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;@AW I Á I Á I n=>5DFWu8:g?AWUnSBu>V8inw:ªN8;:=WungWU: ω Á ω WU: ω ?AWunSv&>V8iBU:ED6>V8An_Z6DF8ATuN5DF<wWunÀ?A@+:EWUàAnU4
8B2NZFBu@iZnw:EN58A?/N5<w?BU>V8A?A@iD6: 7QZ [ W hA<wWun=nwDF>V8?A@8A>V@i5WuZR/N5`-DFZ:E>V8iDFWu8 n=>V@AngZFNv&>V<=`-W
r r θ θ ϕ ϕ
r θ ϕ r θ ϕ
r K (I , I , I ) = −
θ ϕ
mk 2
xr3V4^±~
8iW :=<EN58inwv&>V<w` N:=DF>V8GB2N58i>V8ADF;@AW 7¹Z\[eN5D6?AWÅ?iW ZFNv&>V8ABC:EDF>58 F (ω , ω , ω ; I , I , I ) =
2
2 (I + I + I )
r θ ϕ
Bu>V8A?i@AD6: 7S?AW¨8i>V@iVWUZFZ6WunN5<=DFN5 AZ6WunNBU:ED6>V8hq9N58AjVZ6W (I , ω ) Á
2 r θ ϕ 1 2 3
(ω − ω ) I +(ω − ω ) I +ω I
ϕ θ
(I , ω ) , (I , ω )
2 2
1
3 3
θ r
E
: u
W 6
Z
2
F
Z U
W S
n
r 3
i
@ W 1 1
2
I =I
I =I +I
ϕ
θ ϕ
xr3V4eV~
I3 = I r + I θ + I ϕ
§¨8<wWu`-AZN;2N58: k /N5< e2
4π0
ÁA>V8©:E<w>V@iVWb/8AN5ZFWUàWU8;:
K=−
me4 1 xr3V4^¬~
32π 2 20 I32
F¡À% ) ºÄ
1¥&% )Q'O% 1!9UÆc¶ ¶Å%;! % ¥\'u µh ¡
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:E<=N5@ ÅDF8:E<w>h?A@iD6:EnH/N5<ÉopD: E54§¨8W 1WU:uÁÈn=D >V8 vN5D:Z\[^Rf 1>:ERAkUn=Wº;@AW I 1WU@i:QA<wWu8A?A<wW+ZFWUn
N5ZFWU@A<=n 3
h
I3 = n~ , ~=
2π
xr3V4ezV~
4
me 1
⇒ K (I3 = n~) = −
32π 0 ~ n
2 2 2 2
1
⇒ En = − Ry , 1Ry = 13.6 eV
n2
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n
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Tu8AWU<=jVD6W E /N5< E = hν Á?[ > E = hc/λ 4b<UÁVZFWUn¨W hA<wWun=nwDF>V8inÀ?iW E WC:?AW T Bu>V8A?i@ADFnwWu8:
ν = c/λ
7 E = −hcT 4 n n
n
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n
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? 6
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8A>5@Ang?AD6:g<wDFWu8c4
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N5ZFN5 AZFW?/N8AnÉZNZFD6àD:EW ~ → 0 xWUZFZFW-?A>V8i8AWºZFW-<=TUn=@AZ:ªN:?A>V`-DF8/N8;:I>V@A< ~ 1WC:ED: ~
`->h?i@AZF>É@i8AWI`-> ?AD6/BuN:ED6>V8 ?iWunp<=kuj5ZFWunSWU8
I = ~ (n + γ )
xr3V463 ~
> γ Wunw:p@A88A>V`É i<=WJ?AWJZ [ >V<=?i<=WJ?AWJZ [ @A8AD:ETJN5AWuZ6T Q P [`Qh@CFa[ F _Ec^DGBEe ;@AD?ATuWu8A?
i i i
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i
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H=
2
p 1
+ mω x 2 2 xr3V46353}~
>V8N 2m 2
K = ωI xr3V463{KV~
⇒ E = ~ωn
?[^N5A<wkungZNÉ:ERiTu>V<wDFWb?AWUnp;@/N8;:ENi4MµWb<=Tunw@AZ6:EN:pW iN5BC:WUnw:
n
n E = ~ω n +

1

xr3V4632m~
2
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[q̂, p̂] = i~ = i~
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q,p
q̂|ϕ i = q|ϕ i
q,p q,p x\Kh4 ;~
p̂|ϕq,pi = p|ϕq,p i
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Ĥ|ϕq,pi =

p2 1 2 2

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2m 2
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[q̂, p̂] = a
3Z x K 4e±~
(N5D6n
† † † † † † †
[q̂, p̂] = (q̂ p̂) − (p̂q̂) = p̂ q̂ − q̂ p̂ = p̂q̂ − q̂ p̂ = − [q̂, p̂] x\Kh4eV~
⇒ a∗ = −a ⇒ a = iα , α∈R
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:ERiTu>V<wDFWb?AWUn;@/N58:EN
[q̂, p̂] = i~
x K 4e¬~

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2
Ĥ =
p̂
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1
+ mω x̂ 2 2
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r
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~
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2 2m 2 2mω
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i
= − a† − a + a† + a
4
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4
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x K 463{mV~
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† 1
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2
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n
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n
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N (an |ϕn i) = (n − n) |ϕn i = 0
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wn D p ≥ n + 1
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1 †
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n+1 n+1
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= a† a† a + 1 |ϕi

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= a† n|ϕi + a† |ϕi
= (n + 1) a† |ϕi
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0
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n
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a†
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n+1
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a
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1

, n∈N
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† †
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2
0
2
0
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†
2 √
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2
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~
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2
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2
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0 q̂ N p̂ 6 ?[ 6 6

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|ϕ0 i = 0 , |ϕ1 i = 0 , ···
   
[^N5A<wkunpZ [ W hA<wWun=nwDF>V8?AW x̂ WU: p̂ Wu8©v&>V8ABC:EDF>58?iW a WU: a Á/>V8©WU8?ATU?A@AD:

†
√ 
√0 1 √0 0 ···
r  1 0
 2 0 · · ·
 444
444
~  √ √ 
x̂ =  0 2 0 3 
 
44 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
2mω  √ 
 0 0 3 0 
x\Kh4emVKV~
√ 
0 − 1 0 0 ···
444
√ √
r  1 0 − 2 0 · · ·
 
444

mω~  √ √ 
p̂ = i 0 2 0 − 3 
2  
44 44 444 444 444
 √ 
 0 0 3 0 
³ À*-,/.10}#Vh0}#.¹A.O.O#\,% h¡
N5DF8in=D;@AW
 √ 
1 0 − 1×2 √0 0
···

√ 0 1 0 − 2×3 · · ·
0  444
444
i~  √ 
x̂p̂ =  1×2 0 1 0 − 3×4 
2  
44 444 4 04 4 4 14 4 444 444
 0 √ 
 2×3 0 
WC:
 √ 
 0
√
−1 0
−1
− 1×2
0
√ 0
− 2×3
0
0
· · ·
· · ·
 444 x K 4emVmV~
444
i~  √ 
p̂x̂ =  1×2 0 −1 0 − 3×4 
2  
44 444 444 444 444 444
 0 √ 
 2×3 0 −1 0 

1 0 ···

444

⇒ x̂p̂ − p̂x̂ = i~ 0 44 4 14 4 4 4 4


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x Kh4^m|V~
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dt ∂t
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fˆ
Z [ Tu;@/N$:EDF>58+BuZNn=n=D6;@AWJ1>V@i< f Á/n=>58TCV>VZ6@i:ED6>V8º:EWUà>V<=WUZFZ6WWunt:<wTujVD6Wb/N5<SZ\[^TU @AN:ED6>V8
dfˆ
=
1 h ˆ i ∂ fˆ
f , Ĥ +
x\Kh4emVV~
dt i~ ∂t
>©>V8NQ<=Wu`-AZFN5BuT {f, H}
/N5< 1
i~
h
fˆ, Ĥ
i /N5<pN58/NZF>VjVD6WN2VWUB {q, p} = 1 ⇔ 1
i~
[q̂, p̂] =
3 Z4
6c6 X F

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WC:
2 2
x̂|ϕi = x|ϕi x̂ |ϕi = x |ϕi ⇒ hϕ|x̂ |ϕi = hϕ|x̂|ϕi 2 2 x\Kh4em5¬~
]D68An=D\ÁA>V@A<S@A8TU:EN:gA<=>5A<=WJ?AW x̂ Á/ZFNÉ @AN58:ED6:=T
p
2
∆x̂ ≡ hϕ|x̂ |ϕi − hϕ|x̂|ϕi 2
x\Kh4em5z~
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/N5<gW hWUàAZ6Wb@A8TU:ªN$:
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:EWUZ;@AW x̂|ϕ i = x |ϕ i
2 2

 |α| + |β| = 1
|ϕi = α|ϕ i + β|ϕ i1 2


1 1
x̂|ϕ i = x |ϕ i
2 2
1
2
WU: x 6= x (⇒ hϕ |ϕ i = 0)
1 2 1 2
hϕ|x̂|ϕi = hαϕ1 + βϕ2 |αx1 ϕ1 + βx2 ϕ2 i = |α|2 x1 + |β|2 x2

hϕ|x̂2 |ϕi = hαϕ1 + βϕ2 |αx21 ϕ1 + βx22 ϕ2 i = |α|2 x21 + |β|2 x22
⇒ hϕ|x̂2 |ϕi − hϕ|x̂|ϕi2 = |α|2 x21 + |β|2 x22 − |α|4 x21 − |β|4 x22 − 2 |α|2 |β|2 x1 x2
x K 4^ V~
§¨8`É@iZ6:ED6AZFDFN58: |α|2 x21 + |β|2 x22
/N5< |α2 | + |β 2 | (= 1)
ÁADFZ1hD6Wu8:
∆x̂2 = |α|2 |β|2 x21 + |α|2 |β|2 x22 − 2 |α|2 |β|2 x1 x2
= |α|2 |β|2 (x1 − x2 )2
x K 4Â3{~
⇒ ∆x̂ = |α| |β| |x1 − x2 |
PSRATu>5<=ku`-W ¾ >V@i<g:=>V@i:gTUZFTu`-Wu8:p8A>V<w` NZFDFnwT |ϕi
?AWJZ [ Wunw/N5BUWH?iWIdpDFZ6 1WU<w:2Áh>V8N
∆x̂ · ∆p̂ ≥
~ x K 4^;K5~
2
Tu`->V8Ant:E<=N:ED6>V8 Y>V8AnwDF?ATU<=>V8Anp@A8TU:EN: |ϕi
WU:p?ATUA8ADFnwn=>V8AnpZFWUnS>VTu<EN$:EWu@i<=n
3Z x K 4^mV~
x̂ = x̂ − hϕ|x̂|ϕi
0
p̂ = p̂ − hϕ|p̂|ϕi
0
3 Z
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0 0
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?ATunw>V<=àN5D6nSZ [ TU:ªN$:
hx̂ϕ|ϕi = hϕ|x̂ϕi ≡ hx̂|ϕ|x̂i ∗ ∗
0
(x̂ + iλp̂ ) |ϕi λ∈R

x\Kh4 V;~
siN8A>V<=`-WJN5@©B2N<=<=TJ?A>5D6: C:E<=WJ>Vn=D:EDVW-xAN5<g?ATU/8iD6:ED6>V8+?AWJZNÉ8i>V<=`-W{~
0 0
k(x̂0 + iλp̂0 ) |ϕik2 ≥ 0

⇒
⇒
hϕ| (x̂0 − iλp̂0 ) (x̂0 + iλp̂0 ) |ϕi ≥ 0
hϕ|x̂20 |ϕi + λ2 hϕ|p̂20 |ϕi − iλhϕ|p̂0 x̂0 |ϕi + iλhϕ|x̂0 p̂0 |ϕi ≥ 0
x K 4^;|5~
⇒ hϕ|x̂20 |ϕi + λ2 hϕ|p̂20 |ϕi + iλhϕ| [x̂0 , p̂0 ] |ϕi ≥ 0
⇒ λ2 hϕ|p̂20 |ϕi − λ~ + hϕ|x̂20 |ϕi ≥ 0
*-,OA.10}#Vi0{#.ËI/..#,%
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8ATUjN:EDv
2 2 2
⇒ ~ − 4hϕ|p̂ |ϕihϕ|x̂ |ϕi ≤ 0 ⇔ hϕ|p̂ |ϕihϕ|x̂ |ϕi ≥ 2 2 ~ 2
x\Kh4^V±~
(N5DFn hϕ|x̂ |ϕi = hϕ| x̂ − 2hϕ|x̂|ϕix̂ + hϕ|x̂|ϕi |ϕi4
0
2
0
0
2
0 0
2
= hϕ|x̂2 |ϕi − 2hϕ|x̂|ϕi2 + hϕ|x̂|ϕi2
WJ` U àWÁ = hϕ|x̂2 |ϕi − hϕ|x̂|ϕi2

hϕ|p̂20 |ϕi = hϕ|p̂2 |ϕi − hϕ|p̂|ϕi2
x\Kh4^V~
~
⇒ ∆x̂ · ∆p̂ ≥
2
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i ~k·~r−ωt
ψ (~r, t) ∝ e ( ) xmi463{~
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/N5<ps BªRA<=« ?ADF8ijVWu<U4
c6

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p2
2m
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i ~k·~r−ωt
<=WU` N<=;@AWunS>58;:SN5àWU8ATJshBªRi<=« ?ADF8Aj5Wu<?7É>Vnw:=@AZFWU<_;@AWbZNHv&>V8ABU:=DF>V8 ?[^>58A?AWb?[ @A8AWb/N<w:ED6Bu@AZ6W

?/N58inpZ6W DF?AWJ?A>VD:SnEN$:EDFntvN5DF<wWZ [ Tu;@/N$:EDF>58
i~
∂ψ
(~r, t) = −
~ 2
∆ψ (~r, t)
x\mi4eKV~
§¨8W cWC:2Á ∂t 2m
xmi4^m~
∂ψ
= i~ (−iω) ψ = ~ωψ
i~
UW :
∂t
~2 ~2 ~ ~ ~2 k 2
− ∆ψ = − ∇ · ikψ = ψ
2m 2m 2m
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<=WUZN:=DF>V8+BUZN5nwn=D6 @iW E = 4
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;@/N58:ED6;@AW»BuW;@AW»Z [ >Vi:=DF;@AWjVTu>5àTC:E<=D6;@AWWUnw:07ÅZ [ >Vi:=DF;@AW©>V8A?A@iZN:=>VDF<wWnwDZFN·v&>V8iBU:ED6>V8
?[ >V8A?AWJn=N:ED6nwvN5D6nEN5D:_Z [ Tu;@/N$:EDF>58
i~
∂ψ
(~r, t) = −
2
~
∆ψ (~r, t) + V (~r) ψ (~r, t)
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ψ (~r, t) = Ψ (~r) e
xmi4L|5~
−i E
~
t
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N5@ºBU>V@A<=nY?A@ :EWUàinu4hMONH/N5<t:EDFWn=/N$:EDNZFWg?AWZFNHv&>V8iBU:ED6>V8 ?c[^>V8i?AWnEN$:EDFntvN5D6: N5Z6>V<=nÀZ [ Tu;@/N$:EDF>58
−
~2
∆Ψ + V Ψ = EΨ
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2m
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?AWJZ [ Tu;@/N:=DF>V8
−
~ dψ 1
+ mω x ψ = Eψ
2 2
2
xmi4eV~
2 2
2m dx 2
79Z;8AWYnU[eN5j5D6:O/N5n?[^@i8AWYTU @AN:ED6>V8Z6DF8ATuN5DF<wW¨nw:ªN8A?/N5<w?ÉB2N5<OZFWÀBu> W -BUDFWu8:È?AW ψ ?ATU1WU8A?É?AW x 4
& 14(</:=?# C<(E> I@+%IF14=H3d3d-.)?/d=?I@O (EC*(*(<Md/?)?>3aI"= K,fCTS>C*(*I_=?KJ/?>Wg9= (*3dI"=N14- UV>W(*= ;-@3aCE3d/N143d-4CTS ZKd;"LN-@>W3,=?L(E&]@I )?3G./kO
^14/:3J3DCY)HS K,KGKG;+`-_)H>( = =?(E&I 14K,5B3,I_143,I"= 143Jg[>)?(<>W]@C*3G/
ψ (~r, t) = Ψ (~r) · χ (t)

i~ ∂χ 1 ~ ∆Ψ
∂t χ = − 2m Ψ + V = E
2
Å¢¼ V/.O#\,%¤-.O'O,¥&i0{#&!$%
Æc1¥,µ0}#.
¾O>V@A<pn=DF`-AZ6D6/WU<uÁ >V8©DF8:E<w>h?A@iD6:SZFNÉ8A>5:ªN$:EDF>58 q=
p mω
~
x
Á/WC:>58>VnwW
ϕ (q) = ψ (x)
r
dψ
dx
=
dϕ dq
dq dx
=
mω dϕ
~ dq
xmi4^¬~
d2 ψ mω d2 ϕ
=
~ dq 2
M¨[^TU;@/N:ED6>V8©?AD 1Tu<wWu8:ED6WuZ6ZFWnU[^TUBu<=D:
dx2
~2 mω d2 ϕ 1 2 2 ~
− + mω q ϕ (q) = Eϕ (q)
2m ~ dq 2 2 mω
~ω d2 ϕ 1
⇒ − + ω~q 2 ϕ (q) = Eϕ (q)
⇒
2 dq 2
2
dϕ
2
− 2 + q 2 ϕ (q) =
2E
ϕ (q)
xmi4^z~
dq ~ω
n=>VD: d2 ϕ
+ λ − q 2

