o t h e Clam. The A p r i l 1977 o c c u p a t i o n was p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f.i c a n t f o r Clam. . Not o n l y d i d m a y p e o p l e j o i n b e c a u s e of i t , b u t many p e o p l e formed l o c a l groups i n New England, o r formed s i m i l a r a l l i a n c e s . i n o t h e r p a r t s o f . t h e
. .

country.

People c o n t r i b u t e d money t o . t h e C l a m which enabled i t t o h i r e $100 p e r month).

its"'f i r s t . s t a f f members ( a t minimal s a l a r i e s - - g e n e r a l l y . .

F u r t h e r , t h e Clam used t h e t i m e i n t h e armory--the

enforced, i n t e n s e t i m e
.
.

t o g e t h e r made bonds among p a r t i c i p a n t s which h e l p e d r e d e f i n e . a f f i n i t y groups from b e i n g temporary d e v i c e s f o r a s i n g l e d e m o n s t r a t i o n t o b e i n g t h e b a s i c u n i t of the.Clam. F u r t h e r , t h e t i m e i n t h e armory was a n ' o p -

p o r t u n i t y f o r t h e Clam t o have workshops by which t o e d u c a t e i t s members, and t o develop i t s u s e of concensus f u r t h e r .

A t t h e same t i m e , t h e A p r i l 1977 o c c u p a t i o n . w a s a l s o a n - a p p r e c i a b l e d r a i n on Clam. Many of t h e e a r l y c o r e o r g a n i z e r s were exhausted by F u r t h e r , some of t h e l o c a l r e s i -

i t and withdrew, a t l e a s t temporarily..

d e n t s were u p s e t b o t h by t h e demands p l a c e d on.the'm, and t h e n ' b y t h e way t h o s e i n t h e armories got a l l t h e c r e d i t . ( S i n c e Clam had n o t planned on

p r o t e s t e r s b e i n g h e l d s o long i n . t h e a r m o r i e s , i t . h a d n o t made p r o v i s i o n s f i r d e a l i n g w i t h t h e ensuing problems. ' b c a l supporters heiped handle

t h e s e problems, and t h e i r homes were t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s f o r v i r t u a l l y a l l the activities )

More b r o a d l y , t h e l o c a l r e s i d e n t s gave t h e u s e of t h e i r l a n d f o r assembling of p r o t e s t e r s , allowed p r o t e s t e r s t o camp on t h e i r p r o p e r t y , t o u s e . t h e i r w a t e r and t e l e p h o n e s , and t o l e t theirhomes b e used f o r t r a i n i n g and p l a n n i n g -m e e t i n g s . I have l i t t l e i n t h e way of e s t i m a t e s a b o u t Clam's f i n a n c e s .

..

major o c c u p a t i o n may.have c o s t $20,000, and a monthly phone b i l l might r u n a s h i g h a s $1000. month. Most Clam work was done by v o l u n t e e r s .
:

C l a m had 2-8 s t a f f members,who r e c e i v e d $100 p e r

-

Much of t h e o r g a n i z i n g Clam p a i d

and - p l a n n i n g was done by young p e o p l e w i t h d i s c r e t i o n a r y time.

f o r .no l e g a l s e r v i c e s , b u t - r e l i e d i n s t e a d upon donated . s e r v i c e s by t h e ACLU. and o t h e r - lawyers. protest activities. Doctors and n u r s e s v o l u n t e e r e d , t h e i r s e r v i c e s a t

S c i e n t i s t s and m e d i c a l p e o p l e provided t e c h n i c a l in-

f o r m a t i o n - a b o u t b i o l o g i c a l ' e f f e c t s o f r a d i a t i o n . and about a l t e r n a t i v e -forms of energy. Other t y p e s of v o l u n t e e r . s k i l l e d l a b o r - i n c l u d e d a r t , " m e d i a ,

.

o f f i c e work ( s e c r e t a r i a l and boqkkeepping), and o r g a n i z e r s .

