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International Dairy Journal 18 (2008) 754 758

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International Dairy Journal

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Review

65 Years of ice cream science

H. Douglas Goff
Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada N1G 2W1

a b s t r a c t

Developments in ice cream science over the period from 1941 to 2006 are reviewed with a focus on three aspects of structure and ingredient functionality where signicant advances have been made based on developments in the underlying sciences: fat structure and emulsier functionality; protein functionality; and ice recrystallization and stabilizer functionality. North American production and consumption data over the same 65-year period are presented. Finally, developments in ice cream manufacturing techniques during these 65 years are briey described. & 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents 1. 2. 3. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Production and consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ingredients and structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Fatpartial coalescence and emulsier functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Proteinsfunctionality and the development of whey-derived ingredients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3. Iceformation, recrystallization and stabilizer functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754 754 755 755 756 756 757 757 757

4. 5.

1. Introduction As part of the symposium Milestone Achievements in Dairy Science, a tribute to the career of Professor Paul Jelen, I will attempt to review progress in the area of ice cream science over the last 65 years. It is not exhaustive, rather I have chosen to rst introduce the changes that have occurred to the size of the ice cream industry in North America over the years 19412006, then to focus on three important areas of ice cream structure and ingredient functionality where large gains in knowledge have been made, based on a continuously improving understanding of the underlying science, and nally to briey discuss the tremendous advances that have been made in ice cream manufacturing equipment. Professor Hugo H. Sommer of the University of Wisconsin wrote a classic edition of his textbook Theory and Practice of Ice Cream Making in 1944, and that serves as an ideal benchmark from which to gauge the state of the art in ice cream science in 1941. I have chosen what I feel are key

references that highlight signicant milestone advances between then and now in each of these areas, recognizing that, of necessity, I have left out many other signicant references and authors. I would direct the reader to several other thorough reviews of the topics discussed below, for further references and more detail: basic ice cream science (Marshall, Goff, & Hartel, 2003); historical aspects (Goff, 2004); fat structure and emulsier functionality (Goff, 1997, 2002, 2006); protein functionality (Goff, 2003); ice recrystallization and stabilizer functionality (Adapa, Schmidt, Jeon, Herald, & Flores, 2000; Goff & Hartel, 2004; Hartel, 1998).

2. Production and consumption In the United States in 2004, 6056 million litres of regular, light and low-fat ice cream were manufactured. The US frozen dairy desserts industry utilized 10% of total milk production and 16% of manufactured milk production. Exports of ice cream from the United States accounted for 41 million litres in 2004, worth $50 million (data from Economic Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture). If we go back to 1941, the reported ice cream production in the United States was 1477 million litres

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(Sommer, 1944), representing a 4-fold increase in 65 years. No exports were reported. In Canada, frozen dairy dessert production in 2004 was 330.2 million litres. Canada imported 0.55 million litres and exported 5.8 million litres of ice cream in 2004 (data from Statistics Canada). In 1941, Canadian ice cream production was 64.5 million litres, representing a 5-fold increase in 65 years. Again, no exports were reported. Consolidation can be readily seen by looking at the number of plants producing hard ice cream in the United States. In 2004 there were 400 registered manufacturers, compared with the situation in 1941, when there were 3090 commercial manufacturers of ice cream and an additional 12,726 counter-top and small retailers reporting ice cream production. Similar trends have occurred in Canada and in Europe. Consolidation has allowed for modern improvements in mechanization and automation as well as plant sanitation and hygiene. Clearly, this industry has become a very large and industrialized global business. The total per capita consumption of all ice cream in the United States in 2004 was 18.7 L. This has not changed in the last 25 years. In fact, it represents marginal growth over a 50-year period; the per capita consumption in 1955 was 17.8 L. In 1941, it stood at 10.9 L. In Canada, per capita consumption in 2004 was 9.3 L of hard and soft ice cream. This has declined from 12.7 L per capita in 1980, but still shows dramatic growth from 5.6 L in 1941. The period from 1945 to 1955 saw rapid growth in per capita consumption in both countries. Within the ice cream category, there has not been the same trend toward consumption of low-fat products as has been seen in the consumption of uid milk. On the contrary, the last 20 years has seen the development of a range of premium (within the approximate range of 124% fat) and super-premium (approximately 16% fat) products. Of todays consumption of ice cream in the US, 70% is standard product (410% fat), 28% is low fat and 2% is non-fat. This is very similar to 1980, during which 73% of consumption was regular, standard fat product and 27% was low fat and non-fat.

