OUT IN THE COLD:

Australias Involvement in the Korean War

Australian War Memorial GPO Box 345 Canberra ACT 2601 AUSTRALIA

Introduction

In the aftermath of the Second World War (1939-1945), communities were still coming to terms with the devastation which that conflict had caused, and the millions it had killed. Yet only five years after the end of this war, another was to break out, and again Australia would commit its forces. It was the Korean War. Korea was a place that few Australians knew much about, until 1950. From 1950-53, 17,000 Australians in the Army, Navy and Air Force fought as part of the United Nations (UN) multinational force, defending South Korea from the Communist force of North Korea. After the war ended, Australians remained in Korea for four years as military observers. Since then, Australia has maintained a presence, discharged by the Australian Military Attach. Australia's involvement in the Korean War won much praise from other nations. Awards and decorations given to Australians during the war totalled 615, while awards given to Australians by other countries numbered 173. Australia also gained many political and security benefits, the most important being the signing of the ANZUS Treaty with the United States and New Zealand. The cost of the war in Korea was immense, particularly for its people. The attempt by the Communist North to unite Korea under its rule had been stopped, but it had killed more than two million people, and turned many Korean civilians into homeless refugees. Today, Korea is still divided into North and South.

Maps: the course of the war

Stage one: 25 June - 1 August 1950

The initial period of the war was a desperate struggle between the two forces, in which UN forces were close to being driven out of Korea. This period ended with the establishment of the Pusan perimeter, a defensive line 230 km long, which protected the main approaches to the strategically vital southern port of Pusan.

Stage Two: 1 August - 25 November 1950

Increasing numbers of US and other UN forces entered the war, resulting in a near victory over the North Koreans. An important landing of UN forces was made at Inchon. After the allies crossed the 38th parallel, China also entered the war. Australian troops saw their first action at Yongju, followed by Broken Bridge (Kujin), Chongju, and Pakchon.

Stage Three: 25 November 1950 - 22 April 1951

In this phase, over half a million Chinese troops entered the war, launching several offensives that pushed the UN forces almost back to the 38th parallel. In the bitter fighting of the winter of 1950-51, heavy losses were sustained by both sides. After being pushed back from the Yalu River and the Chinese border, the UN Command was forced to abandon first Pyongyang on December 5, and then Seoul on January 4. General Douglas MacArthur, Commander of the UN forces in Korea, was dismissed by US President Harry S. Truman on 11 April. There had been public dispute between the two men, as Truman had countermanded MacArthur's desire to extend the war into China. MacArthur was replaced by General Walton Walker. When Walker was killed in a road accident, General Matthew Ridgeway took his place.

Stage Four: 22 April 1951 - 27 July 1953

As armistice negotiations began, a stalemate developed on the battlefield, with action consisting mostly of trench warfare. The battle line surged southwards again as the Chinese launched a major offensive on 22 April 1951. It met with stubborn resistance in several sectors, particularly those held by the Gloucestershire Regiment on the Imjin River, north of Seoul. The Canadian and Australian battalions at Kapyong, further west, also checked the advance. By 30 April 1951, the Chinese thrust towards Seoul had been turned back and the battle line again moved northwards. In July 1951, HMAS Murchison engaged North Korean forces on land as part of Operation Han. As the stalemate continued, each side vyed for control of key local features. One of these was Maryang San, captured by 3 RAR in early October. General Mark Clark replaced General Matthew Ridgeway as Commander of the UN forces on 12 May 1952. In December 1952, 1 RAR led Operation Fauna. The battle at The Hook (Samichon) in July 1953 was Australian troops' last action of the war.

Timeline

Origins of war - Korea In 1950

What events led to the Korean War and Australian involvement in this conflict? In 1910 Japan annexed Korea and for the next 35 years ruled its colony harshly. During this time, various groups in Korea sought support from external powers, including China, the Soviet Union, and the United States. After the defeat of the Japanese in the Second World War, in order to facilitate the disarming of Korea's defeated Japanese rulers, the United States and the Soviet Union divided the peninsula into two zones of control. The Americans controlled Korea south of the 38th parallel, the Soviets the area north of the parallel.

While agreeing in principle to the unification of Korea, either as an independent nation or under international trusteeship, the two superpowers could not agree on how to bring this about. Each assisted the establishment of a regime to its own liking in its part of the country - communist in the north, and non-communist in the south. This artificial division of Korea became increasingly bitter. Between 1945-1950, tension between the two governments of the North and South became more pronounced, and civil war seemed imminent. Despite their apparent interest in the region, it is clear that both the US and USSR did not want a long-term involvement in Korea, as postwar Europe was still their most important strategic concern. So what was to be done to create an independent and unified Korea? The search for a solution was taken up by the United Nations.

Keijo, Korea, 1945. This surrender ceremony marked the end of forty years of Japanese rule in Korea. Seated at the table are American and Japanese government and military officials. 019263

A notebook taken from the body of a Chinese soldier by members of B Company, 3 RAR, after a patrol clash in the Inchon area, January 1951. The entries are in Japanese, Korean, English and Chinese - reflecting the different hands into which it fell over the course of more than ten years of conflict. PROP01999

ANZUS
ANZUS joined the nations of Australia, New Zealand and the United States in a defence security pact for the Pacific region. Representatives of the governments of the three nations signed the agreement in Canberra on 1 September 1951. Australia's involvement in the Korean War arose out of concern for the security of the region; the decision was influenced by the perceived diplomatic and security benefits to be gained by an alliance with the US. The rapid commitment of troops by Australia independently of Great Britain - enhanced its standing as an ally. From Australia and New Zealand's point of view at the time, ANZUS offered a protection against a possible future threat of Soviet or Chinese aggression. For the US, ANZUS represented a secure stake in the Pacific, as it sought to strengthen its alliances around the world, in its efforts to contain communist powers. ANZUS did not guarantee military support from the US, but provided for consultation in the event of an attack on any of the three countries. The treaty was also significant in that Australia joined the US in a regional security alliance that did not include its traditional ally, Britain. In 1986, New Zealand banned the entry of US Navy ships into their ports in the belief that they were carrying nuclear weapons or were nuclear-powered. The US responded by suspending relations with New Zealand as a member of ANZUS. For Australia, this alliance with the US has continued to be a foundation of its defence policy.

Pearl Harbour, Hawaii, 1952. The first meeting of ANZUS military representatives. Seated from the left: Lieutenant General S.F. Rowell, Admiral A.W. Radford and Major General W.G. Gentry. 044320

The United Nations and the outbreak of war

The United Nations (UN) was created in 1945 in an attempt to secure world peace. After the devastation of two world wars, the major powers sought to prevent the outbreak of conflict by a system of mutual guarantees between groups of nations. Australia was one of the founders and played a leading role on behalf of the smaller member nations. Through its UN membership, Australia aimed to raise its profile in world affairs. In November 1947, the UN Temporary Commission on Korea (UNTCOK) was created to supervise government elections in both North and South Korea, with a view to developing a single national government. The commission soon found that the communist administration in the north would not allow it to operate there. In August 1948, conservative political factions won the elections in the South, and the US-supported Syngmann Rhee was elected President of the Republic of Korea. A month later, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea was proclaimed in the North, under the leadership of the Soviet-backed Kim Il-Sung.

A new permanent UN Commission on Korea (UNCOK) was then established to help Korea move towards unification, as well as to observe the activities of military forces on the peninsula. Australia was a member of both commissions. Australia's Minister for External Affairs, Dr H.V. "Doc" Evatt, urged the United States to maintain its forces in South Korea, to ensure stability in the region. However, the United States wanted to reduce its overseas commitments outside of Europe, and by the end of 1949, there were only 500 American troops left in Korea. During 1949, the war of words between the two Koreas escalated, and infiltration and clashes along the border increased. In March 1950, UNCOK requested additional military observers to monitor the situation.

The Peach-Rankin Report

The first observers to arrive were two Australians who had both served during the Second World War: Major Stuart Peach, who had been a Prisoner of War (POW) of the Japanese, and Squadron Leader Ronald Rankin, who had served with the RAAF. Between 9 and 23 June 1950, Peach and Rankin undertook a patrol along the length of the 38th parallel. They reported that the South Korea forces along the border were "organised entirely for defence", and that there were unusual levels of military activity in the North. Another Australian, whose influence in the UN's role in Korea was equally important was James Plimsoll, an Australian diplomat.

Outbreak of war
In mid-1950, tensions along the Korean border increased to a breaking point. In the early hours of 25 June 1950, the North Korean army crossed the 38th parallel and invaded South Korea. When the United Nations Security Council met the next day to consider its response, Peach and Rankin's report was significant because it clearly demonstrated that North Korea was the aggressor and that North Korean claims that it was responding to an attack by South Korea were false. The poorly equipped and inexperienced South Korean army was forced to retreat. Within a week, it had lost about half its force. Ghostly figures, silhouetted against the sky, were darting furtively from tree to tree. For a long time we watched the shadows flitting past. They were Southern soldiers in retreat. - Father Philip Crosbie, an Australian Catholic priest whose parish centred on Hongchon, east of Seoul, about 30 km from the 38th parallel. The North Koreans unjustly accused Crosbie of spying and took him prisioner of war (POW).

Korean elections in Chongju. Although voting was voluntary, between eighty and ninety per cent of the eligible population participated. P00716.003

The North Korean flag features the red star seen on the flags of many other communist nations. This particular flag was picked up from the Sinanju battlefield by Private Arthur Attenborough of A Company, 3rd Battalion, the Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR). He used it as a scarf in the harsh winter months that followed. RELAWM40266

The flag of the Republic of Korea (South Korea) reflects the cultural bearings of the nation, rather than political ideology. The yin-yang circle symbolises the balance and mutual dependence of opposing forces. The four "trigrams" around it represent the elements of existence: heaven, water, earth and fire.

UNCOK Headquarters, Seoul, 1950. P00716.096

UN flag carried by Major Stuart Peach. The flag was also flown at UNCOK headquarters. REL13002

UNCOK observers tour the 38th parallel. L-R: Mr Charles Coates, Squadron Leader Ronald Rankin, and Major Stuart Peach. P00716.019

June 1950. Two North Korean soldiers near Kaesong on the 38th parallel. P00716.010

1950. A stream of Korean civilian refugees flee their homes, carrying their possessions on their backs. P01813.422

Korea and the Cold War

The Cold War is the name given to the conflict that developed between the United States and the Soviet Union after the Second World War. Simply put, the Cold War was a conflict of opposing ideologies - capitalism and communism. Although there were no actual battles or physical conflicts, the fear and hostility it produced on both sides made it a war as dangerous as any other. The US/USSR antagonism began in postwar Europe, when the Soviet Union brought Eastern Europe under its control and the United States exerted its influence in Western Europe. Germany had been divided into two nations; the wall that separated its former capital Berlin, came to symbolise the mutual exclusion of the two ideologies. The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 signalled the end of the Cold War; the breakdown of the Soviet Union soon followed, in 1991. The fight over Korea in the 1950s was a turning point, when the ideological conflict extended beyond Europe and broke out in open warfare. It transformed a civil conflict into an armed confrontation between the major powers of the world.

Flag of the United States in 1950. There are only 48 stars, as Alaska and Hawaii had not yet been granted statehood.

Flag of the USSR

Significant Cold War events

Berlin Blockade - July 1948-May 1949 Berlin, isolated in the Soviet zone of occupied Germany, was blockaded by the Russians in an attempt to force the western allies from the city or to compel them to abandon plans for West German integration. In response the allies began an airlift of food and supplies to Berlin which lasted for eleven months until the Soviets backed down. RAAF aircraft took part in the airlift. Communist victory in China - February 1949 Civil war between the nationalist Kuomintang and the communists had raged in China since the defeat of Japan in 1945. In 1949 after driving the nationalists from the mainland to the island of Taiwan the communists established government in China. First Soviet atomic test - September 1949 The United States had possessed a monopoly in nuclear weapons for four years after the end of the Second World War. In 1949 Russia successfully tested a nuclear device, thus beginning the nuclear stand-off which was to characterise the Cold War for the next 40 years. Korean War - 1950-1953 The Korean War began when the armed forces of North Korea invaded South Korea across the 38th parallel in June 1950. Three years later the war ended where it had begun after forces from the South Korea and the United nations had fought North Korean and Chinese troops to a stalemate. Australian forces sent to Malayan emergency - June 1950 The Malayan Emergency was declared in June 1948 in response to Communist insurgency. Australian involvement began in June 1950 when RAAF units arrived in Singapore. By 1955 when Australian ground forces became involved the Emergency was winding down but much mopping-up remained to be done. Australia, Communist powers referendum defeated - September 1950 The Menzies Government was elected in 1949 with a platform which included banning the Communist Party. A Bill for this purpose was passed, but later declared by the High Court to be constitutionally invalid and a Referendum to amend the Constitution giving the Commonwealth the power to ban communism was narrowly defeated. Atomic weapons tests A series of atomic weapons tests were conducted in Australia at the request of the British Government between 1952 and 1956. Twelve weapons were exploded in Australia, three at the Monte Bello Islands off north Western Australia and the remainder in the central desert regions of South Australia, at Emu Field and Maralinga. Hundreds of minor trials, mostly involving components of nuclear weapons, also took place in South Australia 1953 and 1963. Petrov defection - 19 May 1954 Vladimir Petrov, a Soviet diplomat and spy, sought and was granted asylum in Australia. Petrov provided documents and oral information about Soviet

espionage activities in Australia to the Australian security service and a Royal Commission was established to inquire into the affair. Anti-Soviet uprising in Hungary - 1956 In October 1956 demonstrations in Budapest led to the overthrow of the Communist Government. The new administration announced Hungary's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. Soviet troops entered Budapest on 1 November to quell the uprising and install a new pro-Soviet government. Berlin Wall constructed - August 1961 By 1961 thousands of people were fleeing East Germany for the West Berlin every day. To prevent this exodus the government built a wall dividing the two halves of the city. In ensuing years 190 people lost their lives trying cross the wall. Cuban missile crisis - October 1962 In 1962 the Soviet Union deployed nuclear missiles in Cuba. The United States blockaded Cuba and demanded that the missiles be withdrawn. The crisis was resolved when Russia agreed to withdraw the missiles in exchange for lifting the blockade and agreeing to withdraw missiles from Turkey. In the aftermath of the crisis a hotline was established between the White House and the Kremlin to facilitate communication between the leaders of the two countries. Australia announces initial military involvement in Vietnam - May 1962 Following representations by the United States, the Australian Government announced in May 1962 the commitment of 30 military advisers to assist the Army of the Republic of [South] Vietnam. The Australians were initially deployed as instructors and were not permitted to accompany the South Vietnamese into combat. In 1965, Australia's commitment to the war was stepped up to include combat troops. Australian forces engaged in Confrontation - March 1965 Confrontation was a small undeclared war fought between 1962-1966 during which Indonesia sought to destabilise the newly independent Malaysia. After two Indonesian raids on the Malayan peninsula in 1964 the Australian government deployed a battalion in Borneo. Indonesia and Malaysia signed a peace treaty in 1966. Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia - 1968 The Soviet Union, concerned that a reformist Government in Czechoslovakia would lead to Czechoslovakia's withdrawal from the Soviet bloc, invaded on August 20 1968 deposing the president and replacing him with a pro-Soviet leader. Arms-reduction talks - 1969 to 1993 Arms control talks were a feature of the final two decades of the Cold War. The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) between the United States and the Soviet Union resulted in two arms reduction treaties in the 1970s. After the Cold War had ended the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaties (START 1 and II) resulted in limitations being placed on the ability of either side to launch a successful first strike. Detente - 1970s

During the 1970s Cold War tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union eased. The period of dtente included political summit conferences, economic agreements leading to increased trade, and strategic arms limitations agreements. Dtente ended with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan - 24 December 1979 Russia intervened in Afghanistan in 1979 to support a pro-Soviet government. Ultimately the Soviets were unsuccessful in restoring the government's authority and in 1989 withdrew their armed forces leaving behind a civil war which persists to the present day. The war resulted in 15,000 Russian and over a million Afghan deaths. Berlin wall demolished - November 1989 With Soviet control over Eastern Europe breaking down, thousands began fleeing to the west through the newly opened border between Hungary and Austria. When the East German/Hungarian border was closed to prevent the exodus demonstrations broke out. The East German Government was unable to stem the popular uprising and within three weeks the Berlin wall was destroyed.