Especially. f o r

t h e f i r s t y e a r , Clam depended f o r s t a f. f.i n g on p e o p. l e. from o t h e r organizat i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y GSA ( o f f i c e work and r e c r u i t m e n t by s t a f. f. working f u l l t i m e

.

on Clamshell a c t i v i t i e s ) and AFSC ( f o r n o n v i o l e n t t r a i n i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y ) .

VI.

RELATIONS WITH ALLIES

Before t h e C l a m was formed, a number of groups had become involved i n opposing t h e Seabrook p l a n t . Although t h e r e was some c o o p e r a t i o n among

them, t h e r e were substancial-disagreements,e s p e c i a l l y o v e r t a c t i c s and style. These groups i n c l u d e d environmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s (SAPL, S o c i e t y specifically

f o r P r o t e c t i o n ' o f New Hampshire F o r e s t s , Audobon S o c i e t y , e t c . )

a n t i - n u c l e a r groups ( s u c h a s . t h e New Eng1,and C o a l i t i o n Against Nuclear P o l l u t i o n and t h r o u g h i t t h e . N a t u r a l Resources Defense Council.), l o c a l groups ( p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e one from Montague, M a s s a c h u s e t t s and t h e CCCSB), . t h e s o c i a l change network b u i l t by GSA, t h e GHG; Maine PIRG, and t h e l o c a l s t a f f of t h e AFSC.

C l a m was formed a s a n umbrella f o r f i f t e e n a n t i - n u c l e a r o r g a n i z a . .

t i o n s (I do n o t have a l i s t o f t h e s e ) .

Some of t h e groups named above

GHG and AFSC members

played s p e c i f i c r o l e s i n the'development of Clam:

w e r e - i m p o r t a n t i n s h a p i n g Clam's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of n o n v i o l e n c e , t h e Mont a g u e group persuaded.Clam t o change t h e October 19.76 o c c u p a t i o n t o a n

1 :

educational- f a i r , e t c .
. .

These o r g a n i z a t i o n s ' . n e t w o r k s w e r e a major r e G A s t a f f worked f u l l t i m e f o r Clam through S

s o u r c e f o r Clam r e c r u i t i n g .

A p r i l 1977 d o i n g o f f i c e work and r e c r u i t i n g . ' AFSC t o o k much o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t r a i n i n g and s e t t i n g up a f f i n i t y , - g r o u p s (and .drew on o t h e r

.

." n o n v i o l e n t d i r e c t a c t i o n o r g a n i z a t 3 o n s . f o r . t h e t r a i n i n g , e . g

., Committee

f o r Nonviolent A c t i o n , The Ark, Movement f o r a New s o c i e t y ) , and provided o f f i c e s p a c e f o r C l a m . d u r i n g 19.76.

, . :

Af t e r : t h e A p r i l . 19.77 o c c u p a t i o n , Clam. spawned o t h e r g r o u p s , b o t h

. ..

loc~lly and n a t i o n a l l y .

On t h e one hand; C l a m provided a f o c u s which

.

brought p e o p l e from .many p l a c e s t o g e t h e r , and u n i f i e d .them f o r one l a r g e a c t i o n . t o s t o p one n u c l e a r p l a n t . T h i s a c t i o n i n s p i r e d many. of t h e p e o p l e -Eventually,

t o go back t o t h e i r communities and s t a r t l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

t h e s e groups qutgrew t h e . C l a m s t r u c t u r e and s o c o n t i n u e d o r d i s o l v e d a s independent groups. During 1977-19.79, however, t h e s e groups. b o t h . s t r e n g t h p a r t i c i p a t i n g in.Clam a c t i v -

ened t h e C l a m and drew s t r e n g t h from i t , e ; g . ,

i t i e s , t a k i n g i n f o r m a t i o n back t o t h e i r communities, a n d a s k i n g Clam f o r

help i n l o c a l protests.