(Goff, 2002). There are 31 references specically regarding colloidal aspects of ice cream science published between 2000 and 2002 mentioned in that review. This gives some indication of the rate of progress in the eld of ice cream science. The progress made in three specic topic areas will be discussed in detail below.

3.1. Fatpartial coalescence and emulsier functionality The importance of the fat structure and colloidal aspects of ice cream are widely recognized today, as fat structure is the underlying explanation for dryness of ice cream at extrusion from the barrel freezer, moldability, shape retention during meltdown, and smooth-eating texture. With interest in low-fat products, it is essential to understand how to create equivalent structures. Emulsiers are included in most industrial formulations for their effect on fat structure, by displacing proteins from the air interface and making fat globules more susceptible to partial coalescence. However, 65 years ago the recognition of the colloidal state of ice cream was in its infancy, egg yolk was the only emulsier in use and its functionality in partial coalescence of fat was not understood. A very interesting reference is Chapter 8 from Sommer (1944), Physical and physico-chemical properties of ice cream mixes. Many phases of ice cream making such as whipping, freezing, crystallization, and body and texture are purely physical in nature. Fundamental explanations for differences found in mixes must, therefore, be related to physical or physico-chemical properties of the product. Unfortunately that branch of physical chemistry, which should be most useful, viz., colloid chemistry, is still a comparatively new science and has not been applied very extensively to dairy products. Further, the ice cream presents such a complex picture from a colloidal viewpoint, and the experimental facts are still so meager, that an exhaustive discussion cannot be attempted. Nevertheless, a 41-page chapter followed that paragraph, which is most interesting reading. The pioneering literature with regards to fat destabilization in ice cream and emulsier functionality in promoting that came from Penn State University in the late 1950s and the work of Prof. Philip Keeney and co-workers (Keeney, 1958, 1982; Keeney & Josephson, 1958; Kloser & Keeney, 1959). Issues related to butterfat churning had been recognized long before that (Fisk, 1919), but it was Keeneys group that can be credited with bringing a colloidal understanding to that process and to the action of emulsiers in promoting it. Modern emulsiers (i.e., mono- and di-glycerides, polysorbates) were beginning to appear at that time as potential ice cream ingredients to replace the functionality of egg yolk, and their behaviour was providing much insight into fat structure (Knightly, 1959). Subsequently, advances in the applications of colloid science to dairy products provided a greater understanding of partial coalescence (Mulder & Walstra, 1974). Recognition of the importance of adsorption of interfacial material to the fat globule and formation of the fat globule membrane in terms of product behaviour and ingredient functionality was also developed through this time period (Berger & White, 1976; Bird & Stainsby, 1974; Musselwhite & Walker, 1971). As microscopy techniques evolved and were applied successfully to examination of ice cream structure (Alsafar & Wood, 1968; Berger, Bullimore, White, & Wright, 1972; Berger & White, 1971), further structural insights were gained. Developments in rheology and applications to ice cream were also apparent during this same time period (Sherman, 1965, 1966, 1969; Shama & Sherman, 1966) or subsequently (Goff et al., 1995). During the last two decades, all these developments plus further extensive research have led to a much more complete understanding of partial coalescence of fat and its control in ice cream

3. Ingredients and structure Research related to ingredients for frozen dessert products can be pragmatic in nature, examining the effects of certain ingredients on chemical or physical properties of ice cream, and/ or it can be focused on determining the specic functionality of ingredients, particularly as they contribute to product microstructure. In the former category, many new ingredients are available for use today, compared to 65 years ago, enabling, for example, a much wider range of nutritional-based formulations (e.g., sweeteners for no-sugar-added types of formulations) or cost savings. Closer to ice cream science, much ingredient work has focused on the contributions that ingredients or their components make to microstructure and colloidal properties: understanding and control of ice recrystallization, recognition of the importance of the glass transition in stability of the frozen product, development of stabilizers and the latest developments in the area of ice structuring proteins from natural sources (the so-called anti-freeze proteins), advances in understanding and control of fat destabilization and emulsier functionality, and enhanced knowledge of the functionality of proteins at the air bubble interface and air bubble stability. These studies have been published in highly respected physical chemical journals and reviews of this progress are available, indicating the advanced level of knowledge that has been developed. A recent paper in Current Opinion in Colloid and Interface Science reviewed developments from 1999 to 2002 related to formation and stabilization of structure in ice cream and related products