Australia commits to Korea

Korea's national conflict had rapidly become one of global significance. Troops of many nations, including Australia, joined the fight against the North Korean invasion of the South. There were many reasons for Australia's involvement in Korea, such as concern for the security of the region, and a desire to strengthen its military relationship with the US with a commitment of troops. This relationship was to prove a far-reaching one: it not only led to the ANZUS treaty, but influenced Australia's later commitment of troops to the war in Vietnam. The outbreak of war found Australia already involved in fighting a communist insurgency in Malaya. Australia was the first country following the US to commit units of all three services to Korea: a naval frigate on 29 June, 77 Squadron, RAAF, on 30 June, and an infantry battalion from the Australian component of the British Commonwealth Occupation Forces in Japan (BCOF) on 26 July. The commitment had broad support in Australia, with different groups seeing it as an opportunity to fight communism, cement Australia's alliance with the United States, or give support to the United Nations system of collective security.

Recruitment
There were insufficient men in Australia's fledgling regular army to meet Australia's commitment to Korea. Recruitment offices once again opened and were initially flooded with volunteers for Korea. Many men joined who had been too young to serve in the Second World War; many others were veterans of that war. Men volunteered out of patriotism, to fight communism, or for the opportunities of travel overseas and a bit of adventure along the way.

Letter from Lieutenant Dacre Smyth, RAN, HMAS Baatan, to his mother in Australia on 5 July 1950, telling her of the announcement to go to war.

A recruitment depot, Marrickville, NSW. The sign details conditions and qualifications for enlistment for service in Korea. 134322

Recruits wait for their medical examinations for enlistment to Korea, August 1950. 134332

Colonel C.L.S. Macintosh examines Kenneth Hutchinson of Croydon, Sydney, one of the early volunteers for service in Korea. 134326

Smyth on the right, on the deck of HMAS Bataan. P03175.001

K Force recruiting poster: "Wanted - More men like these"

Australians in Korea
Many thousands of Australians served in Korea during the war; some continued to serve for another four years after it had ended. Australian army battalions, navy ships, air force squadrons and medical teams contributed to the Commonwealth nations' force in Korea. I remember the dust, the heat, the enervating humidity, the bitter cold of winter when the men slept with their boots on and weapons cradled lest they should be found frozen in an emergency; the soldiers on listening post, lying silently on the frozen ground trying desperately to remain alert, knowing they were responsible for the safety of their comrades. I remember long nights in my command post listening to the sounds of battle in the valley, anxiously awaiting reports from units involved in life and death situations and for news of success or failure and of the inevitable cost. Best of all, I remember the lovely spring dawn when the harsh landscape was suddenly transformed; walking through wildflowers to visit our men, tired but cheerful Aussies returning from patrol, taciturn Geordies from Durham, cheeky Cockneys from London Town. Lieutenant General Sir Thomas Daly, KBE, CB, DSO As a brigadier, Daly commanded the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade in Korea in 1952-53, which included battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment.

Australia was involved in Korea from 1950 until 1957 as part of the United Nations Command forces. Australia's allies in this operation were the United States, Belgium, Britain, Canada, Colombia, Ethiopia, France, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, the Philippines, South Africa, Thailand, and Turkey. India, the Scandinavian countries and Italy provided medical units. The Korean War was one of almost continuous contact It was the last time that Australians fought a conventional war as part of a brigade, a division and a corps, with all that implies in terms of large-scale operations, with supporting arms also on a large scale. Lieutenant Colonel (later General Sir) Francis Hassett, Commanding Officer of 3RAR in Korea The Australian Army was primarily represented in Korea by the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR), which arrived in Pusan on 27 September 1950. It had been stationed in Japan, as part of the British Commonwealth Occupying Force (BCOF) since 1946; at the time of the outbreak of hostilities in Korea, it was greatly under strength. 3 RAR was soon boosted by 39 officers and 971 men, doubling its numbers. The 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (1 RAR) and the 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (2 RAR) also joined the war later, each on a one-year tour of duty. The Australians were part of a larger Commonwealth force, eventually redesignated the 28th Commonwealth Brigade. In July 1951, this Brigade joined the 25th Canadian and the 29th British Brigades to become the 1st Commonwealth Division. The Royal Australian Navy had nine ships operating during the Korean War: the aircraft carrier Sydney, the battle-class destroyers Bataan, Warramunga, ANZAC and Tobruk, and the river-class frigates Murchison, Shoalhaven, Condamine and Culgoa. The Royal Australian Air Force deployed 77 Squadron. Australian forces in Korea were made up of both Second World War veterans and fresh volunteers. Naturally, there was some initial rivalry between the two groups, but as time went by, the experience of Korea formed them into one unified service. The Australian army was also a "multicultural" army, which added another dimension to some events. Private Joe Vezgoff remembered one incident: We were about a mile forward of the battalion, with the responsibility of racing back when we saw any large troop movement on our front. I, of Russian origin, and George of Chinese, caused some consternation when someone back at battalion headquarters asked who was in the forward outpost. 'A Chinese and a Russian', came the reply! All three contingents made important contributions to the UN forces' war effort in Korea, even though each contingent was comparatively small.

Troops from 4 Platoon, B Company, 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR). 147350

The Royal Australian Navy (RAN) Destroyer HMAS ANZAC, Korea 1951. 300152

Pilots of 77 Squadron, Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), return from Korea to Iwakuni Base, Japan 1950. P0675/127/045

Troops of 3 RAR line the rails of the US Navy troopship Aiken Victory before disembarking. A US Army Band welcomes their arrival. AWM 147056

1950. A Regimental Police Officer of the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR), looks on as a refugee mother gives a drink to her child. AWM 146904

Kimpo, South Korea. Six-year-old Kim Meon Sikieh, an inhabitant of a village near the Kimpo airstrip, talks with Flying Officer John Alford of 77 Squadron, RAAF, after being shown around a Meteor jet. AWM JK0665

War on land: the Australian Army in Korea

The Korean War was overwhelmingly a land war, in terms of numbers of participants, casualties and material costs. It was fought across rugged terrain through which ran only rough, narrow roads and tracks. Operations were further complicated by extreme conditions of heat and cold, rain and snow for long periods. Robert O'Neill, Official Historian of Australia in the Korean War

Australian Army units in the Korean War

Film of the conditions faced by the Australian Army in Korea.

3rd Battalion, the Royal Australian Regiment, September 1950 - November 1954 1st Battalion, the Royal Australian Regiment, March 1952 - March 1953, April 1954 - March 1956 2nd Battalion, the Royal Australian Regiment, March 1953 - April 1954

By August 1950, the North Korean invasion into South Korea had pushed the Allied forces into a small corner of the peninsula around Pusan (map). In September, the war changed direction: General Douglas MacArthur, the United Nations Supreme Commander, launched an amphibious assault, which landed UN troops at Inchon near Seoul, outflanking the North Korean forces and cutting off their supply routes. UN forces were authorised to cross the 38th parallel into North Korea and begin a long advance north. At this time, the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR), under the command of Lt Col Charlie Green, DSO, joined the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade at Pusan, commanded by Brigadier Basil Aubrey Coad. Advancing into North Korea, the Australian army fought its first battle on 22 October, near Yongju. As 3 RAR and the rest of the 27th Brigade continued north, large numbers of North Korean soldiers surrendered. 30 October saw 3 RAR fight a successful action at Chongju. The UN forces rapidly advanced through North Korea and were soon closing on the border with China. Chinese forces launched a massive offensive across the border, forcing a UN retreat during November. Throughout 1950-51, Australian ground troops were involved in many actions, particularly at Kapyong and Maryang San. The UN forces continued to retreat until April 1951, when the war entered a long period of stalemate, until the final armistice, on 27 July 27 1953. Australian ground forces in the Korean War displayed the same courage and adaptability in their operations as they had during the Second World War. Despite difficulties of climate, geography and a determined enemy, Australian troops in Korea fought well, and were praised by the forces of many other nations.

Living Conditions

The terrain and climate made conditions in Korea difficlut for Australian troops there. Almost eighty per cent of Korea is mountainous: the effort of moving even short distances over mountains and valleys was exhausting and time-consuming. Soldiers also had to cope with extremes of temperature, with heat as well as cold. The pervading, numbing cold of the winters is well remembered by veterans. Soldiers slept with their guns to their chests, to keep the parts from freezing up. Living and fighting in this climate posed a constant struggle, creating difficulties with transport, the movement and maintenance of supplies and the soldiers' health. Australian soldiers were eventually issued with better protective clothing by the Americans and British.

Some items used in the battle against the cold:

This US-design fur-lined pile cap was issued to most Australian soldiers and airmen. REL 14404

A fuel-burning pocket hand warmer, brought back from Korea by Captain Colin Brown, commander of A Company, 3 RAR. REL 24558

Not many of us had long-johns or sweaters, but whatever we had, we wore the lot. The trick was to get amongst the rice stooks and bury yourself in straw that kept the frost off, but [it was] not a way to fight a war." Private M. C. "Snow" Dicker

The heat of the Korean summers also presented problems. Troops were often plagued by flies, mites and mosquitoes. Lieutenant Maurie Pears, C Company, 3 RAR, remembered the heat while patrolling across the Imjin River, and the difficulties of finding clean drinking water: I think I was more afraid of the empty bottle than I was of the Chinese.

Members of the 3rd Battalion, the Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR), at night during a battle in August 1952. HOB3564

Bren gunner Private S. Henry, of King Island, Tasmania. HOBJ2536

Wearing a sweat rag cap and an armoured vest, Private Len Murdoch has his face blackened by his mate, Private Fred Goodare, in preparation for a night patrol. HOBJ4381

Carrying weapons and trenching tools, members of 3 RAR move along the edge of a paddy field, November 1950.P01813.852

An Australian soldier models the equipment issued to 3 RAR troops in Korea. It includes an armoured vest, basic pouches, and rubber patrol boots with canvas laceup tops. 157634

Majon'ni, Korea, July 1950. Troops from 3 RAR wait for orders to withdraw to the Demilitarised Zone, after evacuating defences. 157692

Ted Scorfield: "The More It Changes the More He Remains the Same". Scorfield's comment for the second ANZAC Day of the Korean War encapsulates the standard Australian men in Korea continued to live up to - the ANZAC tradition established in the two world wars.

A panoramic view of Korean terrain, January 1951. P02201.134

Two Australian soldiers display washing that has frozen solid. Between them is "Joe", a South Korean houseboy who worked for the Australians at 28th Brigade Headquarters. HOBJ4768

Private Larry Hopson, D Company, 3 RAR, rugs up against the cold and drinks a bottle of beer from a Christmas parcel, even though the liquid is half-frozen, 1 January 1953. HOBJ3872

Troops of 3 RAR at Uijongbu gather around a small campfire to warm themselves on Christmas Day 1950. P01813.471

The Hook, 1953. Members of 3 RAR, dressed for the heat, collect the platoon beer ration. P00964.014

War at sea: the Royal Australian Navy in Korea

Australian ships in the Korean War

Destroyers: Bataan, Warramunga, Tobruk and Anzac Frigates: Shoalhaven, Murchison, Condamine and Culgoa Aircraft carrier: Sydney

Film of the Royal Australian Navy in Korea. Korea is surrounded by water on three sides. Sea power was crucial to the UN forces in the Korean War, as UN ground forces were outnumbered by the Chinese and North

Koreans. Control of Korean waters enabled the UN forces to launch the Inchon landing, which altered the course of the war. The UN forces soon took advantage of their superior naval forces and seized control of Korea's long coastlines, using many ships to transport large numbers of troops and supplies throughout the war. The use of aircraft carriers, including HMAS Sydney, increased the numbers of aircraft available to the UN forces, enabling complete air coverage of the Korean peninsula. On 1 July 1950, Australian frigates HMAS Shoalhaven and the destroyer HMAS Bataan joined a fleet enforcing the UN blockade. A month later, Bataan saw its first action when shots were exchanged with a North Korean shore battery. Other RAN ships were deployed shortly thereafter, bombarding shore installations and supply lines. After mid-1951 and the beginning of negotiations between the two sides, naval pressure was increased against Communist ground forces by bombardments and blockades. HMAS Murchison played an important role in a naval blockade of the Han River from July to September 1952, Operation Han. For the last two years of the war, RAN ships in Korean waters continued to protect the islands off the west coast of North Korea that were in South Korean possession.

RAN armourers crowd together in the mess of the aircraft carrier HMAS Sydney, 1951. P01838.006

Frank Norton, HMAS Condamine, Shiminoseki Strait. ART40048

Able Seaman A. "Happy" Anderson, using the gyro sight, lays a single Bofors gun, HMAS Bataan, August 1952. HOBJ3412 Generally speaking, the war in Korea demanded more competence, courage, and skill from the naval aviator than did World War II. The flying hours were longer, the days on the firing line more, the anti-aircraft hazards greater, the weather worse. There was less tangible evidence of results for a pilot to see.

Commander M. U. Beebe, USS Essex

Naval airpower
Air squadrons flying from HMAS Sydney

805 Squadron 808 Squadron 817 Squadron

UN naval forces also served a vital function in providing added support to ground forces through the use of naval airpower. HMAS Sydney, an Australian light aircraft carrier, joined the war at sea in late 1951. Sea Fury and Firefly aircraft of the recently formed Australian Fleet Air Arm, flown off Sydney, supported hard-pressed ground forces with rockets, bombs and cannon fire. They also flew combat air patrols to protect Sydney from enemy air attack. The Korean tour of duty had been costly, with eighty aircraft hit by flak and ten lost. Sadly, three Sea Fury pilots lost their lives and one was wounded There were no casualties aboard, although there could have been when returning aircraft landed, sometimes still carrying 60-pound rocket projectiles that had failed to fire. As the aircraft hit the flight deck the rockets launched themselves, speeding along the deck and then disappearing over the bow into the sea. Alan Zammit, civilian contractor, HMAS Sydney

Living Conditions
Australian Naval personnel in Korea endured severe hardships. Not only were the waters mined, but operations had to continue in appalling weather. At night lying in the hammock, listening to the floes scraping along the side for all the world like a great tin opener, made one thankful to the naval architect who had specified 3/8" plating for the construction. No doubt, the occupants of the lower seamen's and stokers' mess had very similar thoughts. Lieutenant Vince Fazio, HMAS Condamine In winter, snow and ice covered the ships' decks, and sailors lived in cramped and often freezing quarters. Large naval guns were operated every ten minutes to ensure they did not freeze up. In summer and autumn, typhoons brought rough seas and winds of up to 160 kilometres per hour.

Ray Honisett, HMAS Sydney in Korean Waters, 1951-52. ART28077

Majestic-class light fleet aircraft carrier HMAS Sydney. From September 1951 to January 1952, Sydney served with the United Nations Command in Korean waters, where her aircraft carried out 2,366 sorties. 044798

North Korean railway bridge destroyed by aircraft from HMAS Sydney, 1951. 044743

Snow and ice cover the flight deck of HMAS Sydney. The cold weather has frozen some moving parts of the aircraft, preventing them from flying. P01838.014

Ice covers the rails and cable equipment on the forecastle of the destroyer HMAS Bataan, North Korean waters, 1952. 305189

Typhoon Ruth 14-15 October 1951

All the mess decks were flooded. We had 8 inches of water sloshing to and fro on our deck, suitcases, hats, socks, boots all floating around together. The ship was rolling and pitching all over the shop. One plane went over the side and three others were hanging in the gun sponsons; two motorboats, the "skimmer", one forklift and a "Clarket" [tractor] all went over the side. Two chaps had legs broken through getting hurled to the deck. It sure was a boomer. Petty Officer Andrew Nation, HMAS Sydney Typhoon Ruth hit the Japanese port of Sasebo, with winds up to 150 km/hour and waves estimated to be up to 13.5 metres. Warships and transport vessels, including HMAS Sydney, were stationed in the port at the time. Upon learning of the approaching storm, many ships had put out to sea to escape the now dangerous confines of the harbour. Not only was HMAS Sydney in danger, there were many aircraft on board that were simply lashed to the ship because they could not fit in the hangar. The resulting damage from Typhoon Ruth was extensive. Many of Sydney's small boats were damaged, fires broke out from damaged electrical equipment, fuel leaked from aircraft, and general damage was caused on the decks by the violent waves around them. Sydney lost four of its aircraft overboard. While some ships in the harbour were sunk, many Japanese were killed in Sasebo or lost their homes. The crew of Sydney, though having a long and hard struggle for almost two

days, had been relatively lucky. Careful precautions and well-trained personnel had kept serious risks to the ship and crew to a minimum.