F u r t h e r , g r o u p s i n o t h e r p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y There w a s a s e n s e of comradeship

s t a r t e d a l l i a n c e s modelled o n . t h e . C l a m .

among t h e s e g r o u p s , and t h e y j o i n e d t o g e t h e r f o r a n t i - n u c l e a r p r o t e s t s , e . g . , . a t Rocky F l a t s , Colorado; Ground-Zero, Washington; and Barnswell, South C a r o l i n a .

A s a m a t t e r of p o l i c y , C l a m t r i e d t o r e a c h o u t t o groups who' were

d i r e c t l y a f. e c t e d by t h e Seabrook p l a n t , even t h o s e i m p l i c a t e d i n ' b u i l d i n g .

i t , s u c h a s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n workers, o r t h o s e d e f e n d i n g i t a g a i n s t t h e i r

p r o t e s t s , s u c h a s t h e n a t i o n a l guard.

Clam p r e p a r e d pamphlets f o r b o t h recruited local fish-

t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n workers and t h e n a t i o n a l guard;and ermen f o r t h e s e a blo.ckade.

I d o n ' t have much i n f o r m a t i o n on o t h e r a c t i v -

i t i e s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s e groups, o r on r e l a t i o n s w i t h any o t h e r o r g a n i z a t tons involved

I n g e n e r a l t h e r e does n o t - seem t o have been e i t h e r c l o s e cooperat i o n o r a p p r e c i a b l e c o m p e t i t i o n , w i t h o t h e r groups i n New England s i n c e none of them seems t o have been d o i n g d i r e c t a c t i o n on n u c l e a r i s s u e s . Apparently t h e r e was a c e r t a i n amount o f s h a r i n g . i n f o r m a t i o n and s p r e a d i n g
.-

i n f o r m a t i o n - t h r o u g h n e w s l e t t e r s ; and i n d i v f d u a l s from o t h e r o r g a n i i a t i o n s became i n v o l v e d i n Clamshell through t h e s e connect i o n s . .Many o r g a n i z a t i o n s

were g l a d t o . t a k e p a r t i n Clam-sponiored . e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s ( ' f a i r s , r a l l i e s ) b e c a u s e t h i s provided a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r them t o t a l k p u b l i c a l l y a b o u t t h e i r own.concerns and programs. The o n l y i n d i c a t i o n of c o n f l i c t w i t h a n o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o r l t h a t I have i s t h a t when M o b i l i z a t i o n f o r S u r v i v a l was s t a r t i n g , t h e r e seems t o have been some f r i c t i o n and s e n s e of c o m p e t i t i o n . I do n o t have d e t a i l s

about t h i s , e x c e p t t h a t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s d i d work i t o u t . C o n f l i c t s w i t h i n Clamshell b u i l t up d u r i n g and a f t e r 1978. Nuch

of t h i s o p p o s i t i o n c e n t e r e d i n Boston Clamshell, a l t h o u g h o t h e r a f f i l i a t e s were a l s o i n v o l v e d , e . g . , Newburyport, P r o v i d e n c e , n o r t h e r n . V e r m o n t , e t c .

By t h e t i m e of TMI, Boston Clamshell w a s s o opposed t o any a c t i o n which seemed t o b e making a n a p p e a l t o t h e g o v e r & e n t , , t h a t p a r t i n t h e May 6, 1979 demonstratchon . i n Washington:.
it refused .to t a k e
i t was t h e o n l y

' n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n t o an a n t i - n u k e . c o a l i t i o n t h a t i n c l u d e d m i l i t a n t envi- I

r o n m e n t a l i s t s , lobbying groups, PIRGs, p e a c e g r o u p s , and o t h e r s . The Wall S t r e e t Action i n October 19.79 i n v o l v e d War R e s i s t e r s . League, Harlem Fightback, M o b i l i z a t i o n f o r S u r v i v a l , W I N Magazine, Democ r a t i c S o c i a l i s t Organizing Committee,'Union of R a d i c a l Economists, and

a v a r i e t y of o t h e r . a n t i-nuke groups, a l l i a n c e s , and c o a l i t i o n s .