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(Goff, 1997, 2002; Goff, Verespej, & Smith, 1999), leading to a more fully developed description of Keeneys original ideas about fat structure. Emulsier functionality, the composition of the fat interface and its role in partial coalescence continues to receive considerable research attention. Bolliger, Goff, and Tharp (2000a) showed a direct relationship between protein content (mg m2), resulting from displacement by emulsiers, and partial coalescence. Davies, Dickinson, and Bee (2000, 2001) suggested that the effect of saturated versus unsaturated emulsiers on partial coalescence might be more than one of protein displacements but might also affect fat crystal habit within the globules. The work of Segall and Goff (1999, 2002a, b) focused on a minimal coverage of whey protein at the fat interface, as created by selective homogenization, as a means of achieving optimal partial coalescence in formulations with no added emulsiers. Koxholt, Eisenmann, and Hinrichs (2001) also showed that selective homogenization of the fat with only a portion of the protein and emulsier can produce acceptable fat globule size distributions. The trend here suggests research seems to be moving from developing the understanding to manipulation of it for functional benet.

are used to displace some of this protein and render the fat globule susceptible to partial coalescence. Casein micelles are more easily displaced from the fat interface than are either whey proteins or caseinates. Milk proteins also adsorb to and, thus help to stabilize the air bubble interface, along with adsorbed fat globules, during whipping/aeration. It is important that not all interfacial proteins are adsorbed to the fat interface, which is created rst, or there will be insufcient protein available during the formation of the air interface (Zhang & Goff, 2004). Those proteins not adsorbed to either the fat or air interface remain dispersed or dissolved in solution, where they help to increase the unfrozen phase viscosity by providing structure. The partially denatured/aggregated whey proteins have been shown to be especially functional in this regard (Relkin, Sourdet, Smith, Goff, & Cuvelier, 2006; Sourdet, Relkin, & Cesar, 2003). Milk proteins are generally incompatible with polysaccharide stabilizers and the resulting depletion occulation leads to phase separation between the two, another consideration in terms of optimizing casein:whey protein ratios in milk protein blends (Syrbe, Bauer, & Klostermeyer, 1998).