HMAS Sydney during Typhoon Ruth, 14 October 1951. 044819

War in the air: the Royal Australian Air Force in Korea

I wasn't new to operational command nor to the ground attack role except this war in Korea was a very different, and very ugly, war. Wing Commander Dick Cresswell, 77 Squadron, RAAF

Clip from film of Meteor jets being loaded with bombs.F07536 RAAF units in the Korean War

91 Composite Wing

77 Fighter Squadron (flying P-51 Mustang and later Meteor aircraft) 30 Communications Unit (later known as 30 Transport Squadron, 36 Transport Squadron, flying Dakota aircraft) 391 Base Squadron 491 Maintenance Squadron

Just a week into the Korean War, airmen of 77 Squadron, who had been stationed in Japan with the British Commonwealth Occupying Force (BCOF), were flying groundattack missions and bomber escorts from Iwakuni, Japan. Soon the squadron moved from Japan to a succession of bases in Korea as the UN forces advanced and then retreated - Taegu, Pohang, Hamhung (North Korea), Pusan and Kimpo. The squadron was praised for its skill and courage during thousands of flights made during the war. After the success of the Inchon landing, the air force provided crucial support in relieving some of the pressure on ground troops. Pilots from 77 Squadron ranged far and wide over the Korean peninsula, providing cover for the advancing US Eight Army as well as making their own attacks on North Korean forces. Many bombing attacks severely disrupted the progress of enemy ground forces. The main targets for air attack included North Korean railway lines, roads, military installations and vehicles. Initially pilots were equipped with propeller-driven P-51 Mustang fighters used during the Second World War; their weapons were bombs, rockets, machine-guns and napalm.

RAAF's first operation over North Korea, 2 July 1950, by Robert Taylor ART28996

Mustang aircraft of 77 Squadron RAAF, Iwakuni, Japan, 1950. JK1027

Members of 77 Squadron RAAF assembled in front of their Mustang aircraft, Iwakuni, Japan, 1950. P00675.004

Pilots of 77 Squadron, RAAF: from the left: Eric Douglas, Bill Mitchelson, Tom Murphy, Bill Horsman, Ken McLeod, Les Reading, and Lou Spence (Commanding Officer) gather around the tailplane of Spence's Mustang aircraft, Taegu, Korea 1950. P00675.039 Although the combined UN forces' airpower was superior to North Korea's, the entry of the Chinese into the war made the situation in the air more complicated. They too had airpower, and to the dismay of the UN forces, superior aircraft - MiG-15 jet fighters. In response, 77 Squadron had to switch from flying Mustangs to Meteor jets. Chinese ground forces were more skilled than the North Korean forces in avoiding the damage caused by UN airpower. They were more mobile, better camouflaged, better able to cross large distances quickly, and were less reliant on supply networks, scrounging for food and other supplies as they travelled. The death of 77 Squadron's commanding officer, Wing Commander Lou Spence, just over two months into the war on 9 September 1950, sent a shock through the squadron. His aircraft crashed during a ground attack over Angang-ni. Spence was replaced by Wing Commander Dick Cresswell. On 1 December 1951, fourteen Meteor jets of 77 Squadron were attacked by some fifty MiG-15s high over North Korea. At least one MiG was shot down, the first victory by a Meteor, but three Australian pilots were downed. One of the three was Sergeant Vance Drummond, who landed in enemy territory south-east of Pyongyang and was taken prisoner (POW).

In 1952, UN strategy shifted to "air pressure" - an attempt to force the Chinese into battle and defeat them. The improvement of the Chinese and North Korean anti-aircraft weapons increased the danger of this campaign. In the final stages of the war, the strategy of air pressure concentrated on the destruction of ground targets - an area where UN airpower continued to be successful. At times the weather was just as hazardous to pilots as flying under attack. Taking off was difficult in winter: thick ice and snow had to be removed each morning from the aircraft. In the event of ditching in the sea, pilots' immersion suits gave them only a few minutes to be rescued before the freezing water temperature would kill them. The heat of summer created problems as well: sometimes bitumen would melt onto the underside of aircraft during take-off and landing. The humid summer haze extended into the atmosphere up to 1,000 metres, cutting visibility to less than three kilometres. The pilots of 77 Squadron flew almost 19,000 individual sorties while in Korea. Their performance also reaped diplomatic rewards: their excellent reputation played a large role in the signing of the ANZUS pact. Yet despite their successes, during three years of operations 77 Squadron paid a high price. Forty pilots were killed - 30 killed in action, eight in accidents, and two in accidents on the ground. Six were captured and became POWs. Of the squadron's 90 Meteors, 54 were lost during the war.

Wing Commander Lou Spence in his Mustang aircraft, September 1950. JK1019

Cloth helmet worn by 77 Squadron pilots REL/17907.001

Polaroid B-8 Flying goggles, worn by 77 Squadron pilots REL/17907.003

Oxygen mask for high altitude, and throat microphone, worn by 77 Squadron pilots. REL/17907.002

The Presidential Unit Citation from Syngmann Rhee, President of the Republic of Korea, awarded to 77 Squadron in November 1951. 114 665/7/6

Medical Personnel

Film of 3 RAR troops in the Korean winter.F07530 In any war, the survival and health of serving personnel is largely due to the efforts and organisation of their medical personnel. The Australian doctors, dentists, nurses, stretcher-bearers and orderlies who served in Korea were no exception: they faced a wide variety of medical problems and challenges over the course of the war. Some Australian doctors who served in Korea were young, and had received little or no specific medical training for the trauma and injuries they would face there. Australian medial personnel worked with medical personnel of many other countries. The 60th Indian Field Ambulance in particular came to be highly respected by Australian personnel and patients alike. Although there were many battle casualties and wounds among Australian servicemen, the mortality rate in Korea among Australians was 2.5% - a rate much lower than those of the two world wars. Most wounds were inflicted by small arms fire, such as machine guns and rifles, rather than by mortars or mines. Apart from battle-related wounds, weather was a major factor in poor health, particularly among the ground troops who were forced to live in the cold of winter and in the extreme heat of summer. During the first year of the war, casualties were caused roughly in equal numbers by enemy action and the cold. Cold! I thought I knew it but Korea taught me otherwise. Cold so intense that even the ground was frozen solid and rivers iced up whilst a bone-chilling variable wind swept over the barren landscape. A weak sun rarely appeared in the leaden sky, vegetation withered and all animal life, with the exception of rats that infested our hoochies in plague proportions, vanished. Private Desmond Guilfoyle, 1 RAR The incidence of frostbite was so severe in the first winter of 1950-51 that many of those afflicted had to be evacuated to Japan for treatment, which sometimes included amputation. It was particularly difficult to prevent because soldiers were on the move all

the time and unable to take proper care of their feet, to change their socks daily, and give their feet rest.

Private F.C. Smart, 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR), awaits helicopter evacuation from a 3 RAR Regimental Aid Post, after being wounded on Hill 355. 157562

A doctor administers an injection of morphine to a badly injured soldier at Pakchon, November 1950. 146962

Hill 614 area, February 1951. A group of soldiers from C Company, 3 RAR, haul a wounded comrade, injured in both legs, on a stretcher. P01813.744 Medicines, including penicillin, froze, and medical personnel expecting casualties warmed phials of medication in their pockets. In summer, heat and poor sanitation caused their own medical problems to a lesser degree, such as a variety of skin disorders. Other medical problems faced included intestinal ailments, bronchitis, haemorrhagic fever, typhus, rheumatism, and venereal disease. The maintenance of good hygiene was crucial. Captain Bryan Gandevia, a doctor with the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR), wrote in notes to his medical staff: You are useless to us in the war against disease if you allow the Army's fifth column to destroy your personal hygiene, however fearlessly you may attack his well-defended positions such as lavatories, food and water supplies. Living in trenches was also responsible for medical complications, just as it had been for soldiers on the Western Front in the First World War. A condition called "Trench foot" in the First World War and "Rice-Paddy Feet" in Korea was the same problem - as a result of beingbeing immersed in water or snow for long periods of time, feet would swell painfully and peel. The condition often required a medical evacuation. As in most wars, new techniques in medicine were pioneered. Australian medical teams in Korea developed new treatments in the repair of damaged blood vessels, saving many damaged limbs from amputation.

One of Australia's best-known and respected veterans, Major-General W. B. "Digger" James, then a Major, served and was wounded in Korea. After the war, he became a doctor and served in Vietnam.

Private Don Lamey, 3 RAR, was wounded in action on 16 July 1952. He carried these items as good-luck charms in Korea. The wallet, collar badges, dog tags and leather case had belonged to his father in the First World War. After initial treatment by an Indian Field Ambulance unit, Lamey was transferred in turn to a MASH (Mobile Army Surgical Hospital) unit, to a US Evacuation Hospital, and finally to the British Commonwealth General Hospital in Japan, before returning to Australia. REL 27796.001 -.004, .008

3 RAR stretcher-bearers carry a wounded soldier through the snow to the nearest aid post, February 1951. HOBJ2087

Warrant Officer 1 G.R. Gardiner instructs Australian nurses in rifle training before their departure for Korea. Authorities were concerned that North Korean troops would not respect the articles of the Geneva Convention protecting medical personnel and the sign of the Red Cross. P02044.001

Moving casualties out

Because of medical evacuations by helicopter, the time taken to transport wounded to an established and well-supplied medical facility was normally quite short. However, this method had its limitations. Only two stretcher cases and two walking wounded soldiers could be evacuated at a time, and they could not receive treatment while in transit. In snowy conditions, when helicopters could not be used, medical evacuations had to be undertaken on the ground, often taking many hours to transport wounded to Regimental Aid Posts (RAP). In the face of the rough terrain and the poor condition of local roads, helicopter evacuation was frequently the only option. When Private M.C. "Snow" Dicker was wounded on 5 November 1950 from Chinese mortar shrapnel, he remembered waking up in a large marquee tent - MASH No. 8055: I was on a stretcher on the ground, and after feeling around a bit, I felt a large piece of sticky tape on my chest. I did not remember being hit there, so when the orderly came past, I asked him what it was all about. He told me it was the custom of the MASH units to keep the bullets, shrapnel, or whatever as a souvenir, and they stick it to your chest as a souvenir. Aerial evacuation also decreased the need for medical teams to be near the frontlines, or to be at risk of being captured as prisoners, a risk for many medical personnel during the Second World War. Nonetheless, at the frontlines there were still stretcher-bearers and medical personnel working in the battalions or as part of a field ambulance, who recovered the wounded and applied first aid. At Maryang San, Sergeant Mark Young recalled that stretcher-bearers: showed unbelievable courage in pulling out the wounded. If you've never been there you couldn't understand."

Ivor Hele, Medical air evacuation. ART40301

Wounded soldiers of D Company, 3 RAR, sent down by flying fox to jeeps waiting to transport them to the RAP. HOBJ4238

A heavily sandbagged RAP for 3 RAR. In the foreground is an army jeep that has been converted to carry stretcher cases. 147776

Aeromedical evacuation in a US helicopter of a wounded Australian soldier, in a "pod" attached to the side. P01479.019

Nurses
Twenty nurses of the RAAF served in Korea, assisting with the evacuation and care of the wounded. In Japan, there was a large general hospital based in Kure, which received many casualties that were evacuated by air. In Iwakuni, six Australian nurses were attached to the RAAF hospital, assisting aeromedical evacuations. Over 12,000 casualties were flown out of Korea by the RAAF medical teams, often in difficult conditions. RAAF nurse Sister Patricia Oliver recalled: There were certain dangers in transporting wounded in freezing conditions in unpressurised aeroplanes The condition of the patients was never ideal for evacuation but it was considered preferable to return them to Japan rather than have them remain in Korea any longer On one occasion, we had to fly so high because of the weather that I became semi-conscious from lack of oxygen.

Working conditions
Australian medical personnel in Korea often worked in very primitive conditions, where access to running water, electricity and medical equipment was extremely difficult. It was also difficult to see first-hand the effects of warfare on men. Dita McCarthy, an Australian nurse in Kure, recalled one Australian nurse who was determined to continue her work in Korea, even though her brother had recently been killed in action there. There were also psychological casualties. Medical personnel were sometimes called upon to help troops cope with the distress and trauma of what they faced. Captain Don Beard, Regimental Medical Officer (RMO) of 3 RAR recalled: The diggers wondered how long it would be before they might be replaced by the dwindling number of replacements. I rapidly found that my role as the RMO was more important as a counsellor than a dresser of wounds. Ill-health after the war was a constant reminder to some men of their time in Korea: The liver is never the same after a DDT bath. For all this the Digger received the basic soldier's wage, a bottle of beer in reserve for which he paid, and a thankless return home. Lieutenant (later Lieutenant Colonel ) Maurie Pears, MC

RAAF Nursing Sister Cath Daniel consoles 2nd Lieutenant Reg Gasson of the South African Air Force. Gasson had his toes amputated from his right foot while a POW in Korea. JK0718

RAAF Nursing Sister Lou Marshall prepares a patient for a medical evacuation flight from Korea to Japan. JK0184

Nathalie Oldham (now Wittmann) carried this Japanese-made box for medical supplies such as bandages, antiseptics and morphine needed for in-flight treatment. She also served with a US air evacuation squadron. Wittmann and four other RAAF nurses were recently proclaimed Ambassadors of Peace by the Republic of Korea. REL 27720

Captain John Morgan, 101 Australian Mobile Dental Team, treats 3 RAR soldier Private "Ned" C. Sparkes, only 1,000 yards behind the front line, June 1953. HOBJ4352

China enters the war October 1950

General Douglas MacArthur's overwhelming strength in late 1950 forced the North Koreans into full-scale retreat across the 38th parallel. But instead of returning to the prewar borders, the allies then set out to reunify Korea under non-communist leadership. This prospect greatly alarmed the Chinese. Towards the end of October 1950, as the allies approached the border with China at the Yalu River, the Chinese launched their own massive and unforeseen counter-invasion, sweeping the United Nations forces south beyond the 38th parallel. The tough and lightly equipped Chinese soldiers were better adapted to fighting in the mountainous terrain of Korea than the more heavily burdened UN troops, and their vast numbers allowed them to absorb heavy losses. Although the Chinese travelled mostly on foot, which ought to have made movement of troops and equipment difficult, their rapid advance forced the allies to consider

abandoning Korea. However, by the time the Chinese forces had pushed south of Seoul, their supply-lines were stretched and the situation stabilised. In the following months, the UN forces were able to regain some of the ground lost; the front was re-established near the 38th parallel and nicknamed "The MacArthur Line". Most of our weapons were old fashioned; we had no weapons such as aeroplanes, artillery, and tanks which are indispensable in modern warfare. Instead we fought only with human wave tactics; great numbers of men have been sacrificed. It was indescribably miserable. From an interview with a private from the Chinese People's Liberation Army, captured in March-April 1951. China's involvement in Korea affected all three Australian services. The Chinese flew Soviet MiG-15 jet fighters that significantly affected the power of the air force in Korea. When it became clear that the jets being used by the RAAF - the Meteor Mark 8 - were inferior to MiGs, the air force was forced to undertake a ground-attack role. Army troops were suddenly faced with huge numbers of Chinese infantry, and the RAN expanded its operations to screen for the possibility of Soviet submarines supporting the Chinese. The entry of China into the war raised several important issues - the expansion of the theatre of war, the involvement of other forces, the possible use of nuclear weapons, and the fear that this war, until now contained on the Korean peninsula, would extend into other countries.