.

Some o f .

t h e s e g r o u p s were n o t primarily'a n t i - n u c l e a r

groups.

However, a t . l e a s t

some of them had been involved i n e a r l i e r Clam a c t i v i t i e s , e,. g . , W L had R a n a f f i n i t y group a t . t h e 1 9 7 7 . o c c u p a t i o n , and W I N p u b l i s h e d two whole i s s u e s and many a r t i c l e on t h e Clam.

RELATIONS WITH. AUTHORITIES Clam's r e l a t i o n s w i t h a u t h o r l t i e s were complicated by t h e r a n g e of views w i t h i n t h e a l l i a n c e : some members saw most a u t h o r i t i e s a s p a r t of Through

t h e c o n s t i t u e n c y ; o t h e r s s a w a l L t h e a u t h o r i t i e s as opponents.

J u n e 1978, Clam's p o l i c y was t o i n f o r m t h e a u t h o r i t i e s f u l l y a b o u t i t s p l a n s . A f t e r June 1978 t h e r e was i n c r e a s i n 3 d i s a g r e e m e n t a b o u t t h i s p o l i c y . Clam's e x p e c t a t i o n s about a u t h o r i t y r e s p o n s e s t o i t s a c t i o n s a l s o changed o v e r time. Through t h e A p r i l 1977 o c c u p a t i o n , C l a m saw t h e a u t h o r Up

i t i e s as w i l l i n g t o a r r e s t a l l t h o s e who committed c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e .

t o t h e A p r i l o c c u p a t i o n , Clam hoped t h t i n c r e a s i n g t h e numbers would f o r c e t h e a u t h o r i t i e s . t o r e c o n s i d e r , . ' b u t a f t e r t h e massive a r r e s t s , Clam began q u e s t i o n i n g w h e t h e r b r i n g i n g more p e o p l e w o u l d . h a v e any impact. Clam saw t h e a u t h o r i t i e s a s having l e a r n e d . t h e i r l e s s o n - - t h a t By 1979.,
'

mass a r r e s t s
A t the

h e l p e d t h e Clam'and s o were a t a c t i c a l m i s t a k e f o r . . t h e a u t h o r i t i e s .

wave a c t i o n s , t h e p o l i c e r e p e l l e d t h e p r o t e s t e r s and made some a r r e s t s , b u t s i n c e t h e s e were s m a l l e r a c t i o n s , t h e r e were no mass a r r e s t s . . A t t h e blockDS ' a d e r a n d a g a i n a t t h e C A o c c u p a t i o n s , t h e p o l i c e r e l i e d more h e a v i l y on u s i n g f o r c e t o d i s p e r s e t h e p r o t e s t t h a n on maing l a r g e numbers of a r r e s t s . C l a m saw t h e combination of t h e P ~ C ' Sf e n c e . a r o u n d . t h e s i t e and t h e changed

p o l i c e t a c t i c s a s p r e v e n t i n g i t from u s i n g mass c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e a t 'Seabrook, and as f o r c i n g it t o d e v i s e new t a c t i c s .

.

However, t h e Wall. S t r e e t

Actdon o r g a n i z e r s were committed t o u s i n g s t r i c t n o n v i o l e n c e and t r a i n f n g p r o t e s t e r s ; a s . t h e y e x p e c t e d , t h e a u t h o r i t i e s responded t o t h e i r mass c i v i l disobedience with a r r e s t s , not violence.

L o c a l harassment was a l s o an i s s u e .