3.3. Iceformation, recrystallization and stabilizer functionality 3.2. Proteinsfunctionality and the development of whey-derived ingredients Milk protein is present in ice cream formulations as part of the milk solids-not-fat component, which traditionally has been supplied by the serum portion of cream and milk, and by the inclusion of condensed milk or milk powder. Much of the early research in the area of milk solids-not-fat in ice cream formulations focused on its effect on emulsication and whipping properties, without recognizing the individual functionality of the different milk proteins, or of the crystallization properties of lactose (Sommer, 1944). For most of the last 65 years, there has been a desire to utilize whey solids as a replacement for a portion of the milk solids-not-fat, driven primarily by cost saving. The rst paper in this area was by Leighton (1944), who proposed that about 25% of the milk solids-not-fat content could be replaced by whey powder without negatively affecting avour and texture, a value that has been used as a benchmark for many years since. Beyond that, defects could be expected in lactose crystallization, softness and ice recrystallization, and off-avours, particularly saltiness. Most of the whey product-related research for ice cream over the next 35 years focused on whey powder (Neilsen, 1963). However, as the whey processing industry has developed and evolved over the last 30 years and membrane technologies have come into widespread use for the production of whey-based ingredients with higher protein contents than whey powder or different states of denaturation/aggregation, researchers have turned their attention from whey powder to whey proteins and have examined the functionality of such whey protein concentrates in ice cream (Alvarez, Wolters, Vodovotz, & Ji, 2005; Huse, Towler, & Harper, 1984; Lee & White, 1991; Parsons, Dybing, Coder, Spurgeon, & Seas, 1985; Smith, Bakshi, & Lomauro, 1984). It has now become commonplace, within the last 20 years, to extensively substitute the milk solids-not-fat portion of ice cream with milk-based dry ingredients comprised of proprietary blends that include partially denatured/aggregated whey protein concentrates, milk protein concentrates, sodium caseinate, modied milk proteins, and whey powder or lactose, blended to give protein contents of 1825%. Along with this evolution of the use of differing sources of milk proteins in ice cream has come a much better understanding of the specic functionalities that the proteins are expected to deliver (Goff, 2003). Proteins adsorb at the fat interface during homogenization, to render stability to the fat globule. Emulsiers Ice recrystallization and stabilizer functionality is another very important area of ingredients and structure research. Ice cream, of course, contains ice crystals. Ice cream freezing curves, which indicate the ice content as a function of temperature, have been around, in close to their present form, for more than 75 years (Leighton, 1927). Freezing methods need to be employed that produce numerous small ice crystals, due to the strong link between ice crystal size and coarse, icy texture (Russell, Cheney, & Wantling, 1999) and this, too, has been recognized for 65 years (Sommer, 1944). These ice crystals, however, are very prone to ice recrystallization, a phenomenon that leads to coarse textures and loss of shelf-life. Formulations need to ensure that ice crystals undergo recrystallization as slowly as possible, and that is one of the functionalities of the polysaccharide stabilizers. These ingredients became available for use in ice cream during the late 1950s and early 1960s and research into ice recrystallization and the mechanisms of action of stabilizers in controlling have been ongoing ever since (Buyong & Fennema, 1988; Cottrell, Pass, & Phillips, 1979; Donhowe & Hartel, 1996; Flores & Goff, 1999; Harper & Shoemaker, 1983; Muhr & Blanshard, 1986; Shipe, Roberts, & Blanton, 1963; Smith & Wittinger, 1986; Sutton & Wilcox, 1998). Sommer (1944) recognized the main functionality of stabilizers, similar to what we do today (Marshall et al., 2003). Gums of various kinds nd use as stabilizers in ice cream because of their characteristic property of imbibing or absorbing large amounts of water. This characteristic is effective in limiting the natural tendency of ice cream to become coarser in texture with storage, particularly under retail cabinet conditions (Sommer, 1944). Interestingly, though, the only gum that he mentioned that is still in use today was locust bean gum. We now recognize the importance of freeze-concentration for establishing the unfrozen phase and the behaviour of stabilizers particularly in that phase with regards to entanglement, cryo-gelation, and concentrated solution behaviour (Goff & Hartel, 2004; Hagiwara & Hartel, 1996; Regand & Goff, 2002, 2003). The importance of protein/polysaccharide phase separation in the freeze-concentrated unfrozen phase and its effect on ice recrystallization has also been recently recognized (Regand & Goff, 2002, 2003), as has the importance of distribution of fat globules, partially coalesced fat, and air bubbles into small, stable distributions for control of ice recrystallization (Barfod, 2001). There has also been much recent discussion about the importance of the glassy state for storage stability (Goff, Caldwell,

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Stanley, & Maurice, 1993), but this has also been recognized for 65 years. Sommer (1944) stated: Glass state. With solutions that are highly viscous, the above factors may prevent crystallization entirely even though the solution is highly supersaturated far into the labile zone. This condition is known as the glass state. This can readily be illustrated by a sugar solution. If a sugar solution is boiled and concentrated to a point so that on sudden cooling it forms a very viscous syrup (almost or actually solid), the cooled mass will be clear and non-crystalline and will remain in this glass stable over long periods of time. Such sugar solutions in a glass state have been known to remain non-crystalline over a period of several years. It is thought that this state (with respect to sucrose and lactose) is involved in the concentrated unfrozen portion of ice cream at hardening room temperatures. Ice recrystallization is still recognized as one of the major quality defects in ice cream limiting its shelf-life and bringing forth consumer complaints. This is perhaps exacerbated by the global shipments of ice cream occurring regularly and by the long distribution chains and mass distribution in modern supermarkets, which places more demands on heat shock stability due to temperature uctuations than ever before. There is a clear trend toward studying various factors related to ice recrystallization in the complex milieu of ice cream rather than in model systems, taking into account structural effects such as emulsier action, fat destabilization, air distribution, and phase separations, interactions that were previously not considered, and this is undoubtedly the way progress will be made. Novel ingredients are also being suggested to help control ice recrystallization, such as the ice structuring (anti-freeze) proteins that can be extracted from natural sources (Regand & Goff, 2006).