A catapult used by Chinese troops against Australian patrols. These small catapults could fling stones with considerable speed, provoking soldiers hit by the stones to cry out and give away their positions to the enemy. 157625

An indispensable item of Chinese equipment in Korea: an entrenching tool. REL/14477

The Hedgehog anti-submarine weapon on board HMAS Murchison, 1951. 044750

Sardine Hill, Korea. A well-camouflaged and solidly-constructed Chinese dugout is discovered by soldiers of 3 RAR, who captured the hill. P02201.132

Stalemate
We waged trench warfare against the North Koreans and their Chinese allies, from fortified lines that stretched across the mountainous peninsula from coast to coast. Private Desmond Guilfoyle, 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (1 RAR) After the battle of Kapyong, the front became less mobile. For most of the second and third years of the war, the Australians remained in the area around the 38th parallel, fighting trench warfare in appalling conditions, much like the soldiers of the First World War. Conditions were dirty, cramped, and soldiers were plagued by vermin and lice. During the freezing winters, some UN soldiers froze to death in their trenches. One soldier remembered: I was rudely awakened by the sound of a few bursts from an Owen gun sounding off in my bunker. I thought the Chinese had arrived, but it was only Maurie [Pears] on a ratkilling episode. Trenches could be as close as 200 metres or as far as two kilometres apart. Most of the fighting in this period took the form of exchanging artillery and mortar fire, and laying mines. Trench raids and patrols were used in a "see-saw" war of small gains and losses of ground, of taking and losing hills. Although a stalemate had been reached, frequent patrols, probes of enemy positions and intelligence gathering meant Australian troops still saw considerable action.

On the night of 12 July 1952, east of the Samichon River, a patrol from 3 RAR was sent out to capture a prisoner from a Chinese post. It was better defended than expected. After fighting their way right up to the enemy trenches, the Australians were turned back with heavy losses: one killed, twelve wounded and two captured. Stretcher-bearer Private Thomas Jubb was awarded the Military Medal for reorganising the patrol and evacuating the wounded while under heavy enemy fire.

Private Dick Gray, 3 RAR, smiles through his greasepaint before moving off on patrol, 1 July 1953. HOBJ4383

Majon'ni, May 1953. Corporal P. Askew briefs an ambush patrol from 1 Platoon, 2 RAR. 157604

Korea, 1953. Corporal Ron Cashman (left) and Bob Fallon of 3 RAR outside their bunker. P00964.011

Stretcher-bearer Private Thomas Jubb was awarded the Military Medal for reorganising the patrol and evacuating the wounded while under heavy enemy fire. REL 27652.001 - .005

In another patrol action, on the night of 24-25 June 1953, Corporal Ron Cashman, 3 RAR, won the Military Medal for saving a wounded fellow patrol member - the 17 stone Private "Tubby" Ballard. Cashman carried him on his back to their position. This required a wide detour behind Chinese lines, twice coming in close contact with large groups of patrolling Chinese troops. Before his rescue of Ballard, Cashman had assisted in the recovery of two other badly wounded mates - Lieutenant A.W. Gargate and Private J.W. Kennard - from in front of Chinese positions. Cashman was also wounded himself that night - his second injury in Korea.

The telegram sent to Ron Cashmans mother informing her that he had been wounded for the third time. Text reads: "Regret to inform you that your son 5/2913 Corporal Ronald Kenneth Cashman was wounded in action in Korea 25 June (second occasion). Minor shrapnel wounds left shoulder and chin but able to remain on duty. Any further information received will be conveyed to you immediately." 3DRL/7683

Morale
This period was long and hard for Australian service personnel. They not only fought trench warfare, they fought boredom and the discomforts of their living conditions. As time passed, many men serving in Korea found they did not have a clear idea of what they were fighting for. I spend some of the time wondering what I am doing here, and don't come up with any clear reasons - except that it is not to save South Korea from the Communists. they are welcome to come to the God forsaken place. Private Desmond Guilfoyle, 1 RAR They saw friends and comrades die, and saw thousands upon thousands of Korean civilians caught in the conflict suffering and dying

The pursuit of peace

Truce talks began, first at Kaesong and then Panmunjom. Yet the diplomatic talks stalled repeatedly over many issues, including the repatriation of prisoners of war (POWs). While the parties debated and argued, the war continued for two more years as each side

fought for more ground and more power to strengthen their position in the armistice negotiations. As the war dragged on, some countries became less willing to continue their commitment of troops, yet in 1952 Australia contributed two additional battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment, 1 RAR and 2 RAR

Ted Scorfield, "Not Convinced", The Bulletin, 19 December 1951.

R&R: rest and recreation

Temporary relief from the trenches came in the form of leave, or "rest and recreation." It was an opportunity to sample the cultural differences and unique attractions on offer particularly in Japan. "'Operation Rest and Recreation' has as its main objective the great metropolis of Tokyo. And for over two years UN troops have assaulted the mighty target with unrelenting vigour and have been returned back to Korea with wild eyes, weird stories and empty pockets. We've seen them! Bronzed, fit innocent young men they go - pale, watery-eyed veterans, they limp back. Yes sir, it's tough over there!" Private Harry Kammerman In Korea, troops were sometimes entertained by Australian performers. Sometimes service personnel had to make their own fun.

Advertising cards for Japanese bars

Three members of 3 RAR wait to fly to Japan on R&R. P01813.541

Troops from 2 and 3 RAR watch entertainer Max Reddy perform on a makeshift stage, 1953. 157672

Kimpo, South Korea, 1952. Men of 77 Squadron, RAAF, attempt ice skating. JK0615

October 1950. Using a wooden box for a wicket, members of 3 RAR enjoy an impromptu game of cricket on a dirt road in the Korean countryside. P01813.832

Australian operations
From October 1950 until mid-1951, Australian service personnel were involved in many engagements in Korea, and were praised for their bravery and skill. After that time, the war fell into a stalemate; the frontline barely moved. While patrols and small raids on enemy positions were frequent, large operations were few. However, the contributions of all three army battalions, together with support from the RAN and the RAAF, meant that Australians were an important part of the Commonwealth war effort in Korea.

Australian Battles

3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment September 1950 - February 1954 Yongju/The Apple Orchard October 22, 1950 Kujin/ Broken Bridge October 25-26, 1950 Chongju October 29, 1950 Pakchon November 5, 1950 Kapyong April 23-24, 1951 Maryang San/Operation Commando October 2-8, 1951 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment March 1952 - Sept 1953 Operation Fauna Dec 10-11, 1952 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment March 1953 - Sept 1954 Samichon/The Hook July 24-26, 1953 The Royal Australian Navy Operation Han July-Sept, 1952

Yongju/The Apple Orchard - 22 October 1950

The young soldiers were, if anything, over eager to get into their first fight, but the apple trees were in full leaf and visibility was a real problem. Control was difficult and the worst outcome of the first engagement would have been that a man was shot by one of his mates. The NCOs and the senior soldiers were absolutely splendid and quickly got the neophytes through the momentary confusion which all soldiers experience in their first battle. Lieutenant (later Major General) David Butler, 3 RAR Yongju was the first action that Australian troops saw in Korea. The batttle took place not long after they had arrived. On 22 October, the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR), as part of the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade, moved north to Yongju, North Korea, in response to a call for assistance from US troops from the 187th Airborne Regiment. The paratroopers had been dropped into an area 40 kilometres north of Pyongyang, to block the withdrawal of the last North Korean forces to leave that city

after it had been captured by UN forces. The North Koreans had escaped their trap, however, and positioned themselves on high ground, attacking the Americans. When the Australian troops arrived in the area of an apple orchard, they came under sniper fire from the North Koreans. Lieutenant Colonel Charlie Green, Commanding Officer of 3 RAR, decided to launch an intense infantry attack. The Australians were unable to use tanks or supporting artillery, as they were not sure where the Americans ahead were positioned. North Korean forces, fighting the Americans to the north, were not prepared for the Australians attacking from the rear. C Company, under the leadership of Captain Arch Denness, MC, led the battalion in the drive through the area. After three hours of close fighting, the North Koreans retreated. The Australians had broken through to the Americans. Seven Australians were wounded at Yongju. Members of 3 RAR were decorated with awards for their achievements there: Lieutenant David Butler received the United States Silver Star, Captain Arch Denness the Military Cross. The success at Yongju boosted the confidence of the Australian troops and prepared them for some of the complexity of actions they would later face during the war.

Australian troops, supported by American Sherman tanks, await orders to continue the advance into North Korea, 1950. HOBJ1479

Yongju, North Korea, 22 October 1950. A North Korean soldier awaits medical attention after being wounded in the fighting with 3 RAR. P01813.820

Yongju area, North Korea, 22 October 1950. In the foreground, Brigadier Basil Aubrey Coad (left, partly obscured), Commander of the 27th British Commonwealth Infantry Brigade, discusses the Yongju engagement with a helmeted US Army soldier (behind Coad), Lt Col F. S. Walsh (centre) and Lt Col Charles Green (right), CO of 3 RAR. Several members of the 187th Airborne Regiment are standing in the background. Sitting in

the midground (right) and wearing a tam-o'-shanter cap is a member of the 1st Battalion, The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders. P01813.658

Kujin/Broken Bridge - 25-26 October 1950

After Yongju, the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR), continued their advance into North Korea as part of the 27th Brigade. They were ordered to Pakchon, following the British Middlesex Regiment. When 3 RAR's B company reached the town of Kujin on the Taeryong River, only 3 kilometres away from Pakchon, they found that one span of the 300 metre bridge across the Taeryong had been destroyed. In an attempt to locate the positions of any enemy forces on the other side, two sections of 4 Platoon crossed the bridge on foot using makeshift ladders, under the command of Lieutenant A. L. Morisson. Once they reached the other side, fifty North Korean soldiers surrendered to the Australians, while being fired upon by another group of their comrades. The Australians went back across the bridge to rejoin the battalion, taking ten North Korean soldiers with them as prisoners. Informed by an American spotter plane overhead that there were at least two enemy companies across the bridge, Lieutenant Colonel Charles Green ordered an air strike against them. American F-80 Shooting Star aircraft strafed the North Korean positions. After dark, however, it was back to fighting on land. Infantry soldiers could get across the bridge, but tanks and other vehicles could not. A solution had to be found. A suitable bridge was discovered nearby, but it needed a night of work by American engineers to make it safe. In the meantime, Green ordered A and B companies to cross the broken bridge in the dark and dig in positions on either side of the road. D company was sent to secure the town of Pakchon. From 7.30 pm, for the next few hours enemy forces launched mortars, shells and small arms fire at the Australians on their side of the bridge, but the troops held out. Fighting intensified after 10.30 pm with the use of small arms fire by the North Koreans. Reinforcements from C Company were sent across the bridge. During the night, the Australians fought against T-34 tanks and more North Korean infantry. At 4 am, North Korean troops unknowingly moved into the road where A company was positioned. When they were only metres away from each other in the dark, A Company opened fire with rifles, mortars and grenades, and the enemy forces, including a Russian T-34 tank, fled. By the next day, the road was clear, and the rest of the brigade troops were able to cross the Taeryong River, and continue on their previous course. The fighting over "the broken bridge" had cost eight Australian lives and left 22 more wounded.

Sergeant Tom Murray, a drum major and stretcher-bearer, received the George Medal for his ingenuity and bravery in evacuating wounded across the broken bridge. At one point, he jumped into the freezing river without his coat, to rescue a casualty who had fallen in the water.

North Korea, October 1950. A wounded Australian machine-gunner is lowered from the wrecked bridge in the Pakchon area, as the United Nations keep up their steady advance against the retreating North Koreans on 26 October. Improvised scaling ladders and lines were used to lower the wounded man to where a jeep ambulance could take him to a dressing station. HOBJ1646

Korea, 1950. Lined up in two rows behind a stack of captured weapons, a group of North Korean prisoners-of-war (POWs) stands on a sandy riverbank, as they are watched by three members of the 3rd Battalion, The Royal Australian Regiment (3RAR), (right), who are wearing greatcoats and hoods as protection against the cold. The North Koreans surrendered when the Australians crossed the Taeryong River during their northward advance. P02201.034

US Air Force Shooting Star Jet aircraft lined up on the fighter-bomber airstrip, Taegu, Korea. 1951. 147436

Taeryong River at Kujin, North Korea, c. 1950-10-26. Attempting to ford a stream, a US Army truck that had been carrying members of the 3rd Battalion, The Royal Australian Regiment (3RAR), stands bogged in mud and water. Looking on at right are several Korean civilians and some of the 3RAR soldiers who have got off the bogged vehicle. In the background stands a modern concrete bridge, one span of which has been demolished by retreating North Korean forces. P01813.648

Haramura, Japan 1950. Sergeant Tom Murray (right) and Sergeant Noel W. "Doc" Tampling outside their tent. P01472.018

Sergeant Tom Murray (left) attends a soldier of A Company, 3 RAR, wounded in both legs at Pakchon, November 1950, by mortar fire while fighting in the hills. 146958

Chongju - 29 October 1950

After leaving Kujin, the 27th Brigade, led by the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR), continued their northward advance to the Yalu River, on the border between North Korea and China. Six kilometres from Chongju their advance was again stopped. A large North Korean defensive line, supported by T-34 tanks, was wellestablished on either side of the main road to Chongju. Air attacks had weakened the fighting capabilities of the North Koreans, but the position had yet to be captured on the ground. Lieutenant Colonel Charles Green ordered D Company to attack the ridgeline south of the road, clearing the way for A company to attack the north. D company came under

very heavy fire, even though they were well supported by Sherman Tanks from the US 89th Tank Battalion. After two hours of battle, they secured the ridgeline. A Company then moved ahead and secured its objective. B Company dug in on the road between A and D Companies, and waited. That night, the North Korean forces launched a counter-attack against D Company but were held off after two hours of hard fighting. They then turned to A company on the north, and with tank support launched a determined attack at 9.30 pm. With the help of American artillery support, the Australians continued to hold out. By 11 pm, the North Koreans had retreated. During the fighting, three T-34 tanks had been destroyed by Australian bazooka teams from 3 Platoon. Private J. H. Stafford of D company personally destroyed a fourth by firing a Bren gun at the fuel tanks from a distance of 20 metres, blowing up the tank's ammunition. Stafford received a United States Silver Star for his bravery. It had been a short, hard fight, and the Australians and Americans had secured the town of Chongju. Both sides had suffered many casualties, with nine Australians killed in the action, and thirty wounded.

Members of 3 RAR, with tank support, engage the enemy from a crest overlooking the approaches to Chongju. HOBJ1726

1 November 1950. Men of 3 RAR attend Sunday morning mass at Battalion Headquarters near Chongju. HOBJ1687

Pakchon - 5 November 1950

In November, after the actions of the Broken Bridge and Chongju, the 27th Commonwealth Brigade held position near the town of Pakchon, in defence of the road leading south to the Chongchon River. Australian troops were concentrated on the west bank of the Taeryong River near Pakchon. On the night of 4-5 November, Chinese troops, who had only recently entered the war, attacked the area. They were repelled by the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders during the morning of 5 November, but other Chinese troops continued to advance southwards, threatening to isolate the position of the brigade. The 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR), was hurriedly sent to stop the Chinese on a tactically important ridgeline, east of Pakchon. The enemy positions were first strafed by Mustangs of 77 Squadron, RAAF: this was the first occasion when Australian troops and airpower worked together in Korea. The raid having thrown the Chinese into confusion, 3 RAR then attacked. After two hours of fierce defence by the Chinese, the Australians captured the ridgeline. However, the fight was not to end there. After dark that night, the Chinese launched a massive counter-attack. On the Pakchon road, C Company was fired upon, while Chinese infantry attacked A and B companies on the ridgeline. Colonel F. S. Walsh, Commanding Officer of 3 RAR, withdrew the

Australian companies from the ridgeline to lower ground. A Company, in particular, suffered many casualties during their withdrawal. Considering Walsh's decision a foolish move, the 27th Brigade Commander Brigadier Aubrey Coad reversed Walsh's order, as he felt leaving the ridgeline open would give the enemy direct access to the rest of the brigade. However, by the time his order came through, only one Australian company - D Company - could return to defend the position. Fortunately, after midnight it was clear that the Chinese were withdrawing. 3 RAR had secured the ridge and the road running south from Pakchon was safe. The battle had claimed 12 Australian lives; seventy men were wounded. Brigadier Coad appointed Lieutenant Colonel Bruce Ferguson as the new CO of 3 RAR the next morning. The Australians remained in the area for a few weeks afterwards, but to their surprise, the Chinese troops kept a low profile. The action at Pakchon marked the end of the first Chinese offensive.

