ME 130L Fluid Mechanics Laboratory Spring 2007

Lab #1 - Fluid Density and Viscosity

Background

An important property of fluids, liquids and gas, is the dynamic viscosity, μ. The
dynamic viscosity is a measure of the resistance to relative motion between molecules.
Fluids with higher viscosity have higher resistance to motion between molecules.
Consequently, the shear stress in the fluid resulting from relative motion in the fluid, i.e.
a velocity gradient in the fluid, can be expressed in terms of the dynamic viscosity as
follows:

dU
τ =μ (1)
dy
As fluid flows over a solid object, the velocity of the fluid at the surface of the solid is
equal to the velocity of the solid (there is an exception for very low pressure gases), i.e.
there is “no slip” between the solid and the fluid. If the bulk of the fluid is moving
relative to the solid, there must necessarily be a velocity gradient at the surface, and
hence shear stress imposed on the wall by the fluid flow as indicated by equation (1).

Measurement of fluid viscosity is generally done with devices that measure the forces on
rotating plates or cylinder due to the viscous shear stress. However, a particularly simple
(and cheap!) measurement of viscosity can be done by using a falling ball device. When
a ball of higher density than the fluid is allowed to fall in the fluid, it will reach a steady
falling velocity when the weight of the ball is exactly balanced by the buoyancy force and
the fluid drag force. If the ball is small, and the velocity relatively slow, the drag force
on the ball will be dominated by viscous effects. Otherwise the pressure difference
between the front and back of the ball causes a significant drag force. To determine
whether the flow around the ball is dominated by viscous drag (known as Stokes flow)
the non-dimensional parameter known as the Reynolds number must be evaluated. The
Reynolds number is defined as follows:

ρVd
Re = (2)
μ
where ρ is the fluid density, V is the velocity, and d is the sphere diameter. If Re << 1,
the flow can be considered a Stokes flow.

Ball and tube viscometer:

The basic principle of the ball and tube viscometer is that the velocity of the ball falling
down the tube is inversely proportional to the fluid viscosity. This velocity is determined
by measuring the time for the ball to fall a distance marked on the tube.
The working equation for the ball in tube viscometer is as follows:

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 μ = K ( ρ s − ρ )t (3)

where t is the time to travel a specified distance along the tube (10 cm), K is an
empirically determined constant, ρs is the density of the solid ball, and ρ is the density of
the fluid.

The specification sheet provided with the viscometer gives “approximate” values for the
constant K. To determine a more precise value for the constant K you can calibrate the
viscometer using a fluid of know viscosity and density. In this lab you will use water for
this calibration. The equation to determine the viscosity of water for a given temperature
T is as follows:

μ = A ⋅ 10 T −C
(4)

where,

A = 2.414 x 10-5 Ns/m2

B = 247.8 K
C = 140 K
T = Temperature in K
Uncertainty for the correlation is ± 2.5%.

If the viscosity, density, and time are known you can determine the constant K for each
size viscometer using equation (3). There is a different constant K for different size
viscometers. This constant does not depend on temperature or fluid, only the size of the
viscometer.

Objectives

In this lab you will use a commercial ball and tube viscometer to measure the viscosity of
isopropyl alcohol and 10W30 engine oil (water will be used as a calibration standard).
Measurements will be made for these liquids at room temperature. You will also
measure the viscosity of water and isopropyl alcohol heated to nominally 50ºC. You will
also measure the densities of the liquids being tested. In presenting results of your
experiments you will determine the uncertainty of the measurement of viscosity. An
important objective of this lab is to understand how the uncertainties for these
measurements are determined.

Experiments

Two sizes of ball and tube viscometers are available for you to use: the #1 model is
designed for measurements in the 0.2 to 10 cp (centipoises) range, and the #3 for
measurements in the 20 and 1000 cp range. Review the specification sheet for the
viscometer and record the approximate K values for each size viscometer (specification
sheet is appended to the end of this document).

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As noted above, water will be used to calibrate the viscometer to obtain a more accurate
value for the constant K in Equation (3). Be sure to measure the temperature of the
water. There are two viscometers for each size range, so one meter can be used for water
and the other can be used another liquid.