During t h e w i n t e r of 1977-78

n e i g h b o r s p u t p r e s s u r e on l o c a l Clam s u p p o r t e r s t o p r e v e n t a n y . c o n f r o n t a t i o n , and t h e r e w a s some vandalism of t h e i r p r o p e r t y . Further, a court

i n j u n c t i o n was o b t a i n e d t o p r o h i b i t t h e u s e of l o c a l s u p p o r t e r s 1 l a n d f o r s t a g i n g a r e a s , and l o c a l o r d i n a n c e s were passed a g a i n s t t e n t i n g on p r i v a t e

. .

land.

I do n o t have i n f o , m a t i o n a b o u t who was involved i n g e t t i n g t h e

i n j u n c t i o n o r . o r d i n a n c e p a s s e d , and whether t h i s was p a r t of a l a r g e r s e t of ' c o n t r o v e r s i e s . But t h e l o c a l Clam s u p p o r t e r s t n s i s t a n c e on n o t exacer-

b a t i n g l o c a l f e a r s implies t h a t .they continued t o s e e o t h e r r e s i d e n t s a s

(.

a p o t e n t i a l c o n s t i t u e n c y r a t h e r t h a n as opponents. Claml.s r e l a t i o n s w i t h . t h e media were mixed.

C l a m r e g a r d e d William

Loeb, e d i t o r of t h e Manchester Unioi>-Leader a s a major opponent and a powerful a l l y of dovernor Meldrim Thomson. Some of i t s t a c t f c s . w e r e dee f f e c t (e.g.-, t h e e f f o r t s . . . .However,

s i g n e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o c o u n t e r t h e Union-Leader's t o go door-to-door

t o p r e s e n t i t s s i d e of t h e Seabrook i s s u e s ) .

Clam's r e l a t i o n s - w i t h - t h e a l t e r n a t i v e media and w i t h media from o t h e r p l a c e s , such a s Boston, s e e m g e n e r a l l y t o have b e e n p o s i t i v e . Coverage o f Clam

p r o t e s t s was b o t h p o s i t i v e and e x t e n s i v e ( i n c o n t r a s t , . f o r i n s . t a n c e , t o c o v e r a g e of t h e C A p r o t e s t s ) , and Clam 'seemed.concerned t o . h a v e good DS coverage, e . g . , Y t d i d n o t want t o b e p o r t r a y e d a s b e i n g i r r e s p o n s i b l e .

R e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e media was one o f . . t h e p o i n t s of c o n t r o v e r s y w i t h i n Clam: CFD and. CDAS saw t h e media much more

as

a t o o l of t h e . e s t a b l i s h m e n t .

VIII

RELATIONS WITH OPPONENTS Within C l a m . t h e r e was agreement t h a t PSC was a primary opponent, and t h a t s p e c i f i c s t a t e l e a d e r s - .- t h e . g o v e r n o r , . e d i t o r of t h e Manchester Union-Leader,
.

Meldrim Thomson, and t h e ardent supporters

William Loeb--were . .

of n u c l e a r power, and ,that t h e r e g u l a t o r y a g e n c i e s were b l a s e d tbward b u i l d i n g n u c l e a r power p l a n t s . B e f o r e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f Clam, some of t h e

g r o u p s which opposed t h e seabrook p l a n t hoped..to h a v e . a n impact through

l e g a l channels.

Clam was c r e a t e d by t h o s e who saw t h e PSC, r e g u l a t o r y agen-

c i e s , and s t a t e a s u n w i l l i n g t o . t a k e any a c c o u n t of t h e i r l e g i t i m a t e ' o p p o s i tion.