ϕ (q) = 0
dq 2
> H>V8INp>Vn=T 4$Mµ>V<wn=;@AW ÁuZ [ Tu;@/N:=DF>V8J?AD cTU<=Wu8:=DFWuZ6ZFW¨WUnw:N5AA<w> iD6` N$:ED65Wu`-Wu8:
?A>V8i8ATuWH/N5< λ= 2E
~ω
q→∞
d2 ϕ
dq 2
' q 2 ϕ (q) xmi463 ~
1 2
ϕ (q) ∝ e± 2 q
] BuWHnw:ªN?AW5ÁcshBªRA<w«h?AD68AjVWU<TUàWC:Z\[^Rf 1>:ERAkUn=W;@AWIZNn=>VZ6@i:ED6>V8?A>VD6: C:E<=WH >V<=8ATUWWC:;@AW
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n=>5@AngZNÉv&>V<=`-W − 12 q 2
1 2
ϕ (q) = H (q) e− 2 q
dϕ
dq
=
dH − 1 q2
dq
e 2 + H (q) (−q) e− 2 q
1 2
xmi46353}~
2
dϕ d2 H − 1 q 2 dH − 21 q 2 − 21 q 2 2 − 12 q 2
= e 2 + 2 (−q) e − H (q) e + q H (q) e
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dq 2 dq 2 dq
d2 H
2
− 2q
dH
+ (λ − 1) H = 0
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H (q) =
+∞
X
aj q j
x\mh463{mV~
j=0
79Z DFWu8:
+∞ +∞
dH X X
= aj jq j−1 = aj+1 (j + 1) q j
dq j=1 j=0
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d2 H X j−1
X
2
= a j+1 (j + 1) jq = aj+2 (j + 2) (j + 1) q j
dq j=1 j=0
q
dH X
=
+∞
aj jq j =
X
aj jq j
+∞
x\mh4632~
dq j=1 j=0
+∞
X
⇒ [aj+2 (j + 2) (j + 1) − 2aj j + (λ − 1) aj ] q j = 0
j=0
2j + (1 − λ)
⇒ aj+2 = aj
(j + 2) (j + 1)
hs @AA>Vnw>V8An 2j + 1 − λ 6= 0 ∀j ÁWC:TC:E@A?iDF>V8AnpZFWHBu>5à>V<w:=Wu`-Wu8:N5nwf `-i:E>:EDF;@AWH?AWUnn=>5ZF@hq

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2
sh>VZ6@i:ED6>V8An_/NDF<=WUn
X
H (q) = a2j q 2j
N5DFn 1>V@i< SjV<=N58A?

j
4j − 3 − λ a2j
a2j = a2j−2 ∝
1
2j (2j − 1) j
x\mh463}|5~
⇒ a2j '
j!
X 2
⇒ a2j q 2j ' eq
j
1 2
⇒ ϕ (q) ∝ e 2 q
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" Å¢¼ V/.O#\,%¤-.O'O,¥&i0{#&!$%
sh>VZ6@i:ED6>V8An_D6àAN5DF<wWun
X
H (q) = a2j+1 q 2j+1
1>5@A< SD6àAN5DF<
j
4j − 2 + 1 − λ a2j−1
a2j+1 = a2(j−1)+1 ∝
1
(2j + 1) (2j) j
xmi4632±~
⇒ a2j+1 '
j!
X 2
⇒ a2j+1 q 2j+1 ' qeq
j
1 2
⇒ ϕ (q) ∝ qe 2 q
YWU:w:EWJn=>5ZF@i:=DF>V8+?A>5D6:pN5@Anwn=D C:E<=WJ<wW wWU:=TuW4
Y>V8ABUZF@AnwDF>V8 D6Zc?A>VD:gW hDFnt:EWU<p@i8WU8;:=DFWU< n :=WuZµ;@AW 2n + 1 − λ = 0
Á/n=>VD:
λ = 2n + 1
x\mi43}V~
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aj+2 = aj
2 (j − n) xmi4632¬~
(j + 1) (j + 2)
sh>VZ6@i:ED6>V8An_AN5DF<wWun 8/N5DF<UÁ a = 0 nwD SD6à/NDF<YWC: a = a = . . . = 0
j n+2 n+4
sh>VZ6@i:ED6>V8An_D6àAN5DF<wWun 8DF`-/N5D6<uÁ a = 0 n=D S/N5D6<_WU: a = a = . . . = 0

j n+2 n+4
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º VAÇ#&0{,¥&i0}#&.
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⇒ E=

n+
1

~ω
xmi4632z~
2
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( n=Dµ8©/N5D6<
n=Dµ8©DF`-/N5D6<
2 n
a +a q +···+a q
xmi4LK ~
0 2 n
H (q) = n 3 n
a q +a q +···+a q
N{5WuB a = a 2 (j − n)
1 3 n
j+2 j
(j + 1) (j + 2)
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n
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~ω
2
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ϕ (x) ∝ e 2~
0
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6 6 c @

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?ATUA8ADFnwn=>V8AnpZFWUnS>VTu<EN$:EWu@i<=n
x̂ : ϕ (x, t) 7−→ xϕ (x, t)
∂ϕ
x\mh4LKVK5~
p̂ : ϕ (x, t) 7−→ −i~ (x, t)
shBªRA<w«h?AD68AjVWU<NÉvN5D:SZFWUnS<=WU` N5<w;@AWunpn=@ADN58:EWun ∂x
3V4 [x̂, p̂] = i~

TUà>V8inw:E<=N:ED6>V8
[x̂, p̂] ϕ = x̂p̂ϕ − p̂x̂ϕ
∂ϕ ∂
= x̂ (−i~)
∂x
− (−i~) (xϕ)
∂x x\mh4LK5mV~
∂ϕ ∂ϕ
= −i~x + i~ x +ϕ
∂x ∂x
Kh4 x̂ uW nw:pRAWU<=`-D6:=DF;@AW54 = i~ϕ
hϕ|x̂† |ψi = (hψ|x̂|ϕi)∗
Z +∞ ∗
x\mh4LK~
∗
= ψ (x) xϕ (x) dx
−∞
Z +∞
= ψ (x) xϕ∗ (x) dx
−∞
= hϕ|x̂|ψi
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Z ∗ +∞
† ∂ϕ ∗
hϕ|p̂ |ψi = −i~ ψ (x) dx
−∞ ∂x
Z +∞
xmi4LK5|V~
∂ϕ∗
= i~ ψ (x) dx
−∞ ∂x
Z +∞
∂ψ ∗ +∞
= −i~ ϕ dx + i~ ψ (x) ϕ∗ (x) −∞
−∞ ∂x | {z }
=0
UW 8 DF8:=TujV<=N58: AN5</N5<w:=DFWU=n WChϕ|p̂|ψi

: WU8 :EWU8/N58: Bu>V`-i:EWg?A@-vN5D6:;@AWp?AWUn v&>V8ABC:ED6>V8An?AWpB2N5<w<=T
nw>VààN5 AZ6Wnu[^N58A8;@AZ6Wu8:%7QZ [ DF8i/8iD 4
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Hϕ = Eϕ
N2VWUB H = p̂ + V (x̂) 2
xmi4LK±~
TUà>58Anw:=<EN:=DF>V8 2m
2m
2
p̂
ϕ=
2m
1
(−i~)
d ϕ
2
dx
2
=−
2
~ dϕ
2
2m dx
2
2
xmi4LK5V~
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V (x̂) ϕ = V (x) ϕ
?/N58inp@i8(N5@h:E<=WJZFN58AjN5j5W54
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x̂i : ϕ (~r, t) 7−→ xi ϕ (~r, t)
p̂i : ϕ (~r, t) 7−→ −i~

∂ϕ
(~r, t)
xmi4LK¬~
{N 5WuB ∂xi
79ZFnSn=N:ED6nwv&>V8:gZ6Wung<=kUjVZFWUnS?AWJBu>V`-`É@i:EN:ED6>V8
~r = (x1 , x2 , x3 )
3Z
[x̂i , x̂j ] = [p̂i , p̂j ] = 0 xmi4LKz~
[x̂i , p̂j ] = i~δij
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?AD6àWU8An=D6>V8AnSnu[ TuBU<=D:
X p̂ 3 2
i
!
+ V (x̂ , x̂ , x̂ ) ϕ (~r) = Eϕ (~r)
1 2 3
x\mh4em V~
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i=1
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<=TUjVDFWb/N<
dA
=
1
[A, H]
x\mh4emi3{~
[^WUnw:ZFW R> BEQ PRL [ F efURF [ F aF^QGcfF^P ^F^] < dt4 i~
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i~
∂ψ
(~r, t) = Hψ (~r, t)
x\mi4^mKV~
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∂t

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:EWUà>V<=WUZFZ6W?AW
x\mi4^mVm~
?[^N5A<=kUnZ6WunS?AWU@ >VDF8:EnS?iWJ @AW4
hAi = hψ|A|ψi
shWuZ6>V8dWUDFn=WU8; 1WU<=jAÁ">V8N
dhAi dA
= hψ| |ψi
dt dt
x\mh4em5~
1
= hψ| [A, H] |ψi
i~
1 1
= hψ| AH|ψi − hψ| HA|ψi
i~ i~
H H
= hψ|A| ψi + h ψ|A|ψi
[^N5A<=kUns BªRA<=« ?ADF8ijVWu<UÁA>V8N
i~ i~
dhAi ∂ψ ∂ψ H H
= h |A|ψi + hψ|A| i = h ψ|A|ψi + hψ|A| ψi
\x mh4em|5~
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dt ∂t ∂t i~ i~
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A<w>hBªRAWS?iWgshBªRA<w«h?AD68AjVWU<Wunt:¨Bu>V`-AZ6TU:ETUW_?AWYvN;u>V8É:=<=kunÈ@i:ED6ZFWYAN5<ÈZ6W v&>V<w` N5Z6DFnwàWÀN5Z6jVTu A<wDF;@AW4
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ϕ (x) ∝ e − mω
2~
x2 xmi4em5±~
(N5D6nG!2Á
0
Z +∞
e − 21 Ax2
dx =
r
2π xmi4emVV~
A
]D68An=D\Á
−∞
Z +∞ 2 r r
− mω x2 2π~ π~
e 2~ = =
−∞ 2mω mω
xmi4em5¬~
mω 14 mω 2
⇒ ϕ0 (x) = e− 2~ x
π~
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n=D6àiZFWu`-Wu8: ( ) |ϕ i 4"<uÁ
a†
√
n
0
0
n!
†
a =
r
mω
x̂ − i √
1
p̂ =
r
mω
x+
r
~ ∂ xmi4em5z~
2~ 2~ 2mω ∂x
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2mω~
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N @ @k @ L

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2
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2
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2
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2 2
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m
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x&A463 ~
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|ϕm i
m
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m
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m m
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ZN ]>F^D _`LTQhBEP[ Q Pd@CF^]gL Q LTU[ F < Y^PdY^]\_`DKQGcfYCF Â B̂
∆Â ∆B̂ ≥ hψ| Â, B̂ |ψi
|ψi |ψi
1 h i
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2
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h i† † h i
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h i† h i h i
† † † †
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h i h
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− iλhψ|Â0 B̂0 |ψi + iλhψ|B̂0 Â0 |ψi
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| {z }
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2
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2 2
1

h i 2

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4
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|ψ(t)i = Û (t, t )|ψ(t )i
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d
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† 0 0
∂ † 0 0
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∂t
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0 † 0 0
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0
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0
0 d|ψ(t )i
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∂t0 dt0
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†
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= −Û (t, t0 )Ĥ(t)Û (t, t0 )Û (t, t0 )Â(t)Û (t, t0 )
i~
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m
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H
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| {z
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dÂH 1 h i
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=
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Û (t, t0 )ÂÛ (t, t0 )Ĥ − Ĥ Û † (t, t0 )ÂÛ (t, t0 ) x&A4^KV~
1 †
= Û (t, t0 )ÂĤ Û (t, t0 ) − Û † (t, t0 )Ĥ ÂÛ (t, t0 )
i~
1 h i
= Û † (t, t0 ) Â, Ĥ Û (t, t0 )
i~
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:ED6>V8+?AWUnTC:ªN:=npntĤ:ªN:=DF>V8i8/N5DF<wWunU4/sh@Ai1>Vnw>V8AnpWu8W1WU:
H|ϕ i = E |ϕ i
n n n
x&A4^Vm~
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n
|ψ(t)i =
X
cn (t)|ϕn i x&A4^5;~
n
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d
i~|ψ(t)i = H|ψ(t)i
dt
X d X
⇒ i~ cn (t)|ϕn i = cn (t)En |ϕn i
n
dt n
X d X
x&A4^|V~
⇒ i~ cn (t)hϕm |ϕn i = cn (t)En hϕm |ϕn i
n
dt n
dcm (t)
⇒ i~ = cm (t)Em
dt
⇒ cm (t) = cm (t0 )e−iEm (t−t0 )/~
X
⇒ |ψ(t)i = e−iEn (t−t0 )/~ cn (t0 )|ϕn i
n
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X X 0
xi4^±V~
⇒ Û (t, t0 ) |ϕn ihϕn | = e−iEn (t−t )/~ |ϕn ihϕn |
|n {z
} n
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⇒ Û (t, t0 ) = e−iEn (t−t )/~ |ϕn ihϕn |
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hψ|Â (t)|ψi = hψ| Â (t), Ĥ (t) |ψi
h
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h
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∂
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∂V
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{|xi} x̂