4 November 1950. Australian troops from C Company, 3 RAR, march towards Pakchon. 146946

Pakchon. Mortar crew of 3 RAR in action. 146953

Pakchon, 5 November 1950. Stretcher-bearers carry a wounded soldier from A Company, 3 RAR, across a rice paddy. 146956

Lieutenant Colonel Bruce Ferguson, after Pakchon Commanding Officer, 3 RAR. 146990

Kapyong - 23-24 April 195

At last I felt like an Anzac, and I imagine there were 600 others like me. Captain Reg Saunders, Officer Commanding, C Company, 3 RAR Kapyong came to be the most significant and important battle for Australian troops in Korea. In April 1951 the Chinese launched their spring offensive with the aim of retaking the city of Seoul. They quickly overran South Korean forces defending one of the major approach routes, the valley of the Kapyong River. Thirty kilometres further south, the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade hastily occupied defensive positions in an attempt to halt the Chinese advance.

On 23 April, the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR), under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Bruce Ferguson, and the 2nd Battalion, Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry, occupied prominent hills on either side of the seven-kilometrewide valley, where a small tributary joined the Kapyong River. Also forward were headquarters units, tanks and artillery. The 1st Battalion, Middlesex Regiment, were to the rear. Early in the evening, retreating South Koreans streamed past the Commonwealth position, with Chinese forces closely intermingled. Soon afterwards a platoon of American tanks supporting 3 RAR was overrun. The Kapyong valley was too large an area to defend with the forces available, and the brigade was spread very thinly. Throughout the night the Chinese repeatedly pressed the Australian positions, attacking in waves over their own dead and wounded. At dawn, A Company, under the command of Major Bernard "Ben" O'Dowd, found that the Chinese had infiltrated its position, but a counter-attack was able to eject them. Meanwhile B Company, which had spent the night on a hill near the riiver, discovered Chinese occupying some old bunkers on a small knoll. Hand-to-hand fighting ensued with grenades and bayonets. C Company, under the command of Captain Reg Saunders, was in position to reinforce both A and B Companies. "Major O'Dowd then directed the radio operator to contact anyone. The American 1st Marine Division answered but their operator refused to believe who our operator was speaking for. Major O'Dowd took the phone and demanded to speak to the commanding officer. The general in charge of the [Marine] division came on the phone and told O'Dowd we didn't exist as we had been wiped out the night before. Major O'Dowd said, 'I've got news for you, we are still here and we are staying here.'" Private Patrick Knowles, 3 RAR, on the morning of 24 April 1951 Fighting continued throughout the day with the Australians holding their positions, and the Chinese also engaging D Company. But late on 24 April, with their position now untenable, the Australians were forced into a fighting withdrawal down a ridge to the valley, where they rejoined the brigade. Their withdrawal was supported by New Zealand artillery from the 16th Field Regiment. Having found the Canadian position unassailable, the Chinese made no further attacks. By the afternoon of 25 April the road through to the Canadians had been cleared of Chinese and 2 PPCLI was relieved by US Army units. On Anzac Day 1951, the Australians rested after a long fight. Thirty-two Australians were killed and 53 were wounded for their part in stalling the Chinese advance and preventing Seoul from falling into enemy hands. Lieutenant Colonel Bruce Ferguson was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his skilful leadership, and the Australian and Canadian battalions both received United States Presidential Distinguished Unit Citations for their part in the battle.

Kapyong diorama, sculpted by Lu Skacej and Dean Colls for the Conflicts: 1945 to Today galleries ART93183

Ivor Hele, Kapyong ART40313

A view of the Kapyong valley, seen from the defensive positions held by 3 RAR during the battle of Kapyong. 147835

A view of the Kapyong valley, showing the positions of C Company in the middle distance, D Company in the upper left, and A Company in the left foreground. 147838

Ted Scorfield, "For the Fallen", The Bulletin, 9 May 1951.

Sergeant S.K.J. "Len" Lenoy, who was killed in action at Kapyong while commanding a machine-gun section with A Company. P01813.802

General J. Van Fleet, General Officer Commanding, US Eigth Army, inspects members of the 3 RAR while bestowing the Presidential citation in recognition of the unit's action at Kapyong.083857

Maryang San "Operation Commando" 5-8 October 1951

 ... probably the greatest single feat of the Australian Army during the Korean War. Robert O'Neill, Official Historian of Australia in the Korean War In late 1951, Chinese forces held a group of hills overlooking the Imjin River and the Commonwealth forces positioned nearby. Maryang San was a steep hill (Hill 317), rising 200 metres above the valley in front of it, with ridges running east and west. As long as the Chinese held Maryang San, they could dominate the ground to the south. Earlier attempts by US forces to cross the valley and attack the hill had failed. In late September, the British Commonwealth Division was ordered to prepare for a general advance, called "Operation Commando", aiming to push communist forces back further north of the 38th parallel. Lieutenant Colonel Francis Hassett, commander of the 3rd Battalion, the Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR), planned to draw on the Australians' experience in New Guinea during the Second World War by "running the ridges". A victory in this attack would also give the UN more leverage in the continuing armistice negotiations. The night before the attack, Australian entertainer Gladys Moncrief performed in front of the troops from 3 RAR. Lieutenant (later Lieutenant Colonel) Maurie Pears remembered: "It was a magic night, deadly quiet and calm. You could hear a pin drop. She sang in the open with a piano accompaniment. It was almost like Mum saying 'Look after yourself'. This was the closest we would be to home for a long time." Pears won a Military Cross for his leadership during the attack at Maryang San. On 5 October, while British regiments attacked further west, 3 RAR's A Company attempted an advance along a difficult route up a spur south-east of the summit, at times clawing their way forward. This attack was not expected to succeed, but it drew Chinese defenders away from the main ridgeline, up which B and D Companies advanced from the east. A heavy mist helped conceal the attackers, but also made navigation difficult, and the two companies lost contact with each other. In a series of bitter fights D Company captured four knolls leading up the ridgeline. Then late in the afternoon C Company, commanded by Major Jack Gerke, rejoining the battalion after assisting a British attack on Kowang San (Hill 355 - known as "Little Gibraltar), took over and captured a feature called "Baldy". The company then moved on quickly to occupy the summit, which had been abandoned by the Chinese. Throughout the next day, the Australians held the summit against heavy Chinese fire and repeated attempts to infiltrate the position. Early on 7 October, B Company captured a final objective, "the Hinge", a high point on the ridge west from the summit, after a fierce action highlighted by a number of acts of great bravery. All next day the Chinese

bombarded the Australian positions, making resupplies of ammunition and the evacuation of casualties difficult. In the evening, after half-an-hour's ominous silence, the heaviest bombardment yet preceded a series of desperate and courageous Chinese counter-attacks during the night. After each attack the Chinese were forced to withdraw with heavy losses, until in the morning they gave up and the Australians' hold on Maryang San was secured. Surprise, speed and aggression had won the day. Private Jim McFadzean, Signaller, C Company, 3 RAR Twenty Australians had been killed, and 89 wounded, in some of the heaviest fighting the Australians were to see in Korea. With the support of New Zealand and British artillery and British tanks, the Australians had succeeded. Lt Col Hassett was awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) for his leadership throughout the long and bloody fight. Warrant Officer Arthur Stanley called Maryang San: One of the best planned operations, commanded by experts, fought with outstanding bravery by all who took part, in some of the worst country in the world, with victory at the end. Sadly, after the Australians were withdrawn and British troops had taken over, by the 5th November, Maryang San was recaptured by the Chinese. It was a terrible blow to morale for those who had fought long and hard to capture it. The tactically important ground of Maryang San remained in the hands of Chinese forces for the rest of the war.

Ivor Hele, Hill 317 ART40314

Hill 355, "Little Gibraltar", captured during Operation Commando by C Company, 3 RAR and 1 Battalion, King's Own Scottish Borderers. 042310

Machine-gunners fire in support of C Company during Operation Commando. HOBJ2432

Maryang San is the highest pyramid-shaped hill to the right. 042315

Lieutenant Colonel Frank Hassett celebrates his 34th birthday with Major Jeffrey "Jim" Shelton, 4 November 1951. 147774

"Operation Fauna" - 10-11 December 1952

Hill 355, "Little Gibraltar", dominates the countryside.042310 "It takes intestinal fortitude, 'guts' of the highest order, to drop into the unknown, the 'bottomless trench' of unknown enemy bunkers. There is no time to think about it. You jump, you hope, you move swiftly, you do your job, you get out." Lieutenant Gus Breen At the end of November 1952, the 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (1 RAR), under the command of Lietenant Colonel M. Austin, had secured and were holding the approaches to Hill 355, "Little Gibraltar" with continuous patrols. Recent advances by the Chinese on a spur across the valley from Hill 355 concerned Brigadier Thomas Daly, Commander of the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade. He decided a raid must be made on their position. "Operation Fauna" had two objectives: one, to capture enemy prisoners, to gather intelligence about the identities of the Chinese relief battalions that had recently arrived in the area; and two, to destroy enemy bunkers and prevent the Chinese from advancing their line any further. As the Chinese troops were well-established in the area, surprise was essential. Under the command of Major A. S . Mann, B Company aimed to make the climb in the early morning hours of 11 December, attacking the Chinese position in the rear, from the north-eastern spur of Hill 355. They would be supported by the 16th New Zealand Field Regiment and two assault pioneer platoons.

Private Desmond Guilfoyle recalled some of the soldiers more humorous exchanges that allayed the tension of the outset of the operation: "'Famous last words recorded here', it's Jock McKenna again. "'I'm not sure whether to go for a M.M. or a V.C.', someone calls out. "'I'd rather go for a beer', Old Harry replies, as we go over the top and down the slope!" The slopes of Hill 335 were icy and dangerous, and progress was slow. Yet their appearance was clearly a surprise and confused the Chinese troops in the communication trenches. However their shouts and bursts of gunfire alerted their comrades further forward. They began to fire on the Australians, who continued trying to penetrate the Chinese positions. Artillery shelled the area in support of the Australians, assisting their advance forward. Despite careful initial planning, the Chinese defence proved stronger than had been anticipated; gun fire and grenades rained on the troops, one-third of whom were wounded. Although the capture of enemy prisoners was a major objective in this operation, it proved impossible to achieve. The Chinese were skilful at staying hidden, in well-fortified bunkers and underground tunnels. The Australians were ordered to withdraw without having captured any prisoners. Twenty-two men were wounded and three reported missing during Operation Fauna, one of whom was recovered the next day by a search party. Although the mission had been unsuccessful, many men from 1 RAR were decorated for their bravery in the attack, their last action in Korea before returning home.

Samichon River "The Hook" 24-26 July 1953

"The memories of bad times in the line were beginning to fade, and everyone was getting impatient for action. 'When are we going in the line again?' At last the order came though, 'We're going on an important feature further along in the Western Front.' We were to relieve the Poms on 'The Hook'." Private Harry Kammerman, 2 RAR The Hook was a vulnerable but heavily defended section of the UN frontline, that protected other UN positions in the Samichon valley. Here, Australian soldiers took part in their last engagement of the war; the armistice declared only one day later. Positioned at The Hook were the 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (2 RAR) and the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR), as the forward troops of the 1st Commonwealth Division. Other vital positions to the left of the Australians were held by the 7th Regiment of the US Marines.

On 24 July, Chinese forces launched their final attack of the war. Probing 2 RAR's position with small infantry parties after dark, the Chinese later subjected it to extended to a heavy night bombardment, followed by waves of assaulting infantry. The alternating bombardment and infantry assault continued through the night, but the Chinese were unable to penetrate the Australian positions. Throughout 25 July, the Australian troops were shelled, and endured heavy mortar and artillery fire that night. The American position, to the left of the Australians on The Hook, was now under an infantry attack. With fire support from the Australian positions, the Americans managed to hold off the Chinese infantry, but continued to receive heavy bombardment. By the early hours of the next day, the Chinese had given up their attack. Five Australian soldiers were killed; 24 were wounded. The next day, the armistice was signed at Panmunjom. The action at The Hook was one of the major engagements of the stalemate period - and having just fought a hard action for three days, it was difficult for Australian troops to believe that the war was finally over.

Troops of C Company, 2 RAR, in trenches on The Hook, June 1953.157648

Troops of 2 RAR move from The Hook to the Demilitarised Zone, 72 hours after the cease-fire.

"Operation Han" - July-September 1951

HMAS Murchison, under the command of Lieutenant Commander A. N. Dollard, saw its first action in July 1951, while patrolling the Yellow Sea. Many enemy forces were stationed along the sea's shores. On the 24 July, the vessel fired successfully on an enemy tank on shore, on the west coast of the Haeju peninsula. Murchison, along with other frigates and launches, then moved into the Han River, which proved slow and difficult to navigate. The aim of "Operation Han" was to destroy enemy forces and installations along the Han River in the Kaesong area. A naval blockade would also prevent the Chinese from crossing the river and occupying the group of islands to the south along the coast. A group of 14 UN ships launched a full-scale bombardment campaign of firing shells into a large area near Kaesong, on the north bank of the Han. While the blockade of the Han and the bombardment campaign went on for months, survey boats mapped and charted the many channels of the river, often becoming targets for enemy soldiers on land. By September, the Chinese prepared for organised retaliation. On 28 September, Murchison exchanged fierce fire with Chinese troops along the coast. Two days later, it was fired upon again, this time with greater force and accuracy. There was a direct hit in her engine room from a 75 mm shell, shrapnel damage, and seven shell holes in her side,

but she sustained no serious damage. Several men on board were wounded, one seriously. Murchison's involvement in Operation Han was considered a significant success. Admiral A. K. Scott-Moncrieff, Commander, West Coast Blockade Force, sent this message to the crew of the Murchison: You have been a tower of strength and your good name will always be associated with the infamous Han. No ship could have done better. For fine seamanship and steadiness under fire you have proved yourselves beyond reproach.

The frigate HMAS Murchison 044748

Ken McFadyen, HMAS Murchison bombing enemy positions on the Han River ART40820

The Executive Officer of HMAS Murchison points to the puncture made by a Chinese anti-tank shell which then cut through a steel door into the engine room. DUKJ4899

Weapons of war
The war in Korea saw a vast array of weaponry used by both sides, from new types of aircraft and guns to propaganda. Despite these innovations, the conduct of the land war was in many ways was reminiscent of the First World War (1914-1918).

Weaponry & Communications United Nations Forces

Short Magazine Lee Enfield MkIII* Owen Machine Carbine Bren Light Machine Gun Vickers Medium Machine Gun 3-Inch Mortar 3.5 Inch M20 Rocket Launcher (Bazooka) 17-Pounder Anti-Tank Gun M-1951 Armoured Vest Bofors Gun M4A3E8 Sherman Tank Helicopters: The Bell 47 (H-13) Communications

Chinese/North Korean

Mosin-Nagant M1891/1930 Shpagin Sub Machine-Gun - The "Burp" Gun T34/85 Tank Communications

Weaponry and communications

Short Magazine Lee Enfield Mark III*
The SMLE No. 1 MkIII* was the standard personal weapon of Australian troops in Korea. Reliable and accurate, the Lee Enfield had first entered service with the Australian Army in 1908 as the Mk III, and had been carried by Australian soldiers in both world wars. The SMLE was a manually operated, bolt-action weapon. It fired .303-inch calibre ammunition that was fed from a ten-round detachable magazine. This magazine could be quickly reloaded while still on the weapon by the use of five round charger clips (see

image). A well-trained soldier could fire up to 15 aimed shots per minute, which included reloading the magazine. It's effective range was approximately 3,000 metres; however, it was rarely used for distances over 1,000 metres. The SMLE could also be fitted with a bayonet with a 43 cm blade.

Private Alf Lees reloads his SMLE No. 1 MkIII* rifle with a charger clip while his mates from B Company, 3 RAR, give covering fire to another section pinned down in front of a Chinese position. HOBJ2070

Owen Machine Carbine

The Owen machine carbine gun was first introduced into the Australian Army in 1942, and quickly developed a reputation for being simple to operate, hard-wearing and reliable. It fired 9 mm pistol ammunition and was capable of fully automatic fire. The Owen's cyclic rate of fire was about 600 rounds per minute, but it was usually fired in two- to three-round bursts, as the magazine only held 33 rounds. A short-range weapon, the Owen had been ideal for jungle fighting during the Second World War, but in the longer-range fighting of the Korean War it was less useful. It was best during the close-quarter fighting carried out by raiding parties and patrols during the stalemate phase of the war. Two Owen machine carbines were issued to every Australian infantry section (10 men).