C l a m saw Loeb a s p r e s e n t i n g a b i a s e d a c c o u n t of t h e i s s u e s , and

Thomson a s e s c a l a t i n g t h e l e v e l of c o n f l i c t . However,. t h e r e was ..disagreement w i t h i n .Clam o v e r whether p e o p l e s u c h as t h e p o l i c e and N a t i o n a l Guard were opponents. . P a r t of Clam s a w

t h e s e p e o p l e a s n e i g h b o r s who were b a s i c a l l y doing t h e i r j o b s ; t h i s p a r t o f Clam emphasized r e a c h i n g o u t t o t h e s e p e o p l e . a n d saw C l a m ' s s u c c e s s i n winning o v e r some.of them ( e . g . ,
:'.

some o f t h e g u a r d s i n t h e armory).

o t h e r s i n C l a m saw. t h e p o l i c e a s having more p h y s c i a l f o r c e a t t h e i r d i s p o s a l , and a s l i k e l y t o . u s e f o r c e . i f provoked; t h e s e p e o p l e u r g e d . C l a m t o would l e a d . t o p o l i c e r e p r i s a l s . u s e - n o n v i o l e n c e a s a t a c t i c :because,.~vi'olence These p e o p l e were n o t persuaded t h a t i t . w a s w o r t h t r y i n g t o c o n v i n c e t h e pollce. There was some concern w i t h i n Clam a b o u t . a g e n t s p r o v o c a t u e r s .
Clam's

concern w i t h . t r a i n i n g ' . a n d a f f. i n i t y groups was p a r t l y . i n t e n d e d > t o c o n t r o l t h e .

/

'

e f f e c t i v e n e s s of such. a g e n t s , a n s some C l a m members were s u s p i c i o u s t h a t a g e n t s were . involved . i n s t i r r i n g up t h e d i s s i d e n t s ,who formed CFD and CDAS Boston Clamshell, CFD, and CDAS saw t h e a u t h o r i t i e s and s t a t e as opponents. Boston Clamshell wanted t h e . J u n e 19.78.:action.t0 b e more of a t h e y wanted i t t o . b e a r e a l . o c c u p a t i o n , and wanted Clam p l a n n i n g t o do.

confrontation:

n o t t o tell t h e a u t h o r i t i e s ahead of t i m e . w h a t C l a m was

Boston saw t h e Clam c o o r d i n a t i n g . committee's S d e c i s i o n t o have a l e g a l r a l l y a s c o m p l e t e l y i l l e g i t i m a t e and i t s w i l l i n g n e s s t o l e a v e t h e s i t e when t o l d t o do as a s c a p i t u l a t i n g . Boston f o r m a l i z e d . , i t s p o s i t i o n t h r o u g h t h e c r e - ' ,

a t i o n . of CFD which t o o k t h e s t a n c e , t h a t t h e s t a t e played a major p a r t i n n u c l e a r development and t h a t t h e .Clam s h o u l d be. e x p l i c i t i n i t s crit'i'cism of n u c l e a r power a s a n example of t h e a b u s e s of c a p i t a l i s m . r-son I t . s a w no
it s a w t h e

t o t e l l t h e p o l i c e i t s p l a n s . o r b a r g a i n w i t h t h e state:

s t a t e as i l l e g i t i m a t e because i t d i d n o t r e p r e s e n t t h e w i l l of t h e p e o p l e . Thus t h e Boston wave a c t l o n (October 19.78) d i d n o t inform t h e p o l i c e of i t s p l a n s , and Boston Clam d i d n o t c o o p e r a t e i n t h e May 1979.Washington r a l l y i n ' r e s p o n s e t o TMI . b e c a u s e i t saw t h i s a s a n e f f o r t t o p e t i t i o n t h e govern. . .

ment and t h e r e f o r e a s an implicit.endorsement.of..the government's l e g i t i macy and i t s r i g h t t o r e g u l a t e n u c l e a r power. By 1979, o t h e r s i n Clam b e s i d e s CFD and C A s a w . t h e problem a s DS
.
.

b e i n g c a p i t a l i s m , and s a w . n u c l e a r power as b e i n g t h e most dangerous h a z a r d o f t h e e x p l o i t a t i v e c a p i t a l i s t system; .however, t h e y d i d . n o t a d o p t CDAS's

: antagonistic

style.