4. Manufacturing Although the principles of ice cream manufacturingingredient blending, mix pasteurization and homogenization, dynamic freezing and whipping, inclusion addition, static hardeninghave not changed in 65 years, the modern ice cream plant, with its level of automation and hygiene, is considerably different than its forerunners. Mix processing in 1941 was all done by batch pasteurization (Sommer, 1944). While that is still common today in many operations, most large installations have moved to continuous (high-temperature short-time) pasteurization. The modern continuous ice cream freezer is a sophisticated and highly controlled and automated piece of equipment and some of the advances in equipment technology have come about only very recently, within the last 1020 years. The earliest electrical freezers were batch style and either salt and ice or brine cooled, but the design was based on the principles of a scraped surface freezer, as today. The evolution of the continuous freezer is also very interesting. From Sommer (1944): Continuous freezers did not win wide acceptance until the Vogt Instant freezer was introduced in 1929. This was followed by the Creamery Package continuous freezer in 1934. A high percentage of the total ice cream production in this country is now by continuous freezers. Continuous freezers remained quite similar for many years until air injection methods for the introduction of sterile air brought about major changes in design. This concern arose due to the identication of the pathogen Listeria monocytogenes in dairy and ice cream manufacturing facilities in the 1980s and the suggestion that it could be carried in aerosols within the wet processing environment. Modern continuous freezers can process volumes of 30004000 L h1, equipped with ltered air, exact control of overrun and dosing of particulate ingredients. Production rates of freezers can be synchronized with those of lling machines (Marshall et al., 2003). Recent research has made the important link between processing parameters and structure

(Kokubo, Sakurai, Iwaki, Tomita, & Yoshida, 1998; Russell et al., 1999). Perhaps one of the most innovative advances in ice cream freezing has come about in the last decade with developments in low temperature extrusion freezers capable of taking ice cream at 5 1C from conventional scraped surface freezers and reducing its temperature through a single- or twin-screw extruder to 14 1C (Wildmoser & Windhab, 2001; Wildmoser, Scheiwiller, & Windhab, 2004). In addition to a tremendous energy cost saving through elimination of ice cream freezing in large static hardening freezers, this process has a dramatic effect on all elements of ice cream structure (Bolliger, Kornbrust, Goff, Tharp, & Windhab, 2000b) and is capable of greatly improving ice cream quality. A considerable effort is also devoted today to the development of sophisticated machinery for the production of novelty or impulse products. There was no mention of novelties by Sommer (1944). However, the following quote from his 1951 edition shows the development of interest in these products: Novelties: The idea of merchandising ice cream and other frozen confections in novel forms holds considerable appeal to ice cream manufacturers with an aggressive sales policy. Such items, in addition to their direct contribution to sales volume, are thought by many to have publicity value, serving to attract consumer interest and creating the impression of alertness and progressiveness. In some instances it is anticipated that the novelty value will be short-lived and may therefore be planned for only one season. Accordingly, it is fruitless to undertake detailed descriptions, and obviously novelties of the future cannot be foreseen. There are, however, items that have shown considerable stability, and though they have graduated from the novelty class, they are usually still so designated. The more stable novelties are: chocolate-coated ice cream bars, popsicles or frozen suckers, ice cream sandwiches and ice cream cake rolls. For many years, novelties were limited to molded products, cups, cones and sandwiches. Now, sophisticated and novel processing technology for manufacture of hand-held impulse products is readily available, giving rise to a myriad of new introductions around the world. Equipment for extruded novelty production was introduced in the 1980s. Today, extrusion processing has enabled a vast array of shapes and sizes. Fluting, layering and other fancy molding is widely seen in both singleserving products and in ice cream cakes, much of it from automated, continuous processes. High quality production of 3D molded products with high denition details is possible with new molding processes. Extruded and molded products can be shaped in post-extrusion or molding processes with deep cooled, nonstick tools with high denition (Marshall et al., 2003).

5. Conclusions Ice cream science and technology has come a long way in 65 years. Technological advances have been made in ingredients and processes, while scientic advances have been made in understanding functionality of these ingredients, structure, and stability. The ice cream industry world-wide is a huge, global business. The product is a complex colloid that presents scientic and technological challenges with every advance. To the consumer, however, ice cream is usually associated with pleasure, enjoyment and fun. The recognition that science and technology exists within it often comes with amusement. It is paradoxical that what can seem so simple is indeed so complex. References
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