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hp|x̂|ϕi = dxxhp|xihx|ϕi
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= dxx √ hx|ϕi
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Z
∂ e−ipx/~
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Z
∂p
∂
2π~
xi4L|V|5~
= dxi~ hp|xihx|ϕi
∂p
∂
= i~ hp|ϕi
∂p
∂
⇒ x̂ : ϕ̄(p) 7−→ i~ ϕ̄(p)
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Ĥ = p̂2
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x\|h4^m~
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x\|h4 ;~
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ϕ(x, t) =
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7 t = 0 4"(NDFn
Z
eipx/~
ϕ(x, t = 0) = dp f (p) √
Z 2π~
⇒ hϕ|ϕi = dx |ϕ(x)|2
Z Z
= dx dp f (p)
eipx/~
√
Z
0 ∗ 0 e
dp f (p ) √
−ip0 x/~ x\|h4e±V~
Z Z 2π~ 2π~
= dp f (p) dp0 f ∗ (p0 )δ(p − p0 )
Z
= dp |f (p)|2
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Z
|ϕ(t = 0)i = dp f (p)|pi
⇒ f (p) = hp|ϕ(t = 0)i

x\|h4L5~
Z Z
⇒ hϕ(t = 0)|ϕ(t = 0)i = dp hϕ(t = 0)|pihp|ϕ(t = 0)i = dp |f (p)|2
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ϕ(x, t) =
Z
eipx/~ −ip2 t/2m~
dp f (p) √ e
x\|h4e¬V~
2π~
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:E>V@h:?c[eN5 >V<w?;@AW
Z Z
e−ipx/~
f (p) = hp|ϕ(t = 0)i = dx hp|xihx|ϕ(t = 0)i = dx ϕ(x, t = 0) √
x\|h4ezV~
2π~
Z Z −ipx0 /~ ipx/~
e e 2
⇒ ϕ(x, t) = dp dx0 ϕ(x0 , t = 0) √ √ e−ip t/2m~
2π~ 2π~
Z 0 Z
ϕ(x , t = 0) itp2 i(x0 −x)p
= dx0 dp e− 2m~ − ~
2π~
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e e (−t)
t
x\|h463 ~
Z r
0 m −iπ/4 i(x0 −x)2 m
⇒ ϕ(x, t) = dx e e 2~t ϕ(x0 , t = 0)
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x\|h46353}~
@Bu>V@iÁ
−iĤt/~
Û (t, 0) = e
Z
ϕ(x, t) = hx|ϕ(t)i = hx|Û (t, 0)|ϕ(t = 0)i = dx0 hx|Û (t, 0)|x0 i hx0 |ϕ(t = 0)i
| {z }
(N5D6n
ϕ(x0 ,t=0)
Z Z ipx/~ −ipx /~ 0
ip2 t e e
hx|Û (t, 0)|x0 i = dp hx|Û (t, 0)|pihp|x0 i = dp e− 2m~ √ √
2π~ 2π~
r
0 m −iπ/4 i(x−x0 )2 m
⇒ hx|Û (t, 0)|x i = e e 2~t
2π~t
x\|h463{KV~
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0
§¨8W cWC:2Á {|pi}
f (p) = ϕ̄(p, t = 0)
§ : ϕ̄(p, t) = f (p)e 2
ip t
x\|h4632m~
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ψ(x) = √
1 1
e ip0 x/~ −x2 /4σ 2
e
x | 4632~
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σ (2π) 1/4
BuWU8;:=<=TUWN5@>VDF8: x = 0 4"§¨ZFZ6W>Vn=nwku?AWHZFWUnSA<=>Vi<=DFTC:ETUnpnw@AD6N58:=Wun 0
p0
m
3V4 Z dx |ψ(x)| = 1 2
Z
dx |ψ(x)| = √ 2 1
Z +∞
dx e −x2 /4σ 2
=√
1 √
2πσ = 1 2
x | 463}|5~
2πσ 2πσ
Kh4 hx̂i = 0 WC: ∆x̂ = σ
−∞
|ψi
Z +∞
1 2 /4σ 2
hψ|x̂|ψi = √ dx xe−x =0
2πσ −∞
Z +∞ 3/2
1 2 2 2 1 √ 1
hψ|x̂ |ψi = √ dx x2 e−x /4σ = √ 2π = σ2
2πσ −∞ 2πσ σ2
p
⇒ ∆x̂|ψi = hψ|x̂2 |ψi − hψ|x̂|ψi2 = σ
x | 463{±V~
>Z [ >V8©NQ@i:ED6ZFD6n=TZ6WvN5D6:S;@AW xe−Ax
2 WUnw:p@A8AWJv&>V8ABC:EDF>58+DF`-/N5DF<wW54
mi4 ψ̄(p) =
r 1/4
σ 2 σ2 2
e− ~2 (p0 −p) ≡ f (p)
~ π
Z +∞
1 1 1
x | 463}5~
2 /4σ 2
ψ̄(p) = √ 1/4
√ dx e−ipx/~ eip0 x/~ e−x
σ (2π) 2π~
| −∞ √ {z }
π B 2 /4α2
= e
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4σ 2
WU: B= i(p0 −p)
~
⇒ ψ̄(p) = √
1 1
√
1 √
π2σe
2
− σ2 (p0 −p)2
~
x\|h4632¬~
σ (2π)1/4 2π~
A4 hp̂i = p0
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Z +∞
hp̂i = dp ψ̄(p)∗ pψ̄(p)
x\|h4632z~
−∞
Z +∞ Z +∞
2 2
= p0
dp ψ̄(p) + dp ψ̄(p) (p − p0 )
| −∞ {z } | −∞ {z }
=1 =0
= p0
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Z +∞
eipx/~ − ip2 t
ψ(x, t) = dp ψ̄(p) √ e 2m~
−∞ 2π~
1/4 Z +∞
√
= σ
2
π
1 1
√
~ 2π −∞
σ2 2 px p2 t
dp e− ~2 (p0 −p) +i ~ −i 2m~ x\|h4LK ~
1/4 Z
√ 2 1 1 ip0 x/~ +∞ σ2 2 (p−p0 )x p2 t
= σ √ e dp e− ~2 (p−p0 ) +i ~ −i 2m~
π ~ 2π
| −∞ {z }
I
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p→p+p
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I=
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dp e ~
2
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~
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−
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√
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0
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I =e e 4α
α
N25WuB
( 2
α2 = σ~2 + 2m~ it
B = ix − ip 0t
n=>VD:
~ m~
2
α =
r
σ4
+
t2

exp i arctan

t~

x | 4LKVK5~
~4 4m2 ~2 2mσ 2
r
4 t2
4 σ i t~
⇒ α= + exp arctan
~4 4m2 ~2 2 2mσ 2
CW :
B2
=−

x
−
p0 t
2
1 x − pm0 t
= − 2 2i~t
2
4α2 ~ m~ 4σ 2 2it
+ m~ 4σ + m
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m
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t
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~4
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Z +∞ " 2 #2 Z +∞ " 2 #2
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x | 4LK~
| {z } | {z }
=0 =1
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x | 4LKV|5~
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m
e
α
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e
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h x̂ − i= q dx x2 exp − 2 2
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q
1 √
2πA−3/2 A=
σ2 N{5WuB
x\|h4LK5V~
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2 1/2 4
σ √ −3 σ t2 2 ~2 t 2
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r
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⇒ ∆x̂|ψ(x,t)i = σ 1+
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~
mi4
2ml2 2m(V − E)
E=V
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x | 4emK5~
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V
1
2
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h| 43 siN@i:p?AWJ1>5:=Wu8:ED6WuZWU8 x = x 4

0
N58in_BuWBuN5nuÁhZNH?ATu<wD6VTUWn=WUBu>V8i?AWb?AW ?A>VD:_N2V>5DF<Y@i8ºnEN5@h:2ÁiBUW;@ADDF`-AZFD6 @iWp;@AW

WU: ψ nw>V8:Bu>V8:ED68;@AWunU4§¨8QW 1WU:2Á5@A8AWS?AψD6n=Bu>58;:=DF8;@AD:ETY?iW ψ A<w>h?A@iDF<END6:@A8AWSn=D68AjV@AZFN5<=D:EψT
?AW ψ Wu8 δ (x) ÁWC:b@A8AW?AD6n=BU>V8:EDF8;@AD:ETI?AW ψ A<w>h?i@ADF<=N5D6:@A8AWQnwDF8AjV@iZN5<wD6:ETHWu8 δ(x) 4
0
<SBuWUnnwDF8AjV@iZN5<wD6:ETUn_8AWJWu@i5Wu8:AN5n U:E<wWJBu>V`-1WU8An=TUWunp/N5< V (x) 4

00 0 0
Y>V8ABUZF@AnwDF>V8 shD A<=TUn=Wu8:=W @A8ln=N5@i:Wu8 x ÁSD6ZvN5@i:<EN5BUBu>V<w?AWu<ZN v&>V8ABC:ED6>V8

?[ >V8A?AWJWC:n=N- ?iTu<=DVVTU(x)WHWU8 4 0
Kh4 x0
V (x) = V0 δ(x − x0 ) + V (x)

x | 4em5~

N8AnJBuWB2N5nd!{ÁZNº?iTu<=DVTUW-nwWuBU>V8A?AW?A>VD:JBu>V8:=Wu8AD6<b@A8AWÉv&>V8ABC:ED6>V8 δ(x − x ) ÁcBuW;@AD
D6àAZ6DF;@AW @iWIZFNÉ?ATu<wD6VTUWJA<=WUàD6ku<=Wb?i>VD6:pN2V>5DF<S@A8nEN5@h:24"§¨8W cWC:2Á 0
Z x0 + Z x0 +
2m
00
dx (V (x) − E) ψ(x)
dx ψ (x) = 2
x0 − ~ x0 −
Z
0 0 2m 2m x0 +
⇒ ψ (x0 + ) − ψ (x0 − ) = 2 V0 ψ(x0 ) + 2 dx (V (x) − E) ψ(x)
~ ~ x0 −
| {z }
→0
→0
2m
⇒ lim+ [ψ 0 (x0 + ) − ψ 0 (x0 − )] = 2 V0 ψ(x0 )
→0 ~ \x |h4emV|V~
Y>V8iBuZF@in=DF>58 shD V (x) A<wTun=WU8:EWH@A8AWbn=D68AjV@AZFN5<=D:ET?AW:9f 1W V δ(x − x ) ÁiZNIv&>V8iBU:ED6>V8
?[ >V8A?iW»Wunt:+Bu>V8:=DF8;@AW5Á ` NDFn-ZN?iTu<=DVTUW»A<=TUn=WU8;:=W·@A8nEN@i: ψ (x ) − ψ (x ) =
0 0
4 0 +
0
0 −
0
§¨8i/8cÁcDFZWUnw:bnw>V@iVWU8:b@i:ED6ZFWH?AWBU>V8AnwDF?ATU<=Wu<ZNZFDF`-D6:=Wb> ?AN58An@i8 ?A>VàN5DF8AW4

2m
~2
V ψ(x )
0 0
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ZFD6àD:EW V → +∞ à>V8:=<=Wb;@[ DFZµnw@ :?c[^D6à>Vn=WU< ψ(x ) = 0 n=D V = +∞ >V@A< x > x 4
0 0
Y>V8ABUZF@AnwDF>V8 s D V = +∞ 1>V@i< x > x x&>V@ x < x ~ ÁÈZFN(v&>V8ABU:=DF>V8?c[^>V8i?AW+?A>VD: U:=<=W

Bu>58;:=DF8;@AWJWu8 x = x ÁAWU:pWuZ6ZFWN5@h: ψ(x ) = 0 4
0 0
0 0
W

8Bu>V8AnwDF?AkU<=WJ@A81>:EWu8:=DFWuZc?ATU/8iDOAN5<
( n=D x < x < x x\|h4em5±~
V (x) =
V 1
=
n D 1
V
> @ 2
N2VWUB ÁiWC:S>V8+n=Wbi<=>V>Vn=W?AW:E<w>V@i5Wu<SZFWUnY8ADVWuN5@ +?c[^TU8AWu<wjVDFW E Bu>V`-A<=D6n=WWu8:E<wW V

V 2 x<x 1 x>x 2
WU: V V4 > V
2
2 1 1
V2 = +∞
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1 >V@i< x < x < x
ψ(x) = Aeipx/~ + Be−ipx/~
x\|h4emVV~
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1 2
1
(
Aeipx1 /~ + Be−ipx1 /~ =0 x\|h4em5¬~
Aeipx2 /~ + Be−ipx2 /~
P K`=H>I"=CE>j5@>):=H(*3 %)HK,f-.CE(*Md)?3 14- 5B&W=?3dI"=?(E3,CYO
=0

V
³ À%»ÂI,O#&0})Q'%(Â"02%h.0}#% ¥_IA!}!$ c¦
V (x)
V2
V1
0 x1 x2 x
|h4eK ¾¨@AD6:=nS?AWJ1>:EWu8:=DFWuZµBuN5<=<wT54

YWÉnwf nt:Eku`-WQN @i8AWÉn=>5ZF@i:=DF>V88A>V8»8;@AZ6ZFWnwDÈWUnw:bnwWu@AZ6Wu`-Wu8:nwDÈn=>58 ?ATU:=Wu<=`-DF8AN58:Wunt:b8;@AZ Á

B5[ Wunt:wq*7}q9?AD6<=Wbn=D
p(x1 −x2 ) p(x1 −x2 )
ei − e−i ~
~ =0

p(x2 − x1 )
⇒ sin =0
~
⇒
p
2m(E − V1 )
(x2 − x1 )
~
= nπ x | 4emVzV~
2
nπ~
⇒ 2m(E − V1 ) =
(x2 − x1 )
~π 2 2
⇒ E = V1 + n2
MµWungBu> W-BuD6Wu8:En A WU: B n=>58;:p<wWuZFD6TunS/N<
2m(x2 − x1 )2
B = −Ae
2ipx1 x | 4^ V~
WU:pZNv&>58ABU:=DF>V8©?[ >V8A?AWJWUnw:p?A>V8A8iTuWH/N5<
~
2ipx1

ψ(x) = A eipx/~ − e−ipx/~ e ~
= Aeipx1 /~ eip(x−x1 )/~ − e−ip(x−x1 )/~
x | 4Â3{~

ipx1 /~ p(x − x1 )
= 2iAe sin
~
(N5D6n p= nπ~
x2 −x1
⇒ ψ(x) = 2iAe ipx1 /~

sin nπ
x − x1

x | 4^;K5~
x2 − x 1

*-,O% ¥,%h)ÂH!$"Ã¥Ä ¶Å% )aÆ#\¶ÇÈ¥&% )É%h.¹Ê©#¶Å% .)u#.Ë
A
Wunt:piTJ/N<pZFNÉBu>V8i?AD6:=DF>V8
Z x2
dx |ψ(x)|2 = 1
x2 − x 1
⇒ 4A2
x1
=1
x\|h4^Vm~
2
1
⇒ A= p
2(x2 − x1 )
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TuBU<=D6<=WbZNQnw>VZF@i:=DF>V8 ieipx1 /~
~2 π 2
x\|h4^5;~
E = V1 + n2
2m(x2 − x1 )2
r
2 x − x1
ψn (x) = sin nπ
x2 − x 1 x2 − x 1
ogWuàN5<=;@AW n = 0 8[ Wunt:p/N5ng1>5n=n=D6 AZFWbBuN5< ψ(x)
n=WU<EN5D:gDF?AWU8;:=DF;@AWUàWU8;:g8;@AZ6ZFW4
V2 < +∞
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 nwD x < x
nwD x < x < x x\|h4^|V~
 x/l
Ae 1
ψ(x) = Beipx/~ + Ce−ipx/~

 −x/l
De
nwD x > x1
2
2
N2VWUB l = √ WU: p = p2m(E − V ) ÁWC:Q> >58N(BªRA>VD6n=DÀZNn=>VZ6@i:ED6>V8 e 1>5@A<

WC: e 1>5@A< x > x N/8©?[ >V i:=Wu8AD6<p@i8AWJn=>VZ6@i:ED6>V8+?AWJB2N5<w<=TJn=>5ààN5 AZ6W54
~ x/l
1
2m(V2 −E)
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−x/l
x<x 1 2
?ATU<=D65TuWHWu8 x WC: x ÁA?[ >Z6WunSTU @AN:ED6>V8An

1 2
(
ψ : Aex1 /l = Beipx1 /~ + Ce−ipx1 /~
x1 :
= ip~ Beipx1 /~ − Ce−ipx1 /~
x\|h4^V±~
A x1 /l
ψ0 : l
e
(
ψ : De−x2 /l = Beipx2 /~ + Ce−ipx2 /~
x2 :
ψ0 : − Dl ex2 /l = ip~ Beipx2 /~ − Ce−ipx2 /~
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;@/N:=<=WQDF8iBu>V8A8;@AWUnu4µ79Z8c[ f»N©?iWQn=>VZ6@i:ED6>V8»8A>V8·8;@AZ6ZFWÉ;@AWQnwD¨n=>V8·?ATC:EWu<wàD68/N58:bWUnw:J8;@AZ ÁcBuW
³ À%»ÂI,O#&0})Q'%(Â"02%h.0}#% ¥_IA!}!$
0.5
ψ (x)
-0.5
n=1
n=2
n=3
-1
2 2.5 3 3.5 4
|h4^m Á WC: >V@A< WU: 4

x
ψ1 (x) ψ2 (x) ψ3 (x) x1 = 2 x2 = 4
;@ADµBu>V8i?A@AD6:%7Q@A8AWJTU @AN:ED6>V8©1>V@i<pZ\[^TU8AWu<wjVDFW
x /l
e 1 ipx1 /~
−e−ipx1 /~
1 x /l −e
x\|h4^V~
0
e 1 − eipx1 /~ ip e−ipx1 /~
ip
0
l ~ ~ =0
0 −e ipx2 /~
−e −ipx2 /~
e −x2 /l

0 −eipx2 /~ e−ipx2 /~ − 1l ex2 /l
¾ >Vnw>V8An a = WU: b = e 48(nEND6:p;@[^>58»8AWHBªR/N58AjVWI/N5npZNQN5ZFWU@A<g?[^@i8(?ATC:EWu<rq