All measurements with the ball and tube viscometers will be repeated a minimum of six
times. These repeated measurements will allow statistical analysis to determine the
precision uncertainty for the viscosity measurements. Information about the statistical
analysis is provided in the Appendix at the end of this document.

The density of the liquid required in the evaluation of the liquid viscosity will be
determined by measuring the mass and volume of a sample of the liquid. This will be
done using a graduated cylinder and digital weighing scale. Weigh the graduated
cylinder empty and then again filled with liquid. From the difference in weights, and the
volume of liquid, you can determine the density of the sample of liquid. Be sure to
record the precision of the weight (mass) and volume measurements so that you can use
these in determining the ultimate uncertainty in the viscosity measurement.

There are two balls available for each viscometer: a stainless steel ball with density of ρs
= 8.02 g/cc and a glass ball with density of ρs = 2.53 g/cc. The balls have a diameter of
0.25 in.

Measurements should be done with water in viscometers #1 and #3, with isopropyl
alcohol in viscometer #1, and oil in viscometer #3 (6 measurements with each
viscometer). Use the known viscosity of water at room temperature to determine the
constant K for each viscometer, then use these values of K to determine the viscosity of
the isopropyl alcohol and oil.

Once you have completed measurements at room temperature, measure the viscosity of
the water and isopropyl alcohol samples that have been heated up to 50 ºC using the
water bath. The samples should be inserted in the water bath for sufficient time to heat
fluid inside the viscometer to 50 ºC. You should consider how you will know what is a
sufficient heating time. Again, you should make a minimum of six measurements with
each viscometer.

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Report: Submit an individual memorandum-style report. Tables of measured values
should be shared with team members. The main part of the report should be about 2 to 3
pages; attachments will be additional pages. The format will look something like this:

MEMORANDUM

Date: Jan. ??, 2007

To: (TA name)

From: Your name

Re: Measurement of liquid densities and viscosities

Description of measurement technique

Explain the procedure for these measurements.

Results

List the results of your measurements of fluid densities and viscosities. Include the
uncertainties of these measurements.

A complete sample uncertainty analysis should be given in an attached appendix. This

uncertainty analysis should show how you determined the uncertainty in viscosity,
including all the steps leading up to this result (i.e. uncertainty in density, time, K, etc.).

Present the Reynolds numbers for these tests to establish whether the Stokes flow
assumption was valid.

Compare measured density and viscosities with expected values. Comment on whether
your measurements are consistent with expected values. If any measurements are not
consistent with expected values, provide explanations for these discrepancies.

Attachments

Tables of time measurements for each test including associated mean and standard
deviation values. Also tabulate measured values used to determine the density of each
liquid.

Sample uncertainty analysis clearly explaining how the uncertainty was calculated.

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 Appendix

Statistical Analysis

Each measurement of the fall time should be repeated at least six times. This will allow
you to statistically determine the precision of the fall time measurement. The standard
deviation of the time measurements, st, should be calculated as follows:

1/ 2
⎡ N 2⎤
⎢ ∑ (ti − t ) ⎥
st = ⎢ i =1 ⎥ (A1)
⎢ N −1 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

where ti are the individual time measurements, t is the average (mean) time
measurement, and N is the total number of time measurements. The precision uncertainty
of the time measurement is obtained using the standard deviation of the mean, st , found
by the following equation:

st = st N (A2)

The precision uncertainty for 95% confidence interval is approximately:

δt = 2 st (A3)

(Note that for a small sample size such as N = 6, the st value should be multiplied by a
factor slightly larger than 2, but this is reasonably close.)

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 George Stokes
1819-1903

“Stokes flow” is named after George Stokes who was a student and professor of
mathematics at Cambridge University from 1837 to 1903. Stokes' work on the motion of
pendulums in fluids led to a fundamental paper on hydrodynamics in 1851 when he
published his law of viscosity, describing the velocity of a small sphere through a viscous
fluid. For more information about George Stokes see http://www-groups.dcs.st-
and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Stokes.html