The C A demonstrat i o n s sought c o n f r o n t a t i o n and showed DS

c o n s i d e r a b l e h o s t i l i t y toward t h e p o l i c e a n d media; t h e p o l i c e responded w i t h f o r c e and t h e media e i t h e r werd c r i t i c a l o r gave l i t t l e coverage. In

c o n t r a s t , t h e Wall S t r e e t Action m a i n t a i n e d s t r i c t n o n v i o l e n c e and showed no h o s t i l i t y toward t h e p o l i c e d e s p i t e b e i n g e x p l i c i t l y a n t i - c a p i t a l i s t . Those who made t h e c o n n e c t i o n between n u c l e a r power and i l u c l e a r weapons saw t h i s as expanding t h e r a n g e of i s s u e s g r e a t l y , a s changing t h e n a t u r e of t h e s t r u g g l e , and a s having i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r b o t h t a c t i c s toward t h e opponents and s t r a t e g i e s f o r m o b i l i z i n g t h e c o n s t i t u e n c y . They saw

o r g a n i z i n g p e o p l e t o oppose t h e Department o f Defence and t o t h i n k a b o u t d e f e n s e r e l a t e d i s s u e s a s b e i n g q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from t r y i n g t o o r g a n i z e p e o p l e t o oppose t h e PSC a b o u t . c o n s t r u c t i o n . of a n u c l e a r power p l a n t .

CAMPAIGN FOR ECONOMIC DEMOCRACY

/

Detroit Press, "Parade", 12/16/79:4-7 ----- . Free10116/79:lA, backpage

-----

-----

-----

10/18/79:lA, ? 10/20/79:3A, 11A 10115/79 (approximately)

Klein, Jeffrey, "The Essential Tom and Jane: What they are running for from?" Mother Jones, February-March 1980:40-58. Michigan Daily, 10/16/79: 1,2 New Common Good, 1 5 , () nd, but probably 1979, pp. 11-16 New York Times, 9/25/79:14A ----3/30/81:14 Young Americans for Freedom, "Join Us" flyer, nd but probably 1979 CLAMSHELL Interviews

And

Cohen, Etahn Micah, "Ideology, interest group formation, and protest: The case of the Anti-nuclear power movement, the Clamshell Alliance, and The New eft," unpublished dissertation, Harvard University, 1981. Grossman, "Being ,right is not enough" (check Linda's files for complgte citation) Wasserman, Harvey, Energy War (Westport, Conn: Laurence Hill, 1979)' ----"The New nuclear politics," Progressive 1/77:40-43 ----"The Cla~shell Alliance: Getting it all together," Progressive 9/77: 14-18. CRITICAL MASS Interviews (Linda Kaboolian's files on both CM and Pirg) New York Times,.4/15/80

Critical Mass Journal, 6/77 3(3) 7/77 3 4 () ----6/78 4 3 () ----4/79 5 1 () ----Nuclear Power Frimer, nd

-----

Critical Mass, "Nuclear energy bibliography," nd Critical Mass Energy Project, list of publications, nd McFarland, Andrew S., Public Interest Lobbies: Making Decisions on Energy (AEI, 1976), pp. 67-77. Lanoue, Ron, "Nuclear Plants: The more they build, the more you pay" (Washington, D.C.: Center for Study of Presonsive Law, 1977; second edition) pp. 49-58.

87 Sources (p. 2) FRIENDS OF THE EARTH (In Linda Kaboolian's folder plus some information I got from Andy Feeney) special issue reprinted August 1980

-- Inteiews j_V

Friends of the Eart, Not Man Apart 10(8), New York Times 6/8/80:18E ----4/15/80:313 National Journal 8/8/70: 1711-1718 ----7/24/71: 1557,-1564