Corporal R.F.A. "Tosh" Smith from Prahran, Victoria, shows his Owen machine carbine to Sergeant First Class Robert Steare of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Note the top-mounted magazine, a distinctive feature of the Owen machine carbine. HOBJ3996

Bren light machine-gun

The Bren light machine-gun was the main portable firepower of Australian infantry in Korea. Like many of the weapons used by Australians in Korea, the Bren had also been used during Second World War. The Bren was originally a Czech design and its name resulted from the combination of "Brno" and "Enfield", the location of the small-arms factories in Czechoslovakia and Great Britain respectively that contributed to its development. A highly accurate and reliable weapon, the Bren could be fired by a single soldier but required a second man to carry its tools, spare parts and extra ammunition. The Bren fired the same .303-inch calibre ammunition as the soldiers' Lee Enfields; this was loaded in 30-round magazines. The magazines, however, were usually only filled with 28 rounds to prevent the weapon jamming. The Bren's practical rate of fire was 120 rounds per minute, fired in bursts of three-five rounds. It was mostly fired from the ground, mounted on the bipod that formed part of the weapon, but it could also be fired from the hip. On the bipod, the Bren had an effective range of just under 550 metres, but mounted on a tripod it could deliver fire out to almost one and a half kilometres.

A Bren gunner and his "Number Two". P01479.013

A Bren gunner of 1 RAR scans the enemy hills during the daily stand-to at last light, 1952.HOBJ3327

Vickers medium machine-gun

Capable of firing out to a maximum range of four kilometres, the Vickers medium machine-gun was an important support weapon for the Australian infantry battalions in Korea. Each battalion was equipped with six Vickers guns. The Vickers gun was fired by

a crew of two, one man to fire the weapon and another to ensure the smooth feeding of its 250-round belts of .303 ammunition. It took four men, however, to move the gun, its tripod, ammunition, spare parts and tools, sights, and water. The Vickers' high rates of fire, up to 250 rounds per minute, made the gun's barrel very hot, so it was encased in a water jacket to keep it cool and stop it from overheating and jamming. In Korea, anti-freeze had to be added to the water supply to prevent it from freezing and splitting the jacket open.

A Vickers gun crew lay down covering fire during the assault on Hill 317, the battle of Maryang San. HOBJ2434

Chipyong-ni, Korea, February 1951. A Vickers .303 machine-gun in action against the Chinese, manned by Sergeant Chaperlin, 3 RAR. P01479.007

3-inch mortar

Film of an Australian 3-inch mortar unit in action in Korea. F07535 The 3-inch mortar was used by Australian troops to fire 4.5 kilogram bombs into enemy positions. The mortar was a hollow tube with a firing pin in the bottom. To fire a bomb, the mortarman would drop it into the muzzle of the mortar. The bomb would then be launched into the air to fall on enemy positions up to two and a half kilometres away. A well-trained crew could fire up to fifteen rounds per minute. Each Australian infantry battalion was equipped with six 3-inch mortars.

3.5-inch M20 rocket launcher (bazooka)

The M20 was an improved version of the original anti-tank rocket launcher, nicknamed the bazooka, designed and used by the US Army during the Second World War. The M20 could be used against both tanks and stationary targets, such as bunkers. Against tanks it had a maximum effective range of 110 metres but it could be used against stationary targets up to 1,200 metres away. Australian infantry companies used the M20 to good

effect against North Korean T-34 tanks in the fighting in late October 1950. At Chongju a bazooka team from 3 Platoon, A Company, 3 RAR destroyed three T-34s.

Two members of 3 RAR, training for Korea, set up a 3.5-inch bazooka, Japan 1950.P01813.373

Private Wallace "Wally" Hoare, A Company, 3 RAR, carries an M20 bazooka. The bazooka was broken down into two parts for ease of carriage. These parts were reassembled to form a tube before firing. Wally Hoare was killed in action at Kapyong on 24 April 1951.P02498.016

17-pounder anti-tank gun

The 17-pounder gun was the heaviest weapon used by 3 RAR in Korea. Designed during the Second World War for use against tanks, the gun was used as a general-purpose support weapon in Korea and proved particularly useful against enemy bunkers. It had a maximum range of 10,500 metres and could fire several types of ammunition, including high-explosive and armour-piercing ammunition. The 17-pounder was manned by a detachment of seven soldiers from the anti-tank platoon. This platoon was equipped with six 17-pounders.

Two 3 RAR 17-pounder guns stand on a snow-covered plain in Korea, 1950. P02201.018

A 17-pounder anti-tank gun detachment from the anti-tank platoon of 3 RAR fires on communist bunkers. HOBJ3292

M-1951 armoured vest

The Korean War saw the first use of modern armoured, or ballistic, vests. Designed by the US Marine Corps, these vests contained plates of bonded fibreglass armour. Capable of stopping pistol bullets but not rifle or machine-gun bullets, the vests were intended to protect the wearer from grenade and shell fragments. The vest was also able to stop bayonet thrusts. The Australian battalions received limited quantities of armoured vests late in the war and used them to outfit the patrols and raiding parties that ventured out into no man's land.

Private C. J Randall, 2 RAR, wears an armoured vest as he leaves on patrol, 1953.

An Australian raiding party wearing armoured vests. Left to right: Private D. M. Jock, Lance Corporal G. C. "Toby" Ralstone, Private N. A. "Bluey" Bonell and Private Cecil Raymond-Blanch. HOBJ3486

Bofors gun
Firing 40 mm calibre ammunition, the Swedish-designed Bofors gun was a fully automatic cannon intended primarily for use against aircraft. It was first fitted to Australian ships during the Second World War, quickly becoming standard for most ships. Some ships of the RAN are still fitted with Bofors guns. In the Korean War, there was little call for the use of the Bofors, but with a range of over two kilometres it could also be used in shore bombardments. During her time as part of the Han River blockade, HMAS Murchison engaged enemy positions ashore on several occasions with her Bofors guns.

A test firing of Bofors guns aboard HMAS Sydney in Korean waters. 305197

Two Bofors gunners aboard HMAS Murchison, Fork Anchorage, Korea 1951. 044747

M4A3E8 Sherman tank

The most widely used Allied tank in the Second World War, the Sherman tank, again saw service with American armoured units in Korea. The M4A3E8 version of the Sherman had a crew of five. It was powered by a Ford eight-cylinder petrol engine and could attain a top speed (on road) of 48 kilometres per hour. Armed with a 76 mm gun, the Sherman was outclassed by North Korea's T-34/85 tanks. After several large tank battles in July and August 1950, the American armoured units' most common task was the support of infantry operations. It was in this role that American Sherman crews came into contact with Australian troops, as they did in the battle of Kapyong, April 1951. Tank crews had to watch as carefully as infantry for land mines.

At Pakchon, a 3-inch mortar crew of 3 RAR go into action; an M4A3E8 Sherman tank waits in support in the background. 146951

November, 1950. A Chinese TM46 anti-tank mine lies on stony ground in the countryside. P02201.126

Helicopters: The Bell 47 (H-13)

The Korean War was the first conflict that saw the widespread use of helicopters, where they were used mainly for the transport of supplies and the evacuation of wounded. Occasionally US Marines used helicopters to transport troops. Made famous by the television series "MASH", the Bell 47 was widely used by the United States Army to evacuate casualties. The Bell 47 was able to carry two passengers in the cabin and two casualties in pods attached on either side of the aircraft. The Bell 47 had a top speed of 169 km/h and a range of just over 330 km. Many Australian casualties benefited from the speedy evacuation the Bell 47 was able to provide.

Members of 3 RAR load a wounded soldier into a pod on a US Army Bell 47D helicopter in the Sokkong valley area. P01813.747

Communications
Good communications with supporting units, such as aircraft, tanks and artillery is vital to successful military operations. In Korea, Australians used a variety of communications equipment from small, short-range "walkie-talkie" radios, to large, heavy and powerful stationary radio sets. In defensive positions and during battle, more basic field telephones connected by cable were used to maintain contact. In Australian battalions, the maintenance and use of communications equipment was the responsibility of the signals platoon.

An Australian soldier of 3 RAR uses a "walkie-talkie" to contact Battalion Headquarters in the Pakchon area. 148884

Private Bob Fallon, wearing an armoured vest, works on a communication set in preparation for a night patrol, July 1953. HOBJ4377

Iwakuni Airbase, Japan. Sergeant Bill Vernon checks a radio communication set from one of 77 Squadron's Meteor jets. JK0397

Mosin-Nagant M1891/1930
The standard North Korean and Chinese rifle of the Korean War was the Russiandesigned Mosin-Nagant M1891/1930. It was a manually operated bolt-action rifle and fired 7.62 mm ammunition, fed from a 5-round fixed magazine. The Mosin-Nagant had a maximum range of around three kilometres but was only capable of effective aimed fire out to ranges of 400-500 metres.

Corporal "Stewie" Ham, sniper section, 3 RAR, inspects a captured communist Chinese CHICOM T7.62 mm Mosin-Nagant M1891/1930 sniper rifle fitted with telescopic sights. P01813.474

Communist Chinese Type 50 sub-machine gun - the "burp" gun

Nicknamed the "burp" gun by Commonwealth troops because of the sound it made when fired, the Type 50 was the most widely used weapon within Chinese infantry units. It fired 7.62 mm calibre ammunition fed from either 35-round box magazines or 71-round drum magazines and had an effective range of 200 metres. As a short-barreled weapon, the Type 50 was best in close-quarters fighting, a characteristic which suited the Chinese method of mass infantry attacks. Like most North Korean and Chinese weapons of the war, the Type 50 was a locally manufactured copy of a Soviet weapon, the PPSh M1941.

Wearing a Soviet helmet, Private Jim Blackmore, 3 RAR, examines a burp gun during a course in enemy weapons identification. The course was run in Japan for 3 RAR before it left for service in Korea. P01813.345

T34/85 tank
The T34/85 was the core of the North Korean and Chinese armoured units during the Korean War. A Second World War design, the T34/85 had originally been developed by the Soviets for fighting on the Eastern Front and had excellent cross-country mobility. The tank's 85 mm gun packed a considerable punch and in the early days of the war North Korea's T-34/85s completely overwhelmed the American light M24 Chaffee tanks employed against them. They were soon matched, however, by increasing numbers of heavy tanks hurriedly shipped in from America, such as the M26 Pershing. By September 1950, American tanks outnumbered North Korea's by at least five to one. Australian troops mainly encountered small numbers of T34/85s acting in a supporting role during infantry attacks such as those at Kujin and Chongju.

An anti-tank platoon of 3 RAR in Korea, July 1952. HOBJ3286

North Korean T34/85 tanks on the move near Seoul. P0716/113/090

Mustangs, Meteors and MiGs

[You're] up there in a three dimensional atmosphere, in complete comfort ... My immediate reaction when this Chinese or Korean started firing at me was, hell, I've got to get away from this or I'll either be dead, or a POW. And then, when he presented himself as a target, my immediate reaction was, hey, here's a target, I'll have a crack at shooting him down. You don't have time to think about anything else.

Pilot Officer (later Air Vice Marshal) Bill Simmonds, on shooting down a MiG-15, North Korea, 8 May 1952

Gun camera film from 77 Squadron, RAAF, flying over Korea, 1950-1951.F02661 Pilots of 77 Squadron started out in the Korean War flying P-51 Mustang aircraft. Originally designed as a fighter during the Second World War, the piston-engine Mustang had lost its technical edge by the time of the Korean War, and was more suited to ground-support roles. When Soviet-built, MiG-15 jet fighters appeared in Korean skies after China entered the war, they soon demonstrated their superior performance. While American squadrons had jet fighters of their own - F-80 Shooting Stars, and later Sabres - only the Sabres could match the MiGs for performance and versatility. In April 1951, 77 Squadron replaced its Mustangs with the British-built twin-jet Meteor Mark 8. The RAAF pilots were trained on the Meteors by four experienced British RAF pilots, at the Iwakuni base in Japan. Although the Meteor had also been developed during the Second World War, it was thought to be more capable of surviving encounters with the Soviet MiG-15 jet. In Korea, air-to-air combat entered the jet age, but when in August 1951 the jet adversaries met, the Meteors did not fare well. The speed (1084 km/hour, 122 km/hour faster than Meteors), rate of climb, and performance at high altitudes MiGs a far superior aircraft. In subsequent months, the role of the Meteor as a fighter was reconsidered, and it was withdrawn from "MiG Alley" for use as a ground-attack aircraft in areas where MiGs were rarely encountered.

MiG Alley "MiG Alley" was the nickname given the area between Chongchon Valley and Yalu River, on the Manchuria/Korea frontier. The area was a focus to intercept Chinese MiG fighters, who were based at a Chinese airfield over the border in Antung. While UN airpower remained generally superior over the rest of Korea, MiG Alley remained the most dangerous area to RAAF pilots. It was also frustrating because UN pilots were forbidden to cross the Yalu River, so MiGs could fight them, and then return to base over the border without any fear of pursuit.

Mustang aircraft A68-809 flown by Wing Commander Lou Spence, while commanding 77 Squadron. 148928

The fuselage of a MiG-15, built in 1951, in the collection of the Australian War Memorial. REL 20295

New Meteors for 77 Squadron, RAAF, in Korea, on the flight deck of HMS Unicorn, Singapore 1951. 042801

"Meteor ashtray" made for Flight Lieutenant (later Group Captain) Douglas Hurst. It depicts the aircraft in which he led a daring low-level attack on a troop concentration against heavy anti-aircraft fire in September 1952, earning him the Distinguished Flying Cross. REL 23927

WO Ron Guthrie, April 1951. On August 29, 1951, Australian Warrant Officer Ron Guthrie's Meteor was shot down by a MiG jet. He ejected at 38,300 ft, parachuted through freezing air for over 20 minutes, but landed unhurt. He was immediately captured by North Korean soldiers, and taken prisoner of war. JK0927

War of words - Propaganda

In the Korean War both sides used paper as a weapon. The UN forces and the North Koreans and Chinese alike dropped millions of pamphlets, letters and entreaties to each other's troops, in an attempt to influence the thoughts and motivations of their enemies. There are many examples of the manipulative and calculated way each side sought to introduce dissent and apathy among the troops of the other.

Korea, November, 1950. Propaganda scrawled on the wall of a Korean house, probably by retreating North Korean soldiers. The sign reads: "American officers and soldiers: 5 000 miles from home, fighting 30000000 Koreams [sic] and behind them are 475000000 Chinses [sic]. What can bombs do? They canont [sic] kill all our people, They can only stiffen our fighting spirit." P02201.127

Australian soldiers hold up Chinese propaganda signs left behind for UN troops. HOBJ2564

UN propaganda
The UN Command targeted both enemy soldiers and Korean civilians.

Why die for Russia? propaganda leaflet. Cartoon depicts Stalin pushing a Chinese officer pushing a Korean soldier towards a battlefield entitled "Korea". This Psychological Warfare Sheet shows how much thought and planning went into this propaganda. The accompanying leaflet was aimed at North Korean and Chinese soldiers, with a cartoon depicting Soviet leader Joseph Stalin pushing a Chinese officer pushing a Korean soldier towards a battlefield named "Korea". It suggested that the Korean War was being driven by the Soviets. Propaganda was also used to show that UN forces were working towards uniting Korea, while North Korean forces were under the control of outside forces - the Soviet Union and China.

> Propaganda pamphlet showing North Korea dividing Korea with a knife, while UN forces try to put it back together again.

Chinese/North Korean propaganda

Chinese and North Korean propaganda often emphasised solidarity among all soldiers, and portrayed UN soldiers as simple pawns in a game played by rich business men, who were profiting from the war.

"Mr Moneybags" propaganda pamphlet aimed at US troops. Text reads: Colour picture: Mr moneybags in Florida this Christmas. B&W picture: Where are you? In Korea! You risk your life, big business rakes in the dough. PROP01994 Leaflets were used to incite doubt, to make UN soldiers question why they were risking their lives in a foreign civil war, while their family and loved ones waited for them at home. Leaflet drops were often timed to coincide with significant events such as Easter, Christmas, or New Year, in an attempt to make soldiers homesick and want an end to the war.