àD68/N58:JWu8`É@AZ:EDFiZFDN8;:@A8AWaZFDFj58AWÉ>V@@A8AW-Bu>VZ6>V8A8AW/N5<H@A8AW-Bu>58Anw:EN58:EW54È8Wu@h:?A>58AB
ip ip(x2 −x1 )/~
`É@AZ:EDFiZFDFWU<BªRAN5;@AWgBu>VZ6>V8A8AWS?AWIx\|h4^V~/N5<¨@i8AWgW h1>58AWu8:ED6WuZ6ZFW_ AD6Wu8BªRA>VD6n=D6W_WU:À>V8>V i:=DFWU8;:
~

1 1 1
x\|h4^V¬~
1 0
a −a 0
l =0
0 b 1
1
b
0 ab − a − 1
b l
§¨8?iTUVWUZF>Vi/N58:AN5<S<EN5i1>V<t: 7QZNÉA<wWu`-DFku<wWbBu>VZ6>V8A8AWÁ/DFZhD6Wu8:

a −a 0 1 1 0
1
b 1
1 − b 1
1 = 0
b b
ab − a − 1 l ab − a − 1
b
l b l

1 a b 1 1 a 1 b
⇒ a − + + a − − ab − − + + − − ab = 0
bl b l l bl b l l

1 b 1 a 1
⇒ − a+

l
2
l
+ ab + a −
l
−
b bl
=0
x\|h4^Vz~
2 a − 1l
⇒ b =
a + 1l
n=>5D6: ip
~
ip
− 1
1
l
!2
= ei2p(x2 −x1 )/~
~
+l
ip 1
−
⇒ ~ l
= ±eip(x2 −x1 )/~
8?i>VD6:S?i>V8ABJ?ADFnt:ED68AjV@AWU<S?AWu@+B2N5n
ip 1
~
+ l
3V4 − = +e ip
~
ip
1
l
1
ip(x2 −x1 )/~
~
+ l
ip 1
1 − eip(x2 −x1 )/~ = 1 + eip(x2 −x1 )/~
~ l
~ 1 − eip(x2 −x1 )/~
⇒ =
ipl 1 + eip(x2 −x1 )/~
⇒
~ eip(x2 −x1 )/2~ e−ip(x2 −x1 )/2~ − eip(x2 −x1 )/2~
= ip(x2 −x1 )/2~ −ip(x2 −x1 )/2~

x\|h4L| ~
ipl e (e + eip(x2 −x1 )/2~ )

~ p(x2 − x1 )
⇒ = tan
pl 2~

2 p(x2 − x1 ) ~2 1 2 ~2
⇒ 1 + tan =1+ 2 2 = 2 p + 2
(NDFn 2~ p l p l
4_¾>Vnw>V8An
Á/>58N?A>V8iB
2
p2 + ~l2 = 2m(E − V1 ) + 2m(V2 − E) = 2m(V2 − V1 ) p20 =
2m(V2 − V1 )

p(x2 − x1 ) p2
1 + tan 2
= 02
2~ p
2
1 p
⇒
cos2 p(x2 −x1 )
= 02
p
2~
x\|h4L| 3}~

⇒ cos p(x2 − x1 ) = p
2~ p0
³ À%»ÂI,O#&0})Q'%(Â"02%h.0}#% ¥_IA!}!$
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B2N<=<=T
7QZNQ?AWU<=8AD6ku<wWbZFDFj58AW?AWax | 4L| V~
tan

p(x − x ) 2

>0
1 x\|h4L|5KV~
2~
Kh4 ip
~
− 1
l
= −eip(x2 −x1 )/~
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ip 1
~
+ l
~ i
=
ipl tan p(x22~−x1 )

~ p(x2 − x1 )
⇒ = − cot
pl 2~

p(x2 − x1 ) 1 p2
= 02
x | 4L|5mV~
2
⇒ 1 + cot =
2~ sin2 p(x2 −x1 ) p
2~

p(x − x )
sin 2 1 = p
2~ p0
⇒
p(x2 − x1 )
cot <0
2~
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MµDF`-D6:EW N58AnQBuWC:=:=WZ6DF`-D6:=W5Á ÁÈZFN»1WU8:EWº:EWU8A? VWu<wn iÁÈWC:ZFWunÉN5Z6Wu@A<wn
1>5n=n=D6 AZFWUVnS?A→W p∞n=>V8: 4/MµWunSN5Z6Wu@Ap<wnp→>Vnw∞n=DF iZFWunS?iWHZ\[^TU8AWu<wjVDFWbnw>V8:p?A>V8AB
2
nπ~
x2 −x1
0
E=V +
1
2
p
1 =V +
2 2
π ~ 2
n
x | 4L|~
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2
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p, l, ~ > 0
"
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
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p

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2
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p
p0

[ 6

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( nwD x\|h4L|5|V~
V (x) =
V1
V2 > V 1
wn D x<0
x>0
WU:pBªRAWU<=BªRA>58AnZ6WunSTU:EN:Engnt:ªN:=DF>V8A8AN5DF<wWunu4
FÀ¢¼A!$% '%»Â/0{% .10}#&% ¥ ¡

V (x)
V2
V1
0 x
|h4e| (N<=BªRAWH?AWJ1>:EWu8:=DFWuZ 7Z\[^>5<=DFj5DF8AW4

V1 < E < V 2
N58AngBUWHBuN5nuÁ/ZFNQn=>VZ6@i:ED6>V8+Wunt:?iWHZFNv&>V<=`-W
( n=D x < 0 x | 4L|5±V~
ψ(x) =
Aeipx/~ + Be−ipx/~
Ce−x/l
n=D x > 0
2N VWuB l = √ ~ WU: p 4
YWU:w:EWv&>5DFnuÁ¨D6ZS8[ fNy;@AW K·Bu>V8A?iD6:ED6>V8An-N5@ Z6DF`-D6:EWUn ψ WU:ºn=N?ATU<=DVTuW?A>VDVWu8: U:E<wW
p = 2m(E − V1 )
2m(V2 −E)
Bu>V8:=DF8;@AWunpWu8 i4"YWUZNQBu>58A?A@AD:N@+<wWuZN$:EDF>58An
(
ψ :A+B =C
0 ip C
x | 4L|V5~
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ψ : (A − B) = −
~ l
>k_Ec SVU_`PRLTQ ZYCF 4

§¨8TUZFDF`-DF8AN58: C Á/>V8+:E<w>V@iVWH@A8AWJ<wWuZN$:EDF>58+Wu8:E<wW A WC: B
ipl
A+B = (A − B)
~
x | 4L|5¬V~

ipl ipl
⇒ A 1+ = B −1 +
~ ~
ipl ipl
1+ ~ 1+ ~
⇒ B=A = −A
−1 + ipl 1 − ipl
(N5D6n N2VWuB ÁAWC: ÁA?[ >
~ ~
q q
ipl 2 2 p2 l2 −iϕ
1+ = 1 + p~2l eiϕ tan ϕ = pl~ 1 − ipl = 1+ e
x | 4L|5zV~
~ ~ ~2
B = −Ae2iϕ
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n=WJ?ATUAZN;2N58:gVWU<=npZNÉ?A<w>VD6:=W54
2 2
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p
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m
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?AWJZ [^N5`-AZFD:E@A?iW?AWUnpBU>hW -BuDFWU8:En A WU: B 4
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` u`-Wb1>V@i< x > 0

E > V2
N8AnBUWJB2N5nUÁ/ZNÉv&>V8ABC:EDF>58+?[^>58A?AWJWunt:?AWJZFNv&>V<=`-W
( nwD x < 0 x\|h4e±~
ψ(x) =
Aeip1 x/~ + Be−ip1 x/~
Ceip2 x/~ + De−ip2 x/~
nwD x > 0
§¨ZFZ6W?ATuWu8i?(?AWJ-N5`-AZFD:E@A?AWUn_<=WUZFD6TuWunSAN5<g?AWu@BU>V8A?AD:ED6>V8An_?AWJ<=N5BuBU>V<=?AWUàWU8:
(
ψ :A+B =C +D
0
x\|h4e±h3}~
ψ : p (A − B) = p (C − D)
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1 2
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,$'&(E) j3,I"=H)?3 >-4=?)H3d/ CE3
143 14K,LNO &I_/ =H)H>W=?(E&I 143 2>/?143dg>WI"= >C*(E]@>)&- /?-.) C*3 3d]

!#"$ %&('*)& +-,%-
/.0)0 '*1.2 304/
FÀ¢¼A!$% '%»Â/0{% .10}#&% ¥
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?[ @A8AN5;@AWU:?[ >V8A?AWUng5Wu8/N8;:?AWJZNQjN@ABªRAWJ>V@©VWu8AN58:?AWJZFNÉ?A<=>VD:EW4
¾>V@i<p@i8/N @iWU:?[^>58A?AWungVWU8/N58:?iWHZFNQjN5@ABªRAWÁ">V8BªRi>VDFnwDF<EN D = 0 DFZ1fN@i8AWI>58A?AW
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¾>V@i<Y@A8+/N @iWU:S?[ >V8A?iWunY5Wu8/N58:g?AWZNI?i<=>VD:EW5Á;>V8+BªRi>VDFnwDF<ENH?AW` u`-W A = 0 4hMµWun_A<w>q
ip1 x/~ −ip1 x/~
A<=D6TU:=TungBuWUnTC:ªN:=npnt:ªN:=DF>V8i8/N5DF<wWun_?iTuBu<wDF<w>V8:p:=<=kUnp iDFWu8©Z6WunSA<w>VA<=D6TU:=Tung?AWJ/N5;@AWC:Enp?[^>58A?AWunU4
Y>V`-àWSZ6WunÀ?AWu@ -BuN5nÀn=>V8: n=DF`-DFZFN5DF<wWunUÁBU>V8An=D6?ATu<w>V8An BuWuZ6@AD/?[ @A8 AN5;@AWU: ?[ >V8A?AWUn VWU8/N58:
?AWZFNIjN5@iBªRAW54/¾¨@AD6n=;@AW D = 0 Áh>58º1WU@i:SBuN5ZFBU@AZFWU< Z6WunSN5`-AZ6D6:E@i?AWun B WC: C WU8ºv&>V8ABC:EDF>58 ?AW
A
7Z\[eNDF?AW?iWunpTu;@/N:=DF>V8AnS?iWH<=N5BuBU>V<=?iWu`-Wu8:
(
ψ :A+B =C
ψ0 : p1 (A − B) = p2 C
⇒ p1 (A − B) = p2 (A + B)
⇒ A(p1 − p2 ) = B(p1 + p2 ) x | 4e±K5~
p1 − p 2
⇒ B=A
p1 + p 2
WC:
C =A+B =A 1+

p1 − p 2

=A
2p1
Y >V`-àWHZ [ >V8A?AW e Bu>V<w<=Wunw1>58A? 7 @A8AW>V8A?AWI<=T ATuBªRAD6WÉWU: e 7 @i8AW>V8i?AW:E<=N58Anrq

p1 + p 2 p1 + p 2
àD6n=WÁADFZWUnw:pR/N5 iD6:E@iWuZ?AWJ?ATC/8AD6<p?iWun @CBfF "@^QhF^PRL ca[ F#]CY FN: QhBEPF^L [ F*L ]<_`Pkc 1 QGcCc^QhBEP AN5<
−ip1 x/~

ip2 x/~
Y>hW -BuDFWU8:?iWH<wT /W hDF>V8 R ≡ B

Y>hW -BuDFWU8:?iWJ:=<EN58in=`-DFn=nwDF>V8 TA≡ C
[^N5A<=kUnBUWJ @iDµA<=TUBuku?iW5Á>V8N?i>V8AB
A
R=
p −p 1 2
, T =
2p 1 x | 4e±VmV~
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1 2 1 2
:ED6>V8 ?i@jVWu8i<=W R + T = 1 4 (N5DFn-BuWC:=:=W(<=WUZN:=DF>V8 8[ Wunt: ÇO/) 5Tu<=D/TuWÁ WC:ºZFN·<wWuZFN:ED6>V8

W 1WuBC:ED65Wu`-Wu8:gVTU<=D6ATuWbWunt:gAZF@in_n=@A h:EDFZ6W54i¾>V@A<SZFN?ATC:EWu<wàD68AWu<YDFZ"vN5@i:SD6?AWu8:ED/Wu<Y @iWuZFZ6WWunt:
2 2
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ρ = |ψ(x)| 2 ;@ADZ\[^WUnw:24 [eNA<=kUnZ\[^TU @AN:ED6>V8+?AWJBu>V8:=DF8;@AD6:=T5Á/>V8©WU8?ATU?A@AD:g @iW
?AD6 ~j = − ∂ρ = 0 x | 4e±5~
I 3 3`= C<>5@>W)?=?(E3 =H3,LN5_&)?3dC*CE3a1.3aC<>cU&I@+%=H(*&I 1hS &I@1.3a/dS KG+`)H( = >[3g3d+`+) `=H3e143eCYS &I@O'143eQ4( /?36&I=?)H&5B-@&g/?33
∂t
k= ~

p
@ <
C j
>
U

& @
I `
+ ?
= E
(
& c
I h
1 S
& @
I 4
1 k
3 4
1 ,
3 9
g E
( ,
3 "
I
= e ikx−ωt ' cos(kx − ωt)
O I e−iωt
t=0
. @
- .
I ω =
p2
3d/?(*I fI.3k1.3C<3`>F= 5@3,I>W)?=?(E3e=H3,LN+,3`5B=?&=?)H3X3,LCEC*3 d_Lj-.3Î@3e+`) U`&=HI_3X+%/?=?3A(E&/?I3,)01h>eS &14I@Kd145.3jCE>>[+`gKd3X3d+e1.-.>WI_I.3/ CE5_3 >W/?)?3,=?I@(E3/ /:145_3G>/ =?(<>WCE5_3 &"/:(*=?(*UV/dO /?3&I_14+ Kd95.1hCE>S >+`3j5.)H1.Md>W/ I@C*3/
2m~

CECE363e/:/:3d3dI@I@/2/214I.3dKd/f>=H( 5BU O &/?( =H( UV/D>C*&)H/ ;"-bS -@I.3AU&I@+`=?(E&I 1hS &I@143^>[g3G+X-.I@3A5_>W)?=?(E3A/?5@>=H(E>C*3 /?3614K,5@CE>+`3^1.>WI@/
x=0 t + dt x
eipx/~
x e −ipx/~

>V@A<@i8AWÉn=>5ZF@i:=DF>V8nw:ªN$:EDF>58A8/N5D6<=W541(NDFn873É?ADF`-Wu8in=DF>58Á"?AD6 ~j = ÁcWU:?AD6 ~j = 0 ⇒ j =
BU:=WV4/[ Wunt:p?A>V8ABbZ6WBu>5@A<EN58: ~j ;@ADµWunt:gBu>V8AnwWu<tVT54N5DFn ~j = ψ ∇ψ ÁAn=>VD: 7
∂j
∂x
3J?ADF`-Wu8in=DF>58 j = ψ − ψ 4_N5Z6Bu@AZ6>V8An j(x) 1>V@i< x < 0

~ − ψ ∇ψ
~ ~ ∗ ∗
2mi
~ ∗ ∂ψ ∂ψ ∗
2mi ∂x ∂x

∗ ∂ψ ∗ −ip1 x/~

ip1 A ip2 x/~ ip1 B −ip1 x/~
∗ ip1 x/~
ψ = A e +B e × e − e
∂x ~ ~
ip1
∂ψ ∗
=
~
ip1
|A|2 − |B|2 − A∗ Be−2ip1 x/~ + AB ∗ e2ip1 x/~

x\|h4e±V|V~
ψ =− |A|2 − |B|2 − AB ∗ e2ip1 x/~ + A∗ Be−2ip1 x/~
∂x ~
p1 p1
⇒ j= |A|2 − |B|2 = |A|2 (1 − R2 )
m m
WU:p>V@A< x>0
xWU8nwWH<=N5AWuZFN58:g @c[^>V8N1>VnwT D=0
~
∂ψ ip2
= |C|2
x\|h4e±5±~
ψ∗
∂x ~
p2 p2
⇒ j= |C|2 = |A|2 T 2
8WU8?iTu?A@AD:gZNÉ<wWuZN$:EDF>58
m m
p1 (1 − R2 ) = p2 T 2
x\|h4e±VV~
;@AWHZ [ >V8ºVTU<=D6AWINDFn=TUàWU8:H7QZ\[eN5D6?AW?AWUngW hA<=WUn=nwDF>V8An?AW R2
WC: T 4 2
A 6 N L