Van Deventer, Mary Lou, Earthworks: Ten Years on the Environmental Front (San Francisco: Friends of the Earth, 1980) MOBILIZATION FOR SURVIVAL Interviews (Linda Kaboolian's file, plus informal interviews) Critical Mass Journal, '."NuclearPower Edition,! nd ' Miami Herald, 12/27/78 (reprinted as a MFS flyer) Jordan, Vernon, article from ~nvirkmentalAction reprinted as a MFS flyer Mobilization for 'Survival,Memo from Bob Moore to local, regional, and national groups who may wish to affiliate with MFS, 5/25/79 ----Teach-in mini manual, nd ----"A Call for nuclear moratorium" petition to President and Congress, nd 11 ----Join the campaign for nuclear moratorium," flyer, nd ----Helen Caldicott leaflet, "The medical implications of nuclear power" flyer, nd ----"Shut them down," flyer, nd ----Benjamin Spock promotional letter, 4/3/80 ----Religious Task Force, "In the name of the children, A religious call for a nuclear moratorium," poster-flyer, nd Progressive, 9/77:5-6 WIN, 10/6/77, 13(33): Special Issue

Sources (p. 3 ) NIRS Interview Linda's paper based on her interviews and observation PHYSICIANS FOR SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY Interviews (Linda's file plus informal ones) Caldicott, Helen, "Waking America up to the nuclear nightmare" in , iP-romotingzEnduringPeace /I37 (New Haven, Conn : .The Advocate 7, 'Press, nd) reprinted from New Roots. {Detroit Free-Press, 3j17-181: 8 7 -- - -'-. . Lown, -Bernard, Eric -chivan,James Muller , and Herbert Abrams "Sounding board' the nuclear-arms race and the physician" New England Journal of Medicine, 304(12) 3/19/81:726-729. New ~ngl'and Journal of Medicine, 3/29/79'300(13) :xxxix, "Medical statement on nuclear power" statement and appeal by PSR reprinted New York Times 3/2/80:22E "Danger--Nuclear War" petition to President Carter and Chairman Brezhnev Caldicott, Helen, "The Doomsday scene: Helen Caldicott speaks for peace" Peace #387, reprinted from the New Haven Promoting ~ n d u r i n ~ Advocate 10/29/80. Interfaith Council for Peace (Ann Arbor, Michigan) January 1981, mailing. Physicians for Social Responsibility, letter from Carol Belding to Linda Kaboolian, 4/11/80 ----"Thank you'for your interest in PSR" mailing, nd (probably 1979 or 1980). ----"I am pleased to send you information for starting a .It mailing, nd, (probably 1979 or 1980). chapter. 11 ----Educational materials available from PSR, two versions, neither is dated but one is probably 1979 or 1980 and the other the next year. ----"Bibliography", nd, probably 1980 or 1981 ----Series of proposals, mimeographed, nd, probably 1979 or 1980. ----"Dear Core:" letter, 1/27/81 ----Boston, "Physicians for Social Responsibility (Boston): Monthly lecture ;eriesl', nd, (1980)-, ----I Washington, D.C., and New York Chapters, Speakers' training seminar flyer, nd (1980). . Newsletter l 1 1/80 () .1(4) 12/80

SIERRA CLUB

McFarland, Andrew S., (AEL, 1976), pp. 83-89, 131-138. New York Times 4/15/80:B13

a
-

Sources (p. 4) UNION OF CONCERNED SCIENTISTS Interview (Linda Kaboolian file) Detroit Free Press, 1/26/81 (editorial page) New York Times (1/'22/80 or 1/23/80) (letter to the editor page) ----8/7/75:4 Nucleus l 4 5/79 () Bennett, Paul "Strategic surveillance: How ~mericachecks Soviet compliance with-SALT" (UCS, 1979) pamphlet Union of Concerned Scientists, "What you should know about the hazards of nuclear power," leaflet, nd.- . 11 ----Scientists' declaration on'nuclear power" two versions of flyer, nd on either 11 ----"Dear fellow citizen. promotional mailing, nd ----"Dear Friend. " mailing including "Fact sheet on construction moratorium1'and "DOE shift amendment , I 1979 '1 ----"Dear Friend. , II promotional letter, nd (1979 or 1980)

..
.

..