Christmas - Home - Happiness. Propaganda leaflet. Text Reads: Frozen Rations eaten on the run. Any moment he may have to run again, to fight or die - and so may you. Those who love you want you back home safe and sound. FIND A WAY OUT! It's no disgrace to quit fighting in this unjust war! Leaflet 10/3/1 They also exploited the destruction that the war was causing for innocent civilians. The leaflet below, aimed at South Korean civilians, likens treatment by the UN to the harsh treatment suffered under the Japanese occupation of Korea.

Propaganda leaflet aimed at South Koreans - comparing treatment by Japanese with treatment by US. Other propaganda took the form of messages left behind in areas where UN forces were expected. Both sides issued "safe conduct" passes that were supposed to guarantee the bearer fair treatment if he surrendered to enemy forces.

Safe conduct pass issued by UN forces with a cartoon depicting Chinese/North Korean troops surrendering.

Safe conduct pass issued by Chinese forces, encouraging UN soldiers to surrender. The photo shows UN prisoners being well-treated. The words "Demand peace stop the war" were often used in North Korean/Chinese propaganda to imply that the war was unwanted by all soldiers. 3DRL 7469

Although much effort was put into propaganda on both sides, it is difficult to measure whether it had any real effect.

Faces of War
War may be directed by governments and leaders, but it is fought by individuals. There were many outstanding Australians who served in Korea. Four of these are

Lieutenant Colonel Charles Green Captain Reg Saunders Private Eric Donnelly Sergeant Vance Drummond.

Lieutenant Colonel Charles Green

Charles Hercules Green, Commanding Officer, 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR). P02037.024 Charles Green, only 30 years old when he served and was killed in Korea, made a big impression on all those who came in contact with him. His death was met with grief among Australian soldiers. Not only had the Australian army lost a respected and skilled commander, but a man that troops liked and admired personally. Green was described by his intelligence officer, Lieutenant (later Lieutenant Colonel) A. Argent as: a tall, dark, sinewy man with the bearing, and unhurried deliberateness one usually associates with men of the land. Pressure never seemed to bother him. He had a fine touch and the presence of a natural leader. His command in Korea was always firm and

sure. He always gave good, clear and concise orders. He kept well forward, in fact immediately behind the leading company group. After six weeks he had molded the battalion into a fighting unit. Born in 1919, and raised in Swan Creek, NSW, Charlie Green joined the militia at 16. During the Second World War he earned his reputation, beginning as an infantry officer of the 2/2nd Battalion, serving in North Africa and Greece. After the German conquest of Greece he escaped to Palestine. He then served as Commander of the 2/11th Infantry Battalion in the Aitape-Wewak campaign in New Guinea, and was said to be the youngest commanding officer of an Australian battalion during the Second World War. For his service in that war he received the Distinguished Service Order, at the age of 25. After returning to Australia and working as a farmer, Green married and had a daughter. When war broke out in Korea, he was appointed Commanding Officer of the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment, in September 1950. Green replaced Lieutenant Colonel F. S. Walsh, who had been CO of 3 RAR in the British Commonwealth Occupying Force (BCOF), Japan, but who did not have any operational command experience. Although he only had two weeks to train his men before they saw action in Korea, Green made good use of this time, and created a cohesive bond within the battalion. He was a private but caring commander, and is remembered most for the respect he quickly earned from people, and his exceptional leadership. Green led his men through battles at Yongju, Kujin, and Chongju. After the action at Chongju on 29 October 1950, the troops rested nearby. At 6.10 pm the next day, the Chinese attacked the area, firing six high-velocity shells. The only person wounded was Green, who was resting in his tent. He was badly wounded by shrapnel in his stomach, and died the next day in a nearby surgical hospital. My hand and arm were covered with blood as I held him. I remember very clearly that the CO was conscious and kept repeating things like, "Cal, is the battalion OK?" "are the boys OK?" "Look after them Cal, they are good men. Look after them Cal." I heard him still speaking as the [ambulance] drove off. Private Claude Boshammer Charlie Green is buried in the United Nations War Cemetery in Pusan, South Korea. For his service in Korea, he was awarded posthumously the US Silver Star medal.

Lieutenant Colonel Charles Green, CO 2/11th Infantry Battalion, Wirui Beach, Wewak, New Guinea, September 1945. 095898

Commanding Officer of 3 RAR, Lt Col Charles Green (left) and his Intelligence Officer, Lt A. Argent, discuss the tactical situation aboard their Bren gun carrier, North Korea, October 1950. 044768

Slouch hat of Lt Col Charlie Green, DSO, Silver Star (US). REL 23388

Captain Reg Saunders

Reg Saunders was one of the best company commanders I had served under and he was admired by the company as an excellent leader. Private Joe Vezgoff

Pamela Thalben-Ball, Captain Reg Saunders ART28159 Many Aboriginal Australians have been a part of the Australian armed forces since the Boer War. Although not permitted to become Australian citizens until 1968, service in the armed forces was one area where Aborigines experienced less discrimination than in the wider Australian society. Captain Reg Saunders, MBE, is perhaps Australia's best known Aboriginal soldier, being the first indigenous Australian to be commissioned as an officer into the Australian Army, in 1945. In Korea, he served as Officer Commanding, C Company, 3 RAR. Saunders quickly established himself and won wide respect for his abilities as a platoon commander, particularly for his determination when leading patrols far from the battalion's main position. Robert O'Neill, Official Historian of Australia in the Korean War Reg Saunders was born in 1920, in Purnum, Victoria, near the Framlingham Aboriginal Reserve. He came from a long line of soldiers. Both his father and his uncle served in the

First World War. His uncle, Reg Rawlings, for whom he was named, received a Military Medal for action at Morlancourt Ridge, France. Rawlings was killed in action at Vauvillers, in 1918. In the Second World War, Reg Saunders and his brother Harry both served in the army. Harry was killed in action in New Guinea. Reg was shot in the knee in a separate action, but returned to the 2/7th Infantry Battalion after his recovery. When he joined up again for service in Korea, Reg led his company through fierce fighting, including the battle at Kapyong in April 1951. He was the first Aboriginal serviceman to command a rifle company, and was respected and popular with his men. His biographer and friend, Harry Gordon, an Australian journalist in Korea, wrote of him: He was accepted unreservedly by the men who served with him because false values do not flourish among front-line soldiers. Reg Saunders commented: The Americans had negro officers, but they handled negro troops. Sometimes it was suggested to me that Australia should have its own Aboriginal battalion. I'm dead against the idea it would mean a line of demarcation - a separateness. They would be treated as something apart, and that would be bad. After service in Korea, Saunders remained in the regular army for a year before resigning his commission. Returning to civilian life proved a difficult transition. Having been accustomed to leading others in difficult and dangerous situations, and to being a respected and admired officer, when he returned to Australian society he faced discrimination; his qualities as leader went unappreciated. After years of difficulty, he had a successful career working for the Aboriginal Affairs Office and later at the Department of Aboriginal Affairs. He died in 1990. Cecil Fisher was another Aboriginal Australian who fought in Korea, joining up at the age of 18 years and 10 months to serve with 2 RAR. His poem, Black ANZAC, draws on his experiences in the Korean War.

Black ANZAC
They have forgotten him, need him no more He who fought for his land in nearly every war Tribal fights before his country was taken by Captain Cook Then went overseas to fight at Gallipoli and Tobruk World War One two black Anzacs were there France, Europe's desert, New Guinea's jungles, did his share Korea, Malaya, Vietnam again black soldier enlisted Fight for democracy was his duty he insisted

Back home went his own way not looking for praise Like when he was a warrior in the forgotten days Down on the Gold Coast a monument in the Bora Ring Recognition at last his praises they are starting to sing This black soldier who never marches on ANZAC Day Living in his Gunya doesn't have much to say Thinks of his friends who fought some returned some died If only one day they could march together side by side His medals he keeps hidden away from prying eyes No one knows, no one sees the tears in his old black eyes He's been outcast just left by himself to die Recognition at last black ANZAC hold your head high Every year at Gold Coast's Yegumbah Bora Ring site Black ANZAC in uniform and medals a magnificent sight The rock with Aboriginal tribal totems paintings inset The Kombumerri people's inscription of LEST WE FORGET

Captain Reg Saunders leads his troops in Korea, March 1951. P01813.703

Private William Reginald Rawlings, MM. P01695.001

Seymour Vic., 25 November 1944.

Lieutenant Reg Saunders (second from left) at the graduation ceremony from the officers' cadet training unit. 083167

Private Eric Donnelly

Private Eric Donnelly (right) at Britcom General Hospital, Kure, Japan, following his release. His visitor is a friend from the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR). 148422 Eric Donnelly was one of the 29 Australian soldiers taken prisoner in the Korean War. In January 1953, while fighting Chinese forces near Hill 355 (Kowang San) and trying to rescue a wounded soldier, Donnelly was shot in the leg and was unable to continue back to his lines. As he lay in the snow with no feeling in his legs, he was picked up by a Chinese soldier and dropped in a trench, where he lost consciousness. Over the next several days, Donnelly was repeatedly interrogated, and was refused medical treatment until he talked. Although he remained completely uncooperative, he was eventually moved to a Korean farmhouse where he received treatment. Donnelly and other Australian prisoners were held in caves or farmhouses, their conditions and treatment varying in different places. Poor hygiene and inadequate medical attention were constant problems. Lice and dysentery were widespread among the prisoners. Donnelly lost 5 stone in three months.

Donnelly was one of five Australian POWs that were part of an exchange of wounded and sick prisoners, known as Operation Little Switch, on 23 April 1953. POWs were sometimes targets of abuse and attempted communist indoctrination by their captors. The following account by Donnelly reveals another side of some Chinese and their attitudes towards their captives: The next day was the 28th of January, my 23rd birthday, and I was taken away to another building where I was given a spinal injection and a Chinese doctor, who spoke no English, performed an operation on my leg. The operating room had an earthen floor, thatched roof and the illumination was supplied by a pressure lantern which someone pumped every now and again to brighten the light output. As the Chinese doctor made the incision in my thigh, he explained to me in Chinese what he was doing. As I was lifted off the 'operating table', the stitching came undone and I thought I was in for another struggle when he again tried to close the wound. However, instead of trying to restitch me, he got an American field pack tin of Sulphanilamide powder and sprinkled it all over the wound before I was carted off to another room. My spirit was pretty low at this time as no one spoke English, it was my birthday and I was in pain and alone. In the early hours of the following morning, when the pain was at its worst, a Chinese soldier cradled my head an sang, in perfect English, the Paul Robeson song 'Swing low sweet chariot, coming for to carry me home'. This was a very moving experience that I will always remember. The soldier could not speak English to carry on a conversation, but I found out later that he had attended an American missionary school when he was a child. The next day, the pain in my legs had subsided and I started to regain my spirit. I felt like an exhibit at a zoo as I had a constant and steady stream of Chinese, both male and female, coming into the ward to have a look at the red-haired and blue-eyed prisoner.

Sergeant Vance Drummond

Sergeant Vance Drummond beside his Meteor aircraft. JK0163 Sergeant Vance Drummond was an Australian pilot with 77 Squadron, RAAF. He enlisted in 1949, and served as a Sergeant (later Pilot Officer then Flying Officer) in Korea from 1951 to 1953. On one of his flights on 1 December 1951, he was shot down during aerial combat with a Chinese flying a MiG-15, near Pyongyang. When he reached ground, he was taken prisoner by the North Koreans. Drummond was held at Camp 2 at Pinchon-ni, until he attempted to escape: he was caught and punished, and spent the rest of his war in captivity. Before he was captured, Drummond had established a solid reputation as a 77 Squadron pilot. He was honoured with a US Air Medal. According to the citation, he distinguished himself by meritorious achievement while participating in aerial combat missions flying Meteor Mark Eight type aircraft against the enemy in North Korea from 1 September 1951 to 28 October 1951. Many times in the face of superior numbers of enemy high performance jet aircraft, his courage, aggressiveness and tactical skill contributed greatly to the successful completion of the assigned mission.

Drummond later served in the Vietnam War, flying as a Forward Air Controller with the US Air Force. He received many awards and decorations for his skilful performance. After returning to Australia, Drummond was killed when his Mirage aircraft crashed into the sea near Newcastle on 17 May 1967.

Panmunjom, North Korea, September 1953. Flying Officer Vance Drummond (left) and Pilot Officer Bruce Thomson in the blue Chinese prison uniforms they wore during captivity. JK0863

Medals of Wing Commander Vance Drummond. From left to right they are the Distinguished Flying Cross, Air Force Cross, British War Medal 1939-45, New Zealand War Service Medal, Korea Medal, United Nations Service Medal for Korea, Australian Vietnam Medal, United States Air Medal, South Vietnam Government Medal and South Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with silver star. REL 13196.001 - .010

Australian POWs in Korea

The Australian prisoners of war in Korea missed a great portion of the active service of their units but, while in captivity, fought battles of their own with great honour and individual courage unsurpassed by any unit operation. Not many of us have experienced the terror and pain of interrogation while wounded and separated from our comrades. Lieutenant Colonel Maurie Pears, MC, and Private Frederick Kirkland, OAM

A group of POWs at Pyoktong, North Korea, winter 1952-53. Temperatures sometmes fell as low as -43 C. Warrant Officer Ron Guthrie of 77 Squadron, RAAF, is second from the left. P00305.002 Twenty-nine Australians were taken prisoner of war (POW) in Korea, including two officers. The treatment of Australian POWs in Korea was generally better than that meted out by the Japanese to POWs during the Second World War. However there were many Australian POWs who were kept in appalling conditions. Food allowances were often meagre. One Australian, Private H. R. Madden, 3 RAR, who was captured at Kapyong, died from malnutrition. He was awarded the George Cross posthumously for resisting interrogation and for his generosity in looking after other prisoners.

The Chinese attempted to indoctrinate POWs with communist ideas, but were unsuccessful with Australian prisoners. When they asked my objections to Communism, I usually kept to one point: the system wouldn't give the political and religious freedom to which a human being is entitled They would almost invariably admit that my idea of freedom and theirs were quite different. Father Philip Crosbie, an Australian civilian priest working in Korea, held prisoner with Australian POWs in Korea 1950-1953. For some prisoners, conditions eventually improved, particularly after July 1951, when truce talks began. Generally conditions remained difficult and dangerous. North Korean and Chinese captors often ignored the articles of the 1949 Geneva Convention on the treatment of POWs. Many prisoners became filthy, full of lice, festered with wounds full of maggots, unshaven and without haircuts for months on end and were faced with squads of trained interrogators, bullied, deprived of sleep and browbeaten. Of the 100-odd flyers subjected to this kind of treatment, 38 signed 'confessions', believing them to be so silly that no one would believe them. Captain (later Brigadier) Phillip Greville, 1 RAR, POW Korea 1952-1953 There were political advantages to be gained from the enemy by keeping POWs. The process of exchanging each other's POWs was an important bargaining chip for North Korea in the process of attaining an armistice. Private Tom Hollis, a 25-year-old veteran of the Second World War, was taken prisoner while on patrol behind enemy lines in January 1951. He was held in various camps for over two years. During this time he was frequently beaten, tortured, and confined to a 4metre square cell called the "sweat box" for up to a month.

A pipe made by Private Tom Hollis while in captivity. REL22441

When Australian POW in Korea, Private Eric Donnelly, 3 RAR, and other prisoners were released, they met the Australian freelance journalist Wilfred Burchett, whose activities in Korea was to cause much bitterness and controversy for years to come.