Y>V8in=DF?iTu<=>58An?iTun=>5<=àN5DFnSZ6WbB2N5ng?[ @A8AWJ /N5<w<=D6ku<=Wb?iWH>5:=Wu8:ED6WuZµ?ATC/8ADFWbAN5<
 n=D x < x

V 1
n=D x < x < x 1
x\|h4e±5¬~
V (x) = V > V


2
V
1
1
n=D x > x
1
2
2
Y>V8AnwDF?ATU<=>V8in_?/N58AnY@A8+A<=WUàD6Wu<:EWUàAnYZFWBuN5n_?[ @A8+/N @iWU:S?[ >V8A?iWunY5Wu8/N58:g?AWZNIjVN5@ABªRAW

N2VWUBI@A8iWHTU8AWu<wjVDFW E BU>Vài<=DFnwWbWu8:E<wW V WU: V 4
1 2
V1 < E < V 2
A!}!#&Ä;!}%('%»Â/0{% .10}#&% ¥ %;0a_,O.O.O% ¥ c¦

V (x)
V2
V1
0 x1 x2 x
| 4e± X_N5<w<=DFkU<=Wb?AWJ>5:EWU8:EDFWUZ 4

N58AngZ6Wung?AD 1Tu<wWu8:EngnwWuBU:=Wu@A<wnuÁ"ZNÉv&>V8iBU:ED6>V8+?[ >V8A?AWJ?A>5D6: U :=<=WJ?AWJZNv&>5<=`-W

 n=D x < x
n=D x < x < x x | 4e±VzV~
ipx/~

Ae + Be−ipx/~ 1
ψ(x) = Ce−x/l + Dex/l

 ipx/~
Ee
n=D x > x 1
2
2
>ÅZ\[^>58Å8[^NjN<=?AT-;@AW Z\[^>V8i?AW e >V@A< x > x A@iDFn=;@[ >V8 nU[^D68:ETu<wWunwn=W7@A8 /N5;@AWC:

?[ >V8A?AWUnp5Wu8/N58:?AWJZNÉjN@ABªRAW54 ipx/~
2
MµWungBu>V8i?AD6:=DF>V8AnY?AWI<=N5BuBU>V<=?iWu`-Wu8:pWu8 x WC: x Bu>58A?A@AD6n=Wu8:N5@©TU;@/N:ED6>V8AnSnw@AD6N58:EWUn

1 2
(
ψ : Aeipx1 /~ + Beipx1 /~ = Ce−x1 /l + Dex1 /l
x1 : 1
x | 4LV~
ip
ψ0 : ~
Ae ipx1 /~
− Be −ipx1 /~
= l
−Ce −x1 /l
+ De x1 /l
(
ψ : Eeipx2 /~ = Ce−x2 /l + Dex2 /l
x2 : ip

ψ0 : ~
Eeipx2 /~ = 1l −Ce−x2 /l + Dex2 /l
8I?AD6n=>Vn=W?A>58AB ?iWÀpTu;@/N$:EDF>58An1>V@i<È|SDF8iBu>V8A8;@AWUnu48IWu@h:W hA<=D6àWU<Og?AWUnBU>hW -BuDFWU8:En

DF8ABU>V8A8;@AnpWu8v&>V8ABU:=DF>V8©?A@»|}q9D6ku`-W54A79ZµWUnw:?A>V8ABH>Vn=nwDF AZ6Wb?AWIBuN5ZFBU@AZFWU< E WC: B WU8v&>V8iBU:ED6>V8
?AW A Á/WC:NDF8AnwD?AWJ?ATU:=Wu<wàD68AWu<SZ6WunSBu> W -BUDFWu8:=n?AWb:=<EN58AnwàD6n=nwDF>V8+WC:?iWH<wT /W hDF>V84
¾>V@i<BuWUZNiÁ>V8»<wTuTUBu<=D:Z6WIntfhnt:EkUàWÉWU8»vN5DFn=N58:AN5n=nwWu<Z6Wun:=Wu<wàWUnWu8 A ?/N58AnZFWHn=WuBU>V8A?
àWU`É A<wW54 8n=W<=WC:E<=>5@iVW(N5ZF>V<wn-N{5WuB»@i8nwf nt:Eku`-W»Z6DF8ATuN5DF<wWº8A>V8Ri>Và>5jVku8AW©?AW;@/N:E<wW

Tu;@/N$:EDF>58Ang?A@:9f W S~x = ~y
 −ipx /~
 Be 1
− Ce−x1 /l − Dex1 /l = −Aeipx1 /~
x\|h4L 3}~


− ip Be−ipx1 /~ + C e−x1 /l − D ex1 /l = − ip~ Aeipx1 /~
~ l l

 −Ce −x2 /l
− De x2 /l
+ Ee ipx2 /~
=0

 C −x2 /l D x2 /l ip ipx2 /~
e − le + ~ Ee =0
79BuD\ÁA>V8©N@h:EDFZ6DFnwWu<_ZFN ] <`DGF [ F ]\_M1 ^F ] 1 >5@A<S?ATU:=Wu<wàD68AWu<SZ6WunSDF8iBu>V8A8;@AWUn E WC: B
l
xi =
det(Sxi ) x\|h4L5KV~
det(S)
> det(S) Wunw:Z6Wº?ATC:EWu<wàD68/N58:Q?AW+ZFN(àN:E<wDFBuWa<=WUA<=TUn=Wu8:EN58: Z6W nwf nt:Eku`-W©WU: det(S ) Z6W
ù`-W?ATU:=Wu<wàD68/N58:g?/N58AngZ6Wu;@AWuZc>V8(NÉ<wWu`-AZNBuTbZFWUnSBu> W-BuD6Wu8:Eng?AWJZFNÉD BU>VZF>58A8AWb/N5<SZ6W
xi
`-Wu`É A<wWb?AWJ?A<=>5D6:EW ~y 48NQ?A>V8AB

e−ipx1 /~ −x1 /l
−ex1 /l −Aeipx1 /~
ip −ipx /~ −e
− e

det(Sxi ) = ~
1 1 −x1 /l
l
e − 1l ex1 /l − ip~ Aeipx1 /~

x\|h4Lm~
0 −e−x2 /l −ex2 /l 0
0 1 −x2 /l
e 1 x2 /l
−le 0
8?iTUVWUZF>Vi1WJ/N5<S<=N5A>V<w: 7ZNÉi<=Wu`-DFkU<=WbBU>VZF>V8i8AW5ÁA?c[^>
l

−ipx1 /~ ip ip ip −ipx1 /~ A ipx1 /~ A ipx1 /~
det(Sxi ) = e − Aeipx1 /~ − Aeipx1 /~ + e − e − e
~l ~l ~ l l
4ip
=−
~l
A
x\|h4L$;~
§:pZFWbB2NZFBu@iZ?AW det(S)
?A>V8i8AW

e−ipx1 /~ −x1 /l
−ex1 /l
ip −ipx /~ −e 0
− e 1 1 −x
e 1 /l
− 1l ex1 /l 0
det(S) = ~ l

0 −e−x2 /l −ex2 /l eipx2 /~
0 1 −x2 /l
e − 1l ex2 /l ip ipx2 /~
e
l ~
= ...
1 ∆x/l
ip∆x/~

−∆x/l
ip ∆x/l −∆x/l

x\|h4L5|V~
=e e −e − e +e
l2 ~l

ip ip∆x/~ ip ∆x/l −∆x/l
1 ∆x/l −∆x/l

+ e e −e − e +e
~ ~ l

ip∆x/~ ∆x 1 p2 ∆x 2ip
=e 2 sinh × 2 − 2 + 2 cosh × −
~ ~l
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l l l

A!}!#&Ä;!}%('%»Â/0{% .10}#&% ¥ %;0a_,O.O.O% ¥
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2 1
− 4ip e−ip∆x/~ A
~l
E= 2

2 sinh ∆x
l
× l12 − ~p2 + 2 cosh ∆x
l
× − 2ip
~l
|E|2
⇒ |T |2 =
|A|2
16p2
= 22
~l
4 l12 − p2
2
sinh2
1
∆x

+ 16p2
cosh2 ∆x
x | 4L5±V~
~2 l ~2 l 2 l
p2
4
⇒ |T |2 = ~2 l 2

2 2
1 p 2 (x2 − x1 ) 4p2 (x2 − x1 )
− sinh + cosh2
l 2 ~ 2 l ~ l
2 2 l
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1
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E > V2
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1 ip2
p2 = 2m(E − V2 )
p l ~
p = 2m(E − V )
1 1
|T |2 =
2 2

4p21 p22
p2 (x2 − x1 )

p2 (x2 − x1 )
x | 4LV5~
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+ 4p1 p2 cos 2
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Ĥ =
p~ˆ 2
+ V (r̂) x±i463{~
>
2m p
r = x2 + y 2 + z 2
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~ = ~r ∧ p~
L
x±i4LK5~
~
dL d~r d~
p
⇒ = ∧ p~ + ~r ∧
dt dt dt
p~
= ∧ p~ +~r ∧ F~
m
| {z }
=0
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u
B 5
> A
8 w
n E
: 5
N
8 E
:
W 4
~
= ~0 ⇒
dL
dt
L~ =
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x y z
 
ŷp̂z − ẑ p̂y
~ˆ = ~rˆ ∧ p~ˆ = ẑ p̂x − x̂p̂z 
L
x ±i4^m~
x̂p̂y − ŷp̂x
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x y z
h i
L̂x , x̂ = 0
h i
L̂x , ŷ = [ŷp̂z − ẑ p̂y , ŷ] = −ẑ [p̂y , ŷ] = i~ẑ
⇒
h i
L̂i , x̂j = i~ijk x̂k
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ijk
: 132 = 321 = 213 = −1
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x±i4 ;~
 ijk
=0
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h i
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h i
L̂x , p̂y = [ŷp̂z , p̂y ] = i~p̂z x±i4e|V~
h i
⇒ L̂i , p̂j = i~ijk p̂k
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8AD6Wu84
L̂z = x̂p̂y − ŷp̂x
h i
x±i4^±~
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i ∂y i ∂x

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∂y ∂x
Bu>V`-`É@i:=WJN2VWuB
∂r r ∂r r
x±i4L5~
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Á BU>V`-`É@i:EWU8:pN{5WuB V.
V.
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x y
WHAZF@AnUÁA>V8N
2 2 2 2
⇒ L x y z V.
h i h i
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
 z x x y y z x = i~p̂y p̂x + i~p̂x p̂y = 2i~p̂x p̂y



x±i4e¬V~


h i h i
L̂z , p̂y = −i~p̂x ⇒ L̂z , p̂2y = −2i~p̂x p̂y





h i h i


 L̂z , p̂z = 0 ⇒ L̂z , p̂2z = 0
h i
⇒ L̂z , p~ˆ 2 = 0
~ˆ 2
⇒ L̂x L̂y L
Á Á ÁABu>V`-`É@i:=Wu8:pN2VWUB p~ˆ 2 x±i4ezV~
⇒
Á Á WC: L~ˆ Bu>5à`É@h:EWu8:pN2VWUB Ĥ.
L̂x L̂y L̂z 2
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L̂2x = (ŷp̂z − ẑ p̂y )2
= ŷ 2 p̂2z + ẑ 2 p̂2y − ŷ p̂z ẑ p̂y − ẑ p̂y ŷ p̂z
|{z} |{z}
ẑp̂z −i~ ŷp̂y −i~
= ŷ 2 p̂2z + ẑ 2 p̂2y
+ i~ŷ p̂y + i~ẑ p̂z − 2ŷp̂y ẑ p̂z

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⇒L z x y
− 2ŷp̂y ẑ p̂z − 2x̂p̂x ŷp̂y − 2ẑ p̂z x̂p̂x
= ~rˆ 2 p~ˆ 2 − ẑ 2 p̂2 − x̂2 p̂2 − ŷ 2p̂2 + 2i~~rˆ · p~ˆ − 2ŷp̂y ẑ p̂z − 2x̂p̂x ŷp̂y
z x y x\±h463V~
− 2ẑ p̂z x̂p̂x
2
= ~rˆ 2 p~ˆ 2 − ~rˆ · p~ˆ + i~~rˆ · p~ˆ
1 ~ˆ 2 ∂2 ~2 ∂
⇒ p~ˆ 2 = 2 L − ~2 2 − 2
r ∂r r ∂r
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⇒ Ĥ = − − + L + V (r)
2m ∂r 2 mr ∂r 2mr 2
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∂
∂r
∂
∂r
hϕ|A† |ψi − hϕ|A|ψi

= hψ|A|ϕi∗ − hϕ|A|ψi
Z Z
∂ ∗ ∂
= i~ ψ ϕ d~r + i~ ϕ∗ ψd~r
∂r ∂r
= i~
Z π
sin θdθ
Z 2π
dϕ
Z +∞
∂
r 2 (ψϕ∗ )dr
x±i463{KV~
0 0 ∂r
|0 {z }

¾ÈN<pBU>V8:E<wW5Á/Z [ >VTu<=N:EWU@A< ∂
p̂r = −i~ 1r ∂r r = −i~ ∂r ∂
+ 1r
Wunw:pRAWU<=`-D6:=DFWu8c4A§¨8W cWC:2Á
hϕ|p̂†r |ψi − hϕ|p̂r |ψi
Z π Z 2π Z +∞
2 ∂ 1 ∗ ∂ 1 ∗
= i~ sin θdθ dϕ r + ψϕ + + ϕψ
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0 0 0 ∂r r ∂r r
Z +∞
∂ 1
2 ∗ ∂ 1 ∗
r + ψϕ + + ϕ ψ dr
0 ∂r r ∂r r
Z +∞
2 ∂ ∗ 2 ∗
= r (ψϕ ) + ψϕ dr
0 ∂r r
Z +∞
∂ 2 ∗
= (r ψϕ )dr

0 ∂r
+∞
= r 2 ψϕ∗ 0 = 0 rψ → 0
n=D
r → +∞ 0
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∂ ~r x̂ ŷ ẑ
Â = −i~ = .~ p = p̂x + p̂y + p̂z
⇒ Â+
x̂
∂r
ŷ
r
ẑ
= p̂x + p̂y + p̂z 6= A
r r r
x±i463u;~
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r r r
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x y z
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1 +
1 ~r ~r
2
2
.~
p + p~.
r r
f (~r)

1 ~r
.~
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p + p~. f =

1 ~r ~
.(−i~)∇f + (−i~)∇.
1 ~

~r
f
x\±h463}|5~
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(N5D6n

~ ~r f
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~r ~
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r r r
WHAZF@AnUÁ
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er ) = 2 (r 2 g(r))
∇.(g(r)~
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r ∂r
~ ~r = 1 ∂ (r 2 ) = 2
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]D68An=D\Á
r r 2 ∂r r

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.~
p + p~. f = .~
p+
2 r r r r
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r
∂
−i~ ∂r

1 ~r ~r
⇒ p̂r = .~
p + p~.
2 r r
¾ÈN5<pN5D6ZFZ6Wu@A<wnuÁiBU>V`-àW

∂ 1 ∂ 1
p~ˆ2r = −~2 + +
∂r r ∂r r
2
2 ∂ 1 ∂ 1 1 1 ∂
= −~ + + − +
∂r 2 r ∂r r 2 r 2 r ∂r
2
2 ∂ 2 ∂
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1 ~ˆ 2
p~ˆ 2 = 2 L
∂2
− ~2 2 − 2
~2 ∂ x±i4632±~
DF`-AZ6DF;@AW;@AW r ∂r r ∂r
~ˆ 2
L
p~ˆ 2 = p̂2r + 2
x±i463{V~
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r
Ĥ =
p̂2r
+
~ˆ 2
L
+ V̂ (r)
x±i43{¬~
2m 2mr 2
L~ˆ 2 @D6 c6 6

A

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2
>VnEN58:=Wunp?AW L~ 4<UÁ
h i
L̂x , L̂y = [ŷp̂z − ẑ p̂y , ẑ p̂x − x̂p̂z ]
= [ŷp̂z , ẑ p̂x ] + [ẑ p̂y , x̂p̂z ]
= −i~ŷ p̂x + i~x̂p̂y = i~L̂z
h i
~ ∧L
~ = i~L
~
x±i4632z~
⇒ L̂i , L̂j = i~ijk L̂k ⇔ L
h i h i h i
~ˆ 2 = L̂x , L̂2y + L̂x , L̂2z
L̂x , L
= L̂y i~L̂z + i~L̂z L̂y − L̂z i~L̂y − i~L̂y L̂z
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L
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z
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h i h i h i
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h i h i h i
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2
x\±h4LK5mV~
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x
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
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
 

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+
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+
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∂xi
∂r ∂r x
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2r
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∂r
r
y
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x±i4^Vm~
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x±i4^5;~
2
cos θ ∂x z ∂x r
1 ∂θ 2y ∂θ cos θ sin ϕ
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cos θ ∂y z ∂y r
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1 ∂θ 2(x + y ) ∂θ sin θ
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⇔ =−
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2
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x±i4^|V~
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2
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~ ∂ ~ ∂ cos θ cos ϕ ∂ sin ϕ ∂
p̂x = = sin θ cos ϕ + −
i ∂x i ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
p̂y =
~ ∂
=
~

∂
sin θ sin ϕ +
cos θ sin ϕ ∂
+
cos ϕ ∂

x\±h4^±V~
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i ∂r

r sin θ sin ϕ sin θ r cos θ cos θ sin ϕ ∂
+ −

r

−

r ∂θ x\±h4^;5~
cos ϕ ∂
+ −r cos θ
r sin θ ∂ϕ

~ ∂ cos ϕ ∂
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i ∂θ tan θ ∂ϕ
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~ ∂
= (r cos θ sin θ cos ϕ − r sin θ cos ϕ cos θ)
i ∂r

r cos θ cos θ cos ϕ r sin θ cos ϕ sin θ ∂
+

r

+

r ∂θ x\±h4^¬V~
sin ϕ ∂
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r sin θ ∂ϕ

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L̂z = x̂p̂y − ŷp̂x

~ ∂
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i ∂r

cos θ sin ϕ cos θ cos ϕ ∂
+ sin θ cos ϕ

r
− r sin θ sin ϕ

r

∂θ x±i4^Vz~
cos ϕ sin ϕ ∂
+ r sin θ cos ϕ + r sin θ sin ϕ
r sin θ r sin θ ∂ϕ
~ ∂
⇒ L̂z =
i ∂ϕ

iϕ ∂ ∂
L̂+ = L̂x + iL̂y = ~e + i cot θ
∂θ ∂ϕ

−iϕ ∂ ∂
L̂− = L̂x − iL̂y = ~e − + i cot θ
∂θ ∂ϕ
~ˆ 2 = L̂− L̂+ + L̂2 + ~L̂z
L
z
2 −iϕ ∂ ∂ iϕ ∂ ∂
L̂− L̂+ = ~ e − + i cot θ e + i cot θ
∂θ ∂ϕ ∂θ ∂ϕ
2

2 −iϕ iϕ ∂ iϕ ∂ ∂ ∂ iϕ ∂
=~ e −e −e i cot θ + i cot θ e
∂θ 2 ∂θ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂θ

∂ ∂
+ i cot θ eiϕ i cot θ
∂ϕ ∂ϕ
2
∂ −i ∂ ∂2 ∂
= ~2 e−iϕ −eiϕ 2 − eiϕ 2 − eiϕ i cot θ + i cot θieiϕ
∂θ sin θ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ∂θ ∂θ
2

iϕ ∂ iϕ ∂ iϕ ∂2
+ i cot θe + i cot θie i cot θ + i cot θe i cot θ 2
∂ϕ∂θ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
2 2

∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= ~2 − 2 + i 2 − cot θ − i cot2 θ − cot2 θ 2
∂θ sin θ ∂ϕ ∂θ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
2 2

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= ~2 − 2 + i − cot θ − cot2 θ 2
∂θ ∂ϕ ∂θ ∂ϕ
2

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∂θ ∂ϕ ∂θ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ2 ∂ϕ

ˆ2
~ 2 ∂2 1 ∂ 1 ∂2
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∂θ tan θ ∂θ sin2 θ ∂ϕ2
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x\±h4L|h3{~
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i ∂ϕ
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x\±h4L|VK5~
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L z
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~ l(l + 1) ~m
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MNQv&>58ABU:=DF>V8 Y (θ, ϕ) ?A>VD6:gn=N:ED6nwvN5D6<=W
l l
l
l
x\±h4L|V|5~
l
L̂ Y = 0
+ l

∂
⇒ − l cot θ Fll (θ) = 0
(N5D6nSZ [ Tu;@/N:=DF>V8©?AD cTU<=Wu8:=DFWuZ6ZFW
∂θ
df
=l
cos θ
f
x\±h4L|5±V~
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4"§8W1WU:uÁ
dθ sin θ
df
dθ
= l cos θ(sin θ)l−1 =
l cos θ
sin θ
f x\±h4L|V5~
⇒ Yll (θ, ϕ) ∝ (sin θ)l eilϕ
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l
l
l
l ilϕ
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x±i4L|¬~
2
|cl | dϕ(sin θ)2l = 1
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=n >VD: 2
0 0
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Z π
N25WuB
sin θdθ(sin θ)2l
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u = cos θ, du = − sin θdθ,

Z 1
(sin θ)2 = 1 − u2
x±i4L|z~
⇒ Il = du(1 − u2 )l
WU: I n=WHB2NZFBu@iZFW/N<p<wTuBU@A<=<wWu8ABUW
l
−1
I0 = 2
Z 1
Il = du(1 − u2 )l−1 (1 − u2 )
−1
Z 1
= Il−1 − du u × u(1 − u2 )l−1
"−1 1 Z 1 #
(1 − u2 )l (1 − u2 )l
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2l −1 −2l
x±i4e±~
−1
1
= Il−1 − Il
2l
1
⇒ Il 1 + = Il−1
2l
2l (2l)(2l − 2) · · · 2
⇒ Il = Il−1 = × I0
2l + 1 (2l + 1)(2l − 1) · · · 3
wn >VD6: I = [(2l)(2l − 2) · · · 2]
l
2
× I0
(2l + 1)!
>V@Wu8ABU>V<=W I = 2 (l!)
l
2l+1 2
¯ÈD68/N5ZFWUàWU8:2Ái>58?i>VD6:pN2V>5DF<
(2l + 1)!
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r
(2l + 1)! x±i4e±VKV~
2 l! 4π
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−
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~ l(l + 1) − m(m − 1)
L̂− Ylm (θ, ϕ)
x\±h4e±VmV~
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∂
− + i cot θ
∂

§ iWUàiZFWun ∂θ ∂ϕ
3V4 l = 0
Y00 (θ, ϕ) = √
1 x\±h4e±5~
4π
Kh4 l=1
r
1 6
Y11 (θ, ϕ) = − sin θeiϕ
2 4π
r
3
⇒ Y11 (θ, ϕ) = − sin θeiϕ
8π
r !
1 3 cos θ
x\±h4e±|5~
0 −iϕ iϕ iϕ
Y1 (θ, ϕ) = √ e − − cos θe + i sin θie
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r
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=√ 2 cos θ
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r
0 3
⇒ Y1 (θ, ϕ) = cos θ
4π
r
3
⇒ Y1−1 (θ, ϕ) = sin θe−iϕ
8π
mi4 l=2
r
15
Y2±2 (θ, ϕ) = sin2 θe±2iϕ
32π
Y2±1 (θ, ϕ) =∓
r
15
sin θ cos θe±iϕ
x\±h4e±V±V~
8π
r
5
Y20 (θ, ϕ) = 3 cos2 θ − 1
16π

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dϕ
Z 2π
dθ sin θ (Y ) Y = δ δ
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l
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l0
x±i4e±VV~
l,l0 m,m0
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(−1)l
Ylm (θ, ϕ) = l
s
2l + 1 (l + m)! imϕ
e (sin θ)−m
dl−m
(sin θ)2l
x±i4e±5¬~
2 l! 4π (l − m)! d(cos θ)l−m
A48N-WU8AN5<w:=DFBu@iZFDFWU<G!
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x±i4e±5z~
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6

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ψ(r, θ, ϕ) = R(r)Y (θ, ϕ) l
m x±i4L ~
> R(r)
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2 2

−
~ ∂ 2
−
~ ∂
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+
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+ V (r) R(r) = ER(r)
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1
R(r) = u(r)
r
dR 1 1 du
= − 2 u(r) +
dr r r dr
d2 R 2 2 du 1 d2 u
= u(r) − 2 +
dr 2 r 3 r dr r dr 2
⇒ −
~2 2
u(r) − 2
2 du 1 d2 u
+
2 2 du
− 3 u(r) + 2

x\±h4LVK5~
2m r 3 r dr r dr 2 r r dr
2
~ l(l + 1) u(r) u(r)
+ 2
+ V (r) =E
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wn >VD6: − ~ d + ~ l(l + 1) + V (r) u(r) = Eu(r)

2 2
2
2
2
2m dr 2mr
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BªR/N5<wjVW +Ze WC:@A8-TuZFWUBU:=<=>V8?AWgBªR/N5<wjVW −e Á V (r) = − 4V¾>Vnw>V8An α = +Ze ⇒ V (r) =
4shD l 6= 0 Ái1>V@i< r 1WC:ED6:uÁi>V8Wu@i:p8ATUjVZFD6jVWu< − ?AWCN58: ÁA?[ >
Ze2 2
r
α α ~2 l(l+1)
− r r 2mr 2
d 2
u(r) '
l(l + 1)
u(r)
x\±h4L5mV~
sh@AA>Vnw>V8Anp @iW u(r) nw>VD6:g?iWHZFNv&>V<=`-W r
dr 2 r 2
⇒ s(s − 1)r s−2 = l(l + 1)r s−2

x\±h4L~
⇒ s(s − 1) = l(l + 1)
⇒s=l+1 s = −l
>V@
( N5D6nYZNJBu>58A?AD6:=DF>V8-?AW8A>V<=àN5Z6DFnEN$:EDF>58Qn=@A< D6à>Vn=Wg;@AW
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R(r)
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0
r R (r)dr
1>5n=D6:=D65W s = l + 1 4 0
u (r)dr
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d2 u(r)
sD x\±h4LV|5~
2
u(r) ∝ −
dr r
u(r) = a0 + a1 r + a2 r 2 + · · ·
⇒
d2
u(r) = 2a2 + · · · ,
UB WI;@ADµD6à>Vn=W a 0 =0
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dr 2
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0.2
l=0
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0.05
U(r)
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
0 5 10 15 20
±i463 J <=N5ARAWb?iWHZFNv&>V8ABC:EDF>58 1>V@i< WU: 4

r
l(l+1) 1
U (r) = r2
− r
l=0 l=1
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~2 l(l+1)
− α
>V@A< E < 0 4A¾ZFNMu>58Antq 8A>V@Ang?/N58inpBUWJB2N5nUÁ/WU:gvN5DFnw>V8AnSZ6WbBªR/N58AjVWUàWU8:?iWJN5<wDN5 iZFWun

2mr 2 r
r
x±i4L5V~
E r
λ= − , ρ=
EI a0
N2VWUB EI =
mα2
, a 0 =
~2
2~2 mα
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M¨[^TU @AN:ED6>V8©?AWU DFWU8:

~2 1 d 2 ~2 l(l + 1) α
− + − u(ρ) = −EI λ2 u(ρ)
2m a20 dρ2 2ma20 ρ2 a0 ρ
2
d ~2 l(l + 1) −2ma20 2ma20 α 2mEI a20 2
⇒ + + u(ρ) = λ u(ρ)
x\±h4L5¬V~
dρ2 2ma20 ρ2 ~2 ~2 a 0 ρ ~2
2
d l(l + 1) 2 2m2 α2 ~4 2
⇒ − + u(ρ) = λ u(ρ)
dρ2 ρ2 ρ 2~4 m2 α2
nw>VD6:
d2
−
l(l + 1) 2 2

+ − λ u(ρ) = 0
dρ2 ρ2 ρ
@/N58A? ρ → +∞
ÁA>V8NN5AA<w> iD6` N$:ED65Wu`-Wu8:
d2 u
' λ2 u ⇒ u(ρ) ' e±λρ
x\±h4L5zV~
dρ2
MNBU>V8A?AD:ED6>V8+?AWH8A>V<=àN5Z6DFnEN$:EDF>58aD6à>Vn=Wb?iWH<wW wWC:EWu<gZFNÉn=>VZ6@i:ED6>V8 e 4
YRAWu<wBªRA>V8Anp?A>V8iBHZFNQn=>VZ6@i:ED6>V8+n=>V@inpZFNv&>V<=`-W u(ρ) = e y(ρ) 4
λρ
−λρ
du
= −λe−λρ + e−λρ y 0
dρ
d2 u
= λ2 e−λρ y − 2λe−λρ y 0 + e−λρ y 00
x\±h4e¬V~
dρ2
2
d d 2 l(l + 1)
⇒ − 2λ + − y(ρ) = 0
dρ2 dρ ρ ρ2
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y(ρ) = ρl+1
+∞
X
cq ρ q =
+∞
X
cq ρq+l+1
x\±h4e¬i3{~
q=0 q=0
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l+1
+∞
dy X
= cq (q + l + 1)ρl+q
dρ q=0
+∞
d2 y X
= cq (q + l + 1)(q + l)ρl+q−1
dρ2 q=0
+∞
X
⇒
q=0
cq (q + l + 1)(q + l)ρl+q−1 − 2λcq (q + l + 1)ρl+q + 2cq ρl+q
x±i4e¬VKV~

−cq l(l + 1)ρl+q−1 = 0
(
c0 (l + 1)lρl−1 − c0 (l + 1)lρl−1 = 0
⇒
cq (q + l + 1)(q + l) − 2λcq−1 (q + l) + 2cq−1 − cq l(l + 1) = 0
n=>5D6: c [(q + l + 1)(q + l) − l(l + 1)] = 2c (λ(q + l) − 1)

;@AWHZ [ >V8+1WU@i:p<=TUTuBu<wDF<wW
q q−1
cq q(q + 2l + 1) = 2cq−1 (λ(q + l) − 1)

2 (λ(q + l) − 1)
x±i4e¬5m~
⇒ cq = cq−1
q(q + 2l + 1)
]£A<=D6>V<=D\Áh;@/N8A? q → +∞
Á
2λ
cq ∝ cq−1
q
⇒ cq ∝
1
q!
2λ x±i4e¬;~
⇒ y(ρ) ' ρl+1 e2λρ
⇒ u(ρ) ∝ eλρ
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λ(k + l) − 1 = 0
1
x±i4e¬V|V~
⇒ λ=
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E =−
k,l
E
I
k = 1, 2, . . .
x±i4e¬5±~
(k + l)2
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k,l q
§ iWUàiZFWun
3V4 k = 1, l = 0
λ = 1, c1 = 0 x\±h4e¬5~
⇒ u1,0 (ρ) = c0 ρe−ρ
Kh4 k = 1, l = 1
1
λ = , c1 = 0
2
x\±h4e¬V¬V~
ρ
⇒ u1,1 (ρ) = c0 ρ2 e− 2
mi4 k = 2, l = 0

x\±h4e¬VzV~
1 2 12 × 1 − 1 1
λ = , c1 = c 0 = − c0
2 1(1 + 1) 2
ρ −ρ
⇒ u2,0 (ρ) = c0 ρ 1 − e 2
2
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a0
Z +∞
2 2
R r dr = 1
x\±h4ez V~
0
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1 −λ r
Rk,l (r) = e a0

r
l+1 "
c0 + c 1

r

+ ... + ck−1

r
k−1 #
x\±h4ezi3{~
r a0 a0 a0
N2VWuB
cq = cq−1
2 (λ(q + l) − 1) CW : λ = 1 x\±h4ezK5~
q(q + 2l + 1) k+l
c0
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0
"
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§ hWu`-AZFWUn
WUnw:?A>V8A8iTHAN5<
− ar
R1,0 (r) = c0 e 0
c0
Z +∞
− a2r
c20 e 0 r 2 dr = 1
(NDFn Z0 +∞
d2
Z
d2 +∞
x±i4ez;~
2 −ax −ax 1 2
x e dx = 2 e dx = 2 = 3
0 0 da da a a
Z +∞ 3
− 2r a0 3 a0
⇒ c20 e a0 r 2 dr = 2 × =
0 3 4
− 32
⇒ c0 = 2a0
−3 − r
⇒ R1,0 (r) = 2a0 2 e a 0
8:=<=>V@hVWJ?AWJ` U àWÁ/N2VWUB R +∞
0
r n e−ar dr = n! a−1−n
r − 2ar
x±i4ezV|V~
3
R1,1 (r) = (2a0 )− 2 √ e 0
3a0