Bruce Fletcher, Private Horace Madden ART40730

Captain P. J. Greville, after his release in August 1953. He was the highest ranking Australian soldier to be taken prisoner by the communists in Korea. 044765

Recently released POWs Flight Lieutenant John "Butch" Hannan (right) and Sergeant Vance Drummond (left) on their way back to Japan. They are attended to by RAAF Nursing Sister Helen Blair. JK0858

Seoul, South Korea 1953. Old friends meet when a group of RAAF pilots reunite following their release from prisoner of war camps in North Korea. Left to right:

Sergeant R. Macintosh, Flying Officer Ron Guthrie (POW) and Flight Lieutenant J. Gorman. JK0862

Pyoktong, North Korea 1952-53. This group of UN POWs illustrates the diversity of participation in the UN forces: at the far left, an American, seated in the background is Flying Officer R. D. Guthrie, RAAF; the man standing is British; a Turkish POW is in the foreground. P00305.001

Australian Journalists in Korea

A group of Australian war correspondents and photographers huddle around a fire during the freezing winter of 1950-51. Included in the group are photographer Lloyd Brown (far left), journalist Ronald Monson of the Sydney Daily Telegraph (standing), journalist Harry Gordon of the Melbourne Sun News-Pictorial and broadcaster Des Telfer (far right). P02111.002 Since the conflict in the Sudan in 1885, Australian journalists have been with Australian troops in war, reporting on action and events as they happened. During the Korean War, many Australian journalists accompanied troops, often living with them day-to- day. This close proximity amid the often static nature of the war in Korea led to many close relationships between Australian soldiers and journalists. Although Australian war correspondents were sometimes frustrated by censorship of their reports, they were still the most immediate news link from Korea to the Australian public. Alan Dower, a journalist in Korea who had served as a commando captain in Timor in the Second World War, often went out on operations with troops in Korea. He reported from Chongju immediately after the battle. On one occasion, he got directly involved in the war. In South Korea, Dower saw a group of 200 women and small children being led to a jail near Seoul. He discovered that these civilians, accused of being communists, were to be executed. He immediately threatened to shoot the governor of the jail with his own gun if the women and children were shot. His threat succeeded, and their lives were spared. Harry Gordon, another Australian journalist whofrequently worked alongside Alan Dower, was one of the youngest Australian reporters in Korea. He worked for Melbourne's Sun News Pictorial, and was good friends with Captain Reg Saunders, the

first Aboriginal Australian officer to serve in the Australian armed services. Gordon later wrote a book about Reg Saunders' life, The Embarrassing Australian. Gordon also wrote about his friendship with Aladdin Berk, a Turkish journalist, and the warm relationship shared by the Australian and Turkish soldiers in Korea, who bonded together under common ideals of "ANZAC". Gordon recalled a particular meeting in Korea of Australian and Turkish soldiers: I went, and found Norm O'Neill, whose pals in the Field Ambulance used to call him Peggy, entertaining a bunch of stocky, dark-jowled young men. They stood and listened as O'Neill (with the help of a young Lt. who could speak a few words of English) told them about his father, who had been a machine-gunner at Gallipoli. We gave them packets of chewing gum, and they handed in return hunks of something that looked like a pancake and tasted like rubber Their ready acceptance of us, their eagerness to make us feel at home among them, weren't just standard behaviour for newfound allies. They, too, had had the Gallipoli story drummed into them during their childhood. For the Aust'ns, many illusions were shattered. Somehow the ANZAC Day speeches of their youth had built the Turks up in their imagination as massive, heavily moustached fighters who carried daggers in their belts and remained sullen and aloof. Nothing could have been further from the truth; the Turks were small and shy and gentle sometimes even a little comical in their oversized greatcoats. There were moustaches, certainly, but they were soft, boyish, kitten-tailed affairs with the texture and quality of those that 19year old Australian soldiers were managing to cultivate. The Turks proved tough soldiers. Gordon continues: The Turks continued to fight with a ferocity which made them something of a legend in Korea. In one action they are on record as having complained bitterly that the artillery barrage put in to soften up an enemy before their charge was too heavy there weren't enough live Chinese left to make a decent fight. If the seeds of this joint respect were planted at Gallipoli; it ripened in the dust and snow of Korea. The Turks' relish for hand-to-hand fighting, their first-class leadership, their discipline under fire these were attributes the Australians in Korea possessed themselves and admired in others.

North Korea, January 1951. Australian war correspondents Harry Gordon and Ronald Monson at a table outdoors in the cold, working on their typewriters. P02111.003

Near the Yalu River, North Korea, December 1950. Australian war correspondents Alan Dower (left), Lawson Glassop (centre) of the Sydney Morning Herald, and Harry Gordon of the Melbourne Sun News-Pictorial, before the retreat from North Korea of UN forces, late 1950. P02111.004

Majon'ni, Korea, 25 April 1953. Australian and Turkish troops stand together to watch an ANZAC Day parade. 157556

Australian relations with Koreans

Around Pusan wharf there are hundreds of children in rags, standing in the bitterly cold wind. This is the first shock that new troops get on arrival The dead litter the road from the North. Squadron Leader Esmond New, Australian Chaplain

Two Korean children, 1951. 147393

Civilians
Foreign occupation and national struggle was nothing new to the Korean people in 1950. Once ancient empires fought over the peninsula; in modern times, China, Japan, Russia, and the United States had each occupied the country at some time. Today, Korea is still divided into two nations. During the war, an influx of millions of North Korean refugees swelled South Korea's population of 22 million, placing severe strains on its war-torn economy. Father Philip Crosbie, an Australian priest working in Korea during the war, and later taken prisoner of war, described watching people leaving their homes: Young and old, rich and poor, weak and strong: all alike were there. The majority carried some of their belongings with them - the women gracefully upright with huge bundles balanced on their heads and sometimes babies tied to their backs, the men bowed down under great loads carried on their backs. The Australians encountered Korean civilians every day. For the combatants on the ground and in the air, it was often difficult or impossible to identify the enemy, as the war was fought within a single people whose nation had been politically divided. The South Koreans regarded us with indifference. The overwhelming majority were seemingly illiterate to semi-literate peasants, eking out a subsistence living in a harsh environment, or refugees existing as best they could. Their attitude was understandable, given the war weariness and the utter devastation which their entire country had suffered - and would continue to suffer.

Private Desmond Guilfoyle, 1 RAR Many Korean families had been separated - relatives were either trapped in the North or the South and unable to get home, or lost contact in the war's chaos and destruction. Orphanages were established to cope with tens of thousands of homeless children. The devastating impact of war on Korean civilians and refugees weighed heavily on some Australian service personnel. The worst feature of the war is the terrible conditions for the children. This has so touched the hearts of the troops, that hardly a unit can be found in the UN forces that has not adopted a small boy. In a country where war had bred callousness and cruelty, and a complete disregard for human life and personality, the care of these lads has had a beneficial effect on the troops - keeping alive some spot of human sympathy and tenderness. Squadron Leader Esmond New The members of 77 Squadron, RAAF, expressed their concern for local people by "adopting" a Seoul orphanage. The adoption of these eighty children in 1953 was organised by the Squadron's Medical Officer, Flight Lieutenant J. Morrison, and a RAF Medical Officer, Flight Lieutenant David Hills. They wrote: Ranging in age from two to six years these tiny waifs of war are suffering from malnutrition, protein and vitamin deficiencies, dropsy and allied illnesses caused by the acute shortage of proper foodstuffs in Korea Many of the children, stranded by the tide of war, have been picked up in the streets where they have been living on scraps and what they have been able to beg from the UN Servicemen. The officers and men of the 77 agreed to contribute more than 25 a fortnight to buy food for the orphans. With the money, the orphans' hospital staff were able to buy eggs, cases of tinned meats and fish, fresh vegetables and fruit for the children.

Wearing national costume, two Korean village elders squat and smoke traditional bamboo pipes. The man on the left is wearing a traditional straw hat, an emblem of authority in his community. P01813.597

Corporal C. J. Henderson lights the cigarette he has just given to the leader of a nearby Korean village. HOBJ3120

Frank Norton, Refugee huts, Village Beach, Taeyonp Yong Do ART40043

Korean civilian refugees rest near the 38th parallel. 147378

Chan, an orphan of the Korean War salutes Corporal E. G. Dowell in thanks for a wooden toy truck made by members of 1 RAR. HOBJ3125

Flight Lieutenant Jim Morrison, Medical Officer, 77 Squadron, helps the struggle against malnutrition among Korean orphans. JK0466

Flight Lieutenant Lionel Rasmussen and Ross Alexander of 77 Squadron play with children from the from the Orphans Hospital, Seoul. JK0763

Soldiers
Contact between Australian and South Korean soldiers was infrequent, although there were times when the 27th Commnwealth Brigade served alongside the 6th Republic of Korea Division. South Korean soldiers known as KATCOMS (Korean Augmentation Troops, Commonwealth) were attached to some Australian battalions. South Korean soldiers also sometimes joined Australian troops to act as interpreters. Despite cultural differences and different reasons for being there, Australians came to respect these allies and their bravery.

Enemy Soldiers
There were encounters with the other side that revealed a common humanity. Jim Pashen remembered the mutual and very human understanding established between his unit and the enemy: The toilet pit was located right on top of the platoon position, in full view of the enemy, as it was the only place it could be sited. When the need arose to use it, you exited out of your bunker waving a newspaper over your head. This indicated to the Chinese your intentions. They allowed you to sit in peace for a reasonable time. If you were too long they would fire a few rounds to let you know that they had you under surveillance. Constipation was never a problem for most of us, believe me.

When Private Eric Donnelly was taken prisoner, at one point he found himself in a cave, next to a wounded Chinese soldier. Donnelly was in terrible pain from his own wound; many years later he remembered: the armless Chinese soldier [who] rolled over and lit a cigarette for me which he placed in my mouth. I smiled my thanks for his compassion, and he smiled back without either of us saying a word. He lit a cigarette for himself, smoked it and straight away died. I often think of this soldier, even after all these years Chinese troops were also known for allowing rescues and evacuations of wounded UN soldiers during battle without attacking the medical personnel, and for generally respecting the emblem of the Red Cross.

Corporal Ray Webb, 2nd Battalion, 2 RAR, looks on as Private Kim Jin Tai, a KATCOM, is trained on the Vickers .303 medium machine- gun by Private Norm Macleod. HOBJ4200

Soldiers of 2 RAR and a Republic of Korea soldier work together constructing a bunker. HOBJ4621

Hill Salmon, Korea, April 1951. Members of C Company, 3 RAR, mingle with soldiers of K Company, 19th Regimental Combat Team, 6th ROK Infantry Division. P01813.535

On the Home Front

Film clip about reactions to the war at home. To most Australians, the Korean war seemed largely irrelevant to their daily lives. It was a long way away, and did not directly threaten their security as the events of 1942 had. But the remoteness of the events in Korea made it all the more difficult for the families of soldiers serving there. Some wives were able to join their husbands in Japan on leave, but for most it was a long, lonely and worrying wait for news. Letters, the only form of contact, were heavily censored. Without my work I don't know how long I would have survived. I was just so lonely. Nell Honeysett; her husband, Lieutenant Colonel J.D. Honeysett, was posted to the British Commonwealth Korea Signals Unit. For many families, the arrival of a telegram signalled bad news. For the family of Sergeant Vance Drummond one particular telegram was received with great joy. It advised that Drummond had not died during an air battle as assumed, but had instead survived to become a prisoner of war.

Telegram to Sergeant Vance Drummond's mother, which was received with much happiness. It was folded and unfolded so many times that it was torn in two. After the first year of the war, reports about the war in Australia became less frequent, particularly when Australia was facing its own domestic economic problems in the early 1950s. Korea was little publicised in day to day living. I can remember being at a party at my sister's house and a woman asked me where my husband was that night. When I told her he was in Korea she asked me what he was doing in that country! The worst part of the time was the loneliness and lack of knowledge of what was happening to my man on the other side of the world. There was no contact with the Army or other Army wives. All I could find out was from the daily newspapers. June White; her husband, John White, was a parachute instructor at RAAF Williamstown and was posted to Korea in February 1952, where he joined 3 RAR.

Sydney Harbour Bridge, 1953. 302854

Armistice and aftermath

The day before we were shattering the daylights out of each other, throwing bombs at each other, and the next day it was silent. You come out on the hill and not a shot was fired. It was an eerie experience. Private Pat Owen

Film F03618 Film of 3 RAR's return to Brisbane. F02661

Film F03618 Film of 3 RAR's return to Sydney. F02661

Armistice
The end of the war came with the signing of an armistice on 27 July 1953, three years and one month after the war began. The ending was so sudden that some soldiers had to be convinced that it really was over. It had been one of the bloodiest wars of the century. Nearly four million Koreans and Chinese were killed - more than half the dead were Korean civilians. Australian casualties numbered over 1,500, including 340 dead. United Nations losses amounted to more than 36,000, most of whom were US servicemen. Belgium, Colombia, Ethiopia, France, Greece, Holland, the Philippines, Thailand and Turkey together lost 1,800 men; another 7,000 men were wounded, of whom almost half were Turks. Throughout the peninsula, a third of all homes and nearly half of Korea's industry were destroyed. Neither side had lost or clearly won the war. Communist attacks on South Korea had been contained, but at a terrible price in human lives. The presence of Australians in Korea continued with a peacekeeping force until 1957. Meanwhile, the servicemen returning home were greeted by a public that was largely indifferent to their deeds and sacrifices.

28 July 1953. Men from 2 RAR silhouetted against the sky as they look towards the area they were fighting over the day before. HOBJ449

The present: hostilities remain suspended

With no permanent peace treaty yet signed, tension still exists between North Korea and South Korea. US forces remain stationed in South Korea, monitoring the band of land along the border between North and South Korea, the Demilitarised Zone. Despite the end of the Cold War, there has yet to be a peaceful reconciliation between the two nations. Australia is still a member of the Military Armistice Commission that was set up to continue negotiations between the two halves of Korea. Although this purpose was probably far from the thoughts of many of the Australian soldiers, airmen and sailors who fought in Korea or provided support from Japan, the quality of their service helped to strengthen Australia's reputation as a valuable ally. These were not inconsiderable achievements for a relatively small contingent, but most importantly they helped to demonstrate firmly and clearly in the 1950s, as other Australians had done in two world wars, that aggressors ultimately would not be tolerated by the international community. Robert O'Neill, Official Historian of Australia in the Korean War, 1985

Private Ted Neylan and Private Merv Morgan, 2 RAR, shake hands with two communist soldiers after the cease-fire, 9 July 1953. HOBJ4520

Aftermath
No one knew I was home from Korea. "What are those medals for?" - they just didn't have a clue, really. Sergeant (later Air Vice Marshal) Bill Collings, RAAF There is a feeling among Australian Veterans of Korea that their war experience was forgotten - either lost in the aftermath of the Second World War or muddled with the beginnings of the Vietnam War. At last the sacrifices of that conflict have been commemorated in a new memorial on ANZAC Parade in Canberra, the National Korean War Memorial. For many Australian service personnel, the memories of their war in Korea continue to stay with them. In remembering his experience, Brian Cooper, MM, recalled: I believe the experience I had of war in Korea, at the age of 19 years, had a more profound effect on my personal life and subsequent behaviour than any other event, before or since. That experience shaped my behaviour and personality in ways I think I would have preferred to have avoided, and much of what I was when I returned from Korea is still with me today. Desmond Guilfoyle, on a return trip to Korea many years later, gave some thought to his participation in the war:

Although I have travelled to many countries, I found this trip to be the most interesting, probably because I, in a small way due to my military service, contributed to, then later returned to witness, the miracle that is Korea, a country which has truly risen from the rubble. Private P. J. "Banjo" Paterson, 1 RAR, wrote the following poem about leaving Korea, echoing the feelings many Australian veterans of Korea would carry with them forever:

To the Boys we leave behind us

SO LONG, DIGGER We're off to Aussie, Feller, And we hate to leave you here. Gawd, we didn't think we'd part like this When we started out last year. Remember the march through Sydney? We were really glad that day. We were going to Korea And it had to end this way. And the days we spent on the Devonshire Our first long voyage by ship We laughed and joked, not dreaming That this was your 'one-way trip'. Its still hard to believe that it's happened That you'll march with us no more That you've 'grounded Arms' forever, And have fought your last cruel war. Yes, we're going back to Aussie, Mate. And we're going to march again. And we'll try to make it a better place, So you won't have died in vain. And while the band is playing Our marches, old and new, We'll swing along there proudly, Knowing you are marching too, Yes, you'll always march beside us, And when our time is through We'll muster on that Last Parade To march again with you.

Graves of Australian servicemen who were killed in action in Korea at the United Nations Military Cemetery at Pusan. JK0359

Members of 1 RAR about to disembark from TSS New Australia to return home. 157826

The Australian National Korean Memorial on ANZAC Parade in Canberra.

The United Nations service medal (Korea) was awarded for any period of service in Korea during the period 27 June 1950 to 26 July 1954.