− 23 r − r
R2,0 (r) = 2(2a0 ) 1− e 2a0
2a0
]iAZFD6B2N:=DF>V8 \Z [^]_:=>V`-W?[^dpf ?A<=>5jVku8AW
e2
V (r) = −
( r 4
x±i4ez5±~
EI = me
2~2
= 13.6 [eV ]
⇒ ~2
a0 = me2 = 0.52 [ ]
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µB B
µB B l µB B
s l
µB B µB B
l=0 l=1 l=2
µB B
~ =0
B ~ 6= 0
B ~ =0
B ~ 6= 0
B ~ =0
B ~ 6= 0
B
h43 µM WU5TuWQ?AWI?ATuj5Tu8ATU<=WunwBuWU8ABuWaN:=:=Wu8A?i@AWÉZF>5<=n=;@[ >V8 NAAZFD6;@AWI@i8 BªR/N5`-»` NjV8ATCq
:ED6 @iW B~ 4
<uÁcZ6WunbZ6WUVTUWunJ?AW?ATUjVTu8ATU<=WUn=BuWU8ABuWa8AWBu>V<w<=WUn=>V8A?AWU8;:H/Nn[7©BUWn=BªRATU` Nyx\¯DFjV@A<wWh43}~C4
§¨8/N<w:ED6Bu@AZ6DFWU<uÁiZ6Wb8AD65W2N5@ 1s ?AWJZ [^N:E>5àW?[^Rf ?A<w>VjVku8iWn=WJnwBuDF8i?AWJWu8(KQWU8i<=TunwWu8ABUW?[ @A8
ÆcÇÈ#.
BªR/N5`-` N5j58ATU:=DF;@AW
1s ' 2µB B
~ =0
B ~ 6= 0
B
h 4eK MWCVTUWa?AWQ?iTujVTU8ATu<wWun=BUWu8ABUW >V in=Wu<tVTUWa?A@·8ADVWuN5@ ?AWZ [^N:E>V`-W?c[^Rf ?A<=>5jVku8AW
Wu8A<wTun=WU8ABuWI?[ @A8BªRAN5à©àN5jV8ATC:ED6 @iW B~ 4
1s
MNZFWU5TuWJ?AWJ?ATUjVTu8ATU<=WUn=BuWU8ABuWQ?iWung8AD65W2N5@ ?A>V8i8AWJZFDFWU@7-?iWungn=WuBC:E<=WUn W2N5@iBu>V@A
AZ6@AnbBu>V`-AZ6DF;@ATunb;@AWZ6WunJA<=TU?ADFBC:ED6>V8AnA<wTuBUTu?AlWU6=8;:=Wu0nU4§¨8 32zKV|hÁ RAZ6Wu8; 1WUB WU: b>V@A?AnwàD:
>V8:ºTUàD6n Z\[^Rf 1>:ERAkUn=W»;@AW»Z\[^TUZFWUBU:E<w>V8>Vn=nwTu?/ND6:º@i8 1 BO1 F^PRL1_=<`PdY^LTQTSVUWF Q PRLT]gQ Pkc \SVUWF
?A>V8i8ATJ/N5<
sµ
~ = gµ B
S~ x\h43}~
~
> g WUnw:H@A8AWBU>V8Anw:EN58:EW 7+1WU@A<wkunJTujVN5ZFW^7KhÁWC:H> S~ Wunt:H@A8>51TU<EN:=Wu@A<b?AW`->V`-Wu8:
BuD68ATU:=DF;@AW-N2fN58:H@A8 l = 4MN+N5Z6Wu@A< 1/2 N+TU:=T-BªRi>VDFnwDFWQ>V@A<JW hAZ6DF;@AWu<bZFN+n=TuAN5<EN:=DF>V8
Wu8K8ADVWuN5@ yx m = −1/2 WC: m = 1/2~ ÁiWC:SZFWvNBU:EWU@A< g Wunt:gZ 7>V@A<_W hAZFD6 @iWu<_ZFNIN5ZFWU@A<
1
?AWZ\[^TUB2N5<t:YWU8:E<=WZFWun 8AD65W2N5@ º?[ Tu8iWu<=j5DFWQx 2µ WU:Y8A>V8 µ nwD1Z6W`->V`-Wu8:YàN5jV8iTU:ED6;@AWTC:ªN5D:

2
n=D6àiZFWu`-Wu8:p?A>V8i8ATÉ/N5< µ~ = µ ~C4cYWU:w:EWIR;f >5:ERikun=WNaTU:ETI8A>5:EN5à`-Wu8:Bu>V8h/<=`-TuWI/N558@A8iD6v&>V<wàW
⇒ F~ = ∇(~ M
~ · B)
~ ' Mz ∂B ẑ
h4^m shBªRATuàNn=DF`-AZ6D6/T?AWJZ [ W h1TU<=D6Wu8ABUWH?iWs;:EWu<w8hqbWu<w8AZNBªR

∂z
MµW·:EWu<wàW UnwADF8 » DFWU8;:?AWyZ [ DF?ATUW ;@AWÅZ\[^>V8Ënu[ Wunt:(vN5D:EW 7 Z [ Tu>h;@AWy?AWyZ [ >V<=D6jVDF8iW»?AW

BuWy`->VàWU8:+` NjV8ATU:=DF;@AW4gM[ TuZ6WuBC:E<=>58G8[ TU:EN58:/N5n©ZF> B2N5Z6DFnwT5ÁYnU[^D6Z:E>V@i<=8AW·n=@i<Z6@ADq ` UàW
x&:=>V@A<w8AWu< C:E>QnwADF8 WU8N8AjVZNDFnª~ ÁiZFN?AWu8in=D6:=TJ?AWbBªR/N5<wjVWungWu8`->V@iVWUàWU8:g?A>VD6:_Bu<=TUWu<g@A8
¦ FÀ% ´µ"!$¶Å/¥#\)u¶Å%',ËÆcÇ#\.
1
2
O
à>5àWU8;:` NjV8ATU:=DF;@AW4c§¨8»vN5D:2ÁBuWÉ`->V`-Wu8:àN5jV8ATC:ED6 @iW8[^N >k_Ec [ _`P _`DGBF<ÙRF @^D _EcCc^QTSVUWF 4
79Z_nu[^N5jVD:É?[ @A8 ?AWUjV<=Tº?iW+ZFDF Wu<t:ETan=@AAiZFTu`-Wu8:EN5DF<wW ;@AW©1>5n=n=kU?AWu8:@A8 jV<=N58A?8A>5`É A<=W ?AW
/N5<t:EDFBU@AZFWUnu4
MNa:ERATU>V<=D6WÉ<=WUZN:=D6 DFnt:EWH?AWQZ [ TuZ6WuBC:E<=>58Á1;@ADÈBu>V8AnwDFnt:EW27º<wWu`-AZN5BUWu<Z [ Tu;@/N:=DF>V8»?iWshBªRA<w«q
?ADF8ijVWu</N5<n=NIjVTU8ATu<=N5ZFD6nEN:=DF>V8É<wWuZFN:EDhD6nw:=WS?A@AW%7 D6<EN5BgWC: BU>V8A8;@AWn=>V@AnÀZFWg8A>5` [ Y\SVU_`LTQhBEP
[ F 9 Q ]<_ @ Á?ATUà>V8:=<=W;@AWaBUW?AWujV<wTa?iW-Z6DF Wu<t:ETQDF8:=Wu<=8iWaN+@A8iWa>V<wDFjVD68AWÉ8/N$:E@A<wWuZFZ6WQ?/N58AnJZ6W
B2N5?i<=Wp?AWgZN:ERiTu>V<wDFWg;@/N58:ED6 @iWp<wWuZFN:EDhD6nw:=W5ÁVWC: BU>V8A?A@iD6:#7JZNA<wTu?AD6BU:ED6>V8 g = 2.002319305 Á
VTU<=D6ATuWHW h1TU<=D6àWU8;:EN5ZFWUàWU8: w@An=;@[ 7-ZFNÉR;@AD6:=DFku`-Wb?ATUBuDFàN5Z6W

6 L 1

2
8aà>V`-Wu8: BuD68ATU:=DF;@AW Wunw:Y@A8ºBuN5nY/N<w:ED6Bu@AZ6DFWU<À?iW`->VàWU8: BUDF8ATC:ED6 @iW5Á WU:À:E>V@i:YBuW @iD
N+TU:ETQ @ 7©Z\[^> BuBuN5n=D6>V8 ?A@·`->VàWU8:JBuDF8iTU:ED6;@AWQ>V<= iD6:ªNZÈ<=WUnw:=WN5ZFN5 AZ6W54MµWUnHBU>V`-1>Vn=N58:EWUn
1
nEN:=DFntv&>V8:gZFWung<wkujVZ6WunS?AWJBu>5à`É@h:ªN:=DF>V8
2
x\h4LK5~

S i , S j = i~ijk S k
h i
~ 2 , S i = 0 ; i, j, k = x, y, z
S
¨M [^WUn=/N5BUW?iWdpDFZF Wu<t:N5nwn=> BuDFTpWunt:À?AW?iDF`-Wu8AnwDF>V8aKhÁWC: >58aWu@i: BªRA>VD6n=D6<¨ZNb /N5nwW?AWUn TC:ªN:=n

A<=>5A<=WUnBU>Và`@A8An 7 S WC: S~ z 2
S z |mi = ~m|mi
21

1

3
x\h4emV~
~ 2
S |mi = ~ + 1 |mi = ~2 |mi
2 2 4
> m = >5@ m = − !24sh@AD6N58:ZFWBU>V8:EW h:=W5Áµ?AD cTU<=WU8;:=Wunb?AWUn=BU<=DFh:EDF>58An?AWQBUWU:bWUn=/NBuW
?AWHdD6ZF Wu<w:_n=>V8:pBu>V@i<EN5`-àWU8:g@i:ED6ZFDFnwTuWUn
1
2
1
2
3V4Y>V`-àW-Z [ Wunw/N5BUW Wunt:É?AWa?ADF`-Wu8in=DF>58KhÁ>V8 Wu@h:?ATUBu<wDF<=WaBªR/N5;@AWºTUZFTUàWU8;:/N5<H@A8

VWUBU:=Wu@A<pBu>VZ6>V8A8AW
7QBu> W -BUDFWu8:=npBU>V`-AZFW iWUn

α 1 0
β

=α
0
+β

1 x\h4^~
1 1 0 1
⇔| i ⇔ |− i
0 2 1 2
YWU:w:EW?AWUn=Bu<wDFi:=DF>V8bWUnw:µ:=<=kun@i:=DFZ6WÈB2N<µWuZFZ6WÈWu<wàWC:?[^W hA<=D6àWU<ZFWUnµ>V1TU<EN:=Wu@A<wn S , S , S
uB >5à`-Wb?AWungàN:E<wDFBUWun 2 × 2 4 x y z
14-cP#/?A89ChL>W3GI@]B/ =D/'&CE+,=H3)H3>+0147@O( >W=H(*5@&( I.=H)?I.3 3dCb(*1hC.3GS &/ LN= 3d3Ì"=:=H=?)?3,3 I_14-F;-@3 1.>WI_/2CE>N3dI./:&= =H-@>W=?IF(E&&I 5BK,)0>=?3d-.O ) 3`= &IN/?325_3d)?LN3,= 1432UV>W(E)?32CYS KG+`&I.&LN(E3

~ˆ ≡ S
S ~
1
l= 2 |l, mi
cÆ ÇÈ#.
Kh4pMµ>V<wn=;@[ >V8+nu[ DF8:ETU<=WUn=n=W
7@i8+Wu8AnwWu`É AZ6Wb?AWnwADF8An ÁiDFZWunt:SAZ6@An_Bu>5à`->h?iW?AWjN5<=?iWu<
ZFNÉ8A>5:ªN$:EDF>58 U A<EN bWC: 5WC: 4"¾O>V@A<J3Jn=AD68 Á/ZFNÉ8A>5:ªN$:EDF>58+nw:ªN8A?/N5<w?WUnw:N5ZF>5<=n
1
2
1
2
xnwADF8U@A 2~
x\h4e|V~
1
| i → | ↑i
2
1
|− i → | ↓i
xnwADF8 U?A> g8 u~
2
MµWun /kUBªRAWun<EN5i1WUZFZFWU8:SZ [ >V<=D6Wu8:ªN$:EDF>58º?A@à>V`-Wu8:gàN5jV8ATC:ED6 @iW54
mi4g79ZWUnw:pn=>5@iVWU8;:p@i:=DFZ6W5ÁiWU8©/N5<w:=DFBU@AZFD6Wu<YZ6>V<=nw;@[^>58?iDFn=BU@i:EWbZ6WunSA<w>VA<wDFTU:=TunS?AWbiZF@AnwDFWu@i<=n
/N<w:ED6Bu@AZ6WunSD6?AWu8:ED6;@AWunUÁ?iWJ:=<EN5D:EWU<SZFWung?AWUjV<=TUn?iWHZ6DF Wu<t:ETb?AWJZ [ Wunw/N5BUW (x, y, z) WU:p?AW
nwADF8n=@A<p@A8ADFWU??[ TujVN5ZFD:ET54AM[ Wunw/N5BUWI?AWIdD6ZF Wu<t:g?A@(nwADF8Wunt:N5Z6>V<=nS?iTuBu<wD6:p/N5<gZ6Wun
v&>V8iBU:ED6>V8An 7ÉN5ZFWU@A<SBu>5àAZ6W hWb?[ @A8AWJN5<=DFN5 AZFW σ i<=Wu8AN58:Z6WunSN5ZFWU@A<=n ± 1
2
χ : − ,

1 1

→C
x h4^±~
2 2
MµWungTC:ªN:=np?iWH AN5n=WUnBU>V<=<wWun=>V8A?iWu8:N@ +v&>V8ABC:ED6>V8An

1 1 1
| i
2
↔ χ1 : χ1
2 2 2

= 1 , χ 1 (− ) = 0
2 2 x\h4eV~
1 1 1
|− i ↔ χ − 1 : χ− 1 = 0 , χ− 1 (− ) = 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
YWUn<wWuZN$:EDF>58An_n=WJ<wTun=@iàWU8;:pnw>V@AnpZNv&>V<wàW
χσ (σ 0 ) = δσσ0
\x h4^¬~
p>V@AnYnwWu<w>V8AngN5`-Wu8ATUn 7@h:EDFZ6DFnwWu<BuWUn_?AD 1Tu<wWu8:EWUn_?AWUn=Bu<wDFi:=DF>V8inu4iY>Và`-Wu8"u>V8AnY/N5<ÀZN
A<wWu`-DFkU<=W5Ái @iDµBu>V8A?i@AD6: 7Q?AWUnBU>V8AnwDF?ATU<EN:=DF>V8An :E<=kUngDF8:ETU<=WunwnEN58:=Wunpn=@A<gZFWUnS<=>5:EN:ED6>V8AnU4
c A6 D

Y>V`-`-Wu8U>V8An/N5<¨TC:ªN5 AZ6DF<ZNv&>V<wàWS?AWUn>V1TU<EN:=Wu@A<wn S , S WU: S ?AN58An¨ZNb /Nn=W

?ATC/8ADFWJ/N<SZ [ Tu;@/N:=DF>V8h4^¬i4 z +
, S −, S x y

x\h4^z~
1 ~ 1 
Sz| i = | i  ~ 1 0
2 2 2 z
⇒S =
1 ~ 1  2 0 −1
S z |− i = − |− i
2 2 2
¦F¡À% )-¢£h0{!$#\V% )Q'%»Â/,O¥\# 1¡
1
S +| i = 0
2 s
+ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S |− i = ~ +1 − − − + 1 | i = ~| i
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

0 1 +
⇒ S =~
0 0
x 463V~
s
− 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S | i=~ +1 − + 1 | i = ~|− i
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1
S − |− i = 0
2

0 0 −
⇒ S =~
1 0
( (
S+ = S x + iS y Sx = 12 (S + + S − )
S− = S x − iS y
⇒
Sy = 2i1 (S + − S − ) x 463V3{~

~ x 0 1 y ~ 0 −i
⇒ S = S =
85>VD6:g;@AW S Á S WC: S nu[ W hA<wDF`-Wu8:pn=DF`-AZ6Wu`-Wu8: 7Z [^N5DF?AW?AWun 1_`LT]^Qh@CFCc [ F#H_Ù DKQ
2 1 0 2 i 0
x y z
σ =
x

0 1

σ =
y

0 −i

σ = z

1 0

x 463}K5~
1 0 i 0 0 −1
A@AD6n=;@AW S = σ (i = x, y, z) 4
i ~
2 i
¾¨<=>VA<wDFTC:ETung?AWUng` N:=<=D6BuWunS?iWI¾N5@AZ6D
TunwDFjV8i>V8Ang/N5< σ ZNQ` N$:E<=D6BuWD6?AWu8:=D6:ET4
3V4 σ = σ 0
Kh4gPO< (σ ) = 0
2
i 0
mi4 det(σ ) = −1
i
A4 [σ , σ ] = 2i σ
i
|h4 σ σ = −σ σ >V@A5à`É@h:EWu8:u4
j i
/³ ÆcÇÈ#.

0 1 0 −i i 0

1 0 i 0

=

0 −i

x\h4632m~
0 −i 0 1 −i 0
=
i 0 1 0 0 i
±i4Ix&;~YWU:x |5~ ⇒ σ σ = −σ σ = i σ >V@A<
h4pMµWungA<w>VA<wDFTU:=TunIxt3{~YWU:x\±~YnwWJ<=Tunw@A`-Wu8:WU8
ijk
i j j j k i 6= j
σi σj = δij σ0 + iijk σk
x\h463u;~
¬i4p§¨8?ATU/8iDFn=n=N58: ~σ ≡ (σx , σy , σz )
Á/>V8©WU8?ATU?A@AD:NDFn=TUàWU8:
(~σ · ~a)(~σ · ~b) = σ0 (~a · ~b) + i~σ · (~a ∧ ~b)
h i x\h463{|V~
⇒ ~σ · ~a, ~σ · ~b = 2i~σ · (~a ∧ ~b)
zi4 Bu>58Anw:=D6:E@iWu8:g@A8AW AN5n=W?iWunSàN:E<wDFBuWUn 4i[^WUnw:gBUZN5D6< A@iDFn=;@AWZFWun

àN:E<wDFBUWun
{σ0 , σx , σy , σz } 2×2

1 0 1 0 0 1

0 0

= (σ0 + σz )
2 0

1

= (σ0 − σz )
2 x\h4632±~
0 1 1 0 0 1
= (σx + iσy ) = (σx − iσy )
0 0 2 1 0 2
BU>V8Anw:=D6:=@AWu8:pWuZ6ZFWunrq9` u`-Wun_@i8AWJ /N5n=WHTU D6?AWu8:EW4

c A6 D
N c @

MµWun¨àN:=<=DFBUWun?AWS¾ÈN@AZFDhn=>V8:8A>5:EN5`-àWU8;:O:E<wkun¨@i:=DFZ6WunÈ>V@A<?ATuBU<=D6<=W_Z6Wun<w>5:ªN:=DF>V8inu45Y>V8An=D q
?ATU<=>V8AnYWu8ºW cWC:_ZFWpA<w>V AZFkUàWpn=@iD6N58: n=>VD6Wu8: n̂ WU: m̂ ?AWu@ 5WuBU:=Wu@A<wnS@A8AD:ªN5D6<=Wun<wWuZFD6TunÀ/N5<
@A8AWJ<w>5:ªN:=DF>V8 R ?[^N58Aj5ZFW α = k~αk N5@i:E>5@A<S?AWJZNQ?AD6<=WuBC:ED6>V8 α̂ = ÁiB5[ Wunw:tq*7$q ?ADF<wW
α
~
α
~
x\h463{V~
k~
αk
n̂ = R (m̂) α
~
Y>V`-àWU8:ÉZFWUnTC:ªN:=nA<w>VA<=WUn |n̂ ↑i WC: |n̂ ↓i ?AW S~ · n̂ n=>V8:wq DFZ6nI<wWuZFD6TunIN5@ ÅTU:EN:EnÉi<=>VA<wWun

|m̂ ↑i |m̂ ↓i
WC: ?AW S~ · m̂
¾¨<=>V>VnwD6:ED6>V8
~ · n̂ = e
S −iS·~

~ α/~
S~ · m̂ e

~ α/~
iS·~ x\h4632¬~
¦³ ¢£h0{!$#\V% )Q'%»Â/,O¥\#À%0 "02i0}#&1.O) 1
n̂
α
α̂ m̂
4^ op>:ªN:=DF>V8+?[ @A8N58AjVZ6W α N5@i:=>V@A<S?AWJZ [^N hW α~ x α~ 1>VD68:EWbRA>V<wng?AWJZNv&Wu@iDFZFZ6W{~ 4

§¨8BU>V8An=@iZ6:ªN8;:gFZ NÉ/jV@A<wW5Á/>V8+V>5D6:pN5D6n=Tu`-Wu8:g;@AW
n̂ = cos α m̂ + sin α α̂ ∧ m̂
x 463{zV~
¾>V@i< dα
D68i/8AD:ETUn=DFàN5Z\Á >58(NQ?A>V8iB
n̂(α + dα) = n̂(α) + dα α̂ ∧ n̂(α) + O(dα2 ) x 4LKV~
~ · n̂(α + dα) = S
⇒ S ~ · n̂(α) + dαS~ · (α̂ ∧ n̂(α)) + O(dα2 )
(N5D6nSZNQ<=WUZN:=DF>V8·x\h43{m~YDF`-AZ6DF;@AW
h i
~ ~ ~ ~ · (~a ∧ ~b)
S · ~a, S · b = i~S
h i
x 4LKh3{~
⇒ S ~ · n̂(α) − i dα S
~ · n̂(α + dα) = S ~ · α̂, S
~ · n̂(α) + O(dα2 )
~
shDµ>V8©Bu>58An=D6?Aku<wW ~ · n̂
S
Bu>V`-`-Wv&>V8ABU:=DF>V8+?iW α ÁA>V8NQ?A>V8AB
d ~
S · n̂ = − S
i h~
· α̂, S
i
~ · n̂ + O(dα2 ) x 4LKVK5~
dα ~
N2VWuBHZNQBU>V8A?AD:EDF>58+DF8AD:EDNZFW

~

S · n̂ (α = 0) = S ~ · m̂ 4
Tu`->V8:E<w>V8AnI @iW uW nt:Én=>5ZF@i:=DF>V8 xWU8 n=Wa<EN5i1WUZN58:I?AW ZFN
?ATUA8AD6:=DF>V8 α̂ = ↔ α~ = α̂ ×kαk ≡ α̂ × α~ 4
~ ~ α/~
~ · m̂ eiS·~
Â ≡ e−iS·~α/~ S
α
~
k~
αk
:E<=D DN5Z
Â(α = 0) = S
dÂ iS
~ · m̂
~ · α̂ ~ · α̂
iS i h~ i S
b
¯
x 4LK5mV~
=− Â + Â = − S · α̂, Â
dα ~ ~ ~
ÆcÇÈ#.
ogWU5Wu8A>V8in^7(ZN©;@AWunt:EDF>588A>V@AnI8A>V@AnIn=>V`-àWUn>Vn=TUWºN5@Å?ATu/N<w:2Á 7(n=N{5>VDF<IZFW-<EN5i1>V<t:
Wu8:=<=WHZFWunSTC:ªN:=ngA<=>Vi<=Wung?AW S~ · n̂ WU:gBuWU@ ?AW S~ · m̂ 4Y>58An=D6?ATu<w>V8AngZ [ TU:EN: e |m̂ ↑i 4 ~ α/~
−iS·~

~ α/~
~ · n̂e−iS·~ ~ ~ α/~ −iS·~
~ · m̂ eiS·~ ~
S |m̂ ↑i = e−iS·~α/~ S e α/~ |m̂ ↑i
~ ~ · m̂|m̂ ↑i
= e−iS·~α/~ S
~ ~
= e−iS·~α/~ |m̂ ↑i
x\h4LK$;~
2
~
⇒ |n̂ ↑i = e−iS·~α/~ |m̂ ↑i
WJù`-W5Á |n̂ ↓i = e ~ α/~
−iS·~
|m̂ ↓i
4
ogWuàN5<=;@AW
MN?ATu`->V8Ant:E<EN$:EDF>58+<=Wu>VnwWHnw@A<gZ [ DF?AWU8:ED6:=T
h
~ ~ ~
i
~ · (~a ∧ ~b)
S · ~a, S · b = i~S
\x h4eKV|V~
<uÁ;BuWC:=:=WDF?AWU8:ED6:=TgWunw:Yh<=N5DFWp>V@A<À8[^D6à>V<t:EWg;@AWuZà>5àWU8;: BuD68ATU:=DF;@AW4h§¨8ºW cWC:2Á 7I/N<w:ED6<
?AWUn<wWuZN$:EDF>58An_?AWJBu>5à`É@h:ªN:=DF>V8
>V8+:E<w>V@i5W [L̂ , L̂ ] = i~L̂
x y z
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= ax by [L̂x , L̂y ] + ax bz [L̂x , L̂z ]
+ ay bx [L̂y , L̂x ] + ay bz [L̂y , L̂z ]
+ az bx [L̂z , L̂x ] + az by [L̂z , L̂y ]
x\h4eK5±~
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~ˆ α/~ ~ˆ
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L · m̂ eiL·~α/~
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1
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2
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x 4emK5~
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z
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2
y, z; σ)|
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x 4^ V~
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ψ(x, y, z; n̂ ↓) ψ(x, y, z; m̂ ↓)
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7
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d ~r |ψ(x, y, z)| Â |~ri ⊗ Â |σi
orb spin
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M >@/2B ( 2
J~1 |j1 m1 i = ~2 j1 (j1 + 1)|j1 m1 i
V5<?h37/2MOW37JL/2;=-I-GIM@GI-A/231q?[PV\M;@19V\;=V\/-]V&3K1(/G?B2JP/-?WIE37[L<IJL_]1K<IJL/2/2<I169` 1hV&-;=V\/yY//-A337qd1hBB;=JP-IV\EkV&37JL_U/<?[P/2/1^1(1K;=MO37WYJLE1967CM@MOJz3K3/2<I[L/269116K6982/2g@[P[PMO/2371JzCDGI1Z/.FB;=GIV#/1p
J1z |j1 m1 i = ~m1 |j1 m1 i
{
V\;@V\/-]3K1lB2JL-IE3KJP_]<I/21dGIJzyjE6K/-]3K1dB2;=V&V5<?3K/2-A3v/2-A3769/Q/<cYq;=-M
x
1
x y
[J + J + . . . , J + J + . . . ] = [J , J ] + [J , J ] + . . .
2 1
y
2
x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
`s=
cJ;=-(GIEkN-IJL3 J~ = P J~ qN;=-M#GI;=-IB#
z z
= i~J + i~J + . . . 1 2
`s=
N
i=1 i
,.-/-GIEGI<IJz3 >=;@JP6lV&;=V\/-A3dB2JP-?E37JL_]<I/m;=6Ki?JL3MO[_]<I/ [J , J~ ] = 0 `
x y z
[J , J ] = i~J
z 2
B2WY/;@1: <I6;=efM@WWIE26K6K8` MO1x37/[<IefEk6K371w<IG?1K;@/-]g=3EGI-I/&E26K[M@MX[P/wCD;=GI69/V\1/ V&~;=V&j(j/2-A37+1dB21)JL-IEW3K;=JP_]<I<I6 /J~12q[P//31d>O~m(m

2 2
M@[L/2<I691dWI6K;=W?6K/21xWY;@1K1KJLiI[P/1dGI/
= −j, −j + 1, . . . , j)
z
J
0 .

.10 . ;0 ,
., 62qjJP[|M@6K69JL>=/:1K;=<?>@/2-A3_U<?/ [P/21;=WYE67MO3K/2<I691mJP-IG?JL>UJPGI<?/2[P1x-I/ B2;@V\V5<c37/2-A3mWIM@1wM>=/2B#[eNM p
V&g=[L;=JP[LiN3K;=M@-I[L/2JLV&/2- /2qO-AV3wM@JP-AJL1r>OM@_U6K<?JP/M@-A[P/3w<IWN6M@1K6Q;=V&6K;@V\37MO/d37JLB;=;=- V\q V:V\<?M@37JL1Q/OÙ_]< efeo/JP[r193lB;=WN-AMO376JP// -A?3:/V\GI/W?1[P/v3K[P/2/d6KV&BM@/211Q1KGIJ< [P/d3b19TcTUW14/3782V&/./193 `
{B2;@-V\/kV5yj/k<c337q/wJ~M>=·/JB~ = J J `+hJ;=-?J1KJPG?E2+6K;@J-I1dJWNM@-I6d/w/kcB2;@/2V&V\WIV5[L/<c37/wWNM@1vM>=` /B J ` M@6dB2;@-]3K6K/Oq J~J~ ··J~J~
i j
x x
i j
y y
i j
y y
i j
α
i
i
i
j
j
α α z z
i J +J j J +J
i i
[Jiz , J~i · J~j ] = [Jiz , Jix ]Jjx + [Jiz , Jiy ]Jjy

= i~Jiy Jjx − i~Jix Jjy
[Jjz , J~i · J~j ] = Jix [Jjz , Jjx ] + Jiy [Jjz , Jjy ]

= i~Jix Jiy − i~Jiy Jjx
`]
⇒ [Jiz + Jjz , J~i · J~j ] = 0
!` =
⇒ [Jiα + Jjα , J~i · J~j ] = 0
⇒ [
X
Jiα , J~i · J~j ] = 0
` "A
ab[/2143vGI;=-IBm3769821d<?3KJP[P//2-g=E2-IE67M@[G?/Q1KM>=;=JL6vB;=-I14376K<?JP6K/wGI/1dE3M 371dWI6K;@WI6K/1vG?/ J /k3 J~ `
i
z 2
/kcWI[LMOJPB-IJL1x37/O[L`|/whBM@;=1dV\GIV&/:/#JL[V&1;=etV&M@/2g@-AJL3371lG Bef<?JP-I-SEk37BJLM@_U15<?/2WI12M@q69B3K/JPB23K3K<?/[PJP/B6m;=-I37146K3786K15<?JPBV&37JLW;=-;=69WY37M@/-A<?3 3v1K V\/wC;=M@V&JP69/2/m-AGI3/wB2JLV-IEM@3K-?JPJP_]82<I69//

37[P/.;O33KM@67[M@JzL~37;=+-?1lS~GNGjM@-Ief<I1d-[P/mE2[LWI/2M@Bk37676KM@;@g@-H67M@M@W#<c?37/m;=<I1K<I6lJzGj>@MOef<I-]-32` -I;}TAMO< q1KWIJL-(3K;@3MO[ GI/wGI/2<UE2[P/B3K6K;=-I1`2`` q-?;=<I1
\%$ & %(% * "+* ! (% ' (% 'd*' ) @ ' ! "+ ) *!-,^"+*/. '-' +
h;=-?1KJPG?E26K;@-I1dGI/2<cZV\;=V&/2-A3K1^B2JL-IE3KJP_]<I/21 J~ q J~ qI;=-(W/2<?3dB;=-I1KJLGIE269/26lB;=V\V&/.iNMO1K/wGI/
[ne?/21KWIM@B2/QGI/Q~xJL[Pi/2693^[P/21lEk3MO3K1 1 2
|j j m m i = |j m i ⊗ |j m i
!` 0=
_]<IJwef1KM@;=WIJL/26982-A1|3B2E/r37_]MO<I371(J]WIWI6K69E;=B2WI826KG?//@1q JPG?[=/G?;=JL3 1k37/6K3 /rW;=1KGI19JP/iI[L>O/uM@GI[P//<IB26K;=1(-I14WI376969;=<IWIJP6969//21 G?/21+B2;=V:iIJP-NMOJP1K/;@3 -I1[PJL-IEM@JL6K/1
1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2
+
` h
=
; &
V \
V / J~ 2
J z
q[MZWI[L<I1wg=67MO-IGI/ >O~M@[Pj(j/<I6w+GI/ 1)m WY;@~m(m 2
1K1KJLiI[P/#/=193
qY/3m[PMWI[P<?1W/37Jz37/ −j − j 2` |M@6wM@JL[P[P/<I6K1qN1KJt<?-E3M 3./2143m>=/B37/<I6mWI69;=WI6K/:GI/ J~
−j, −j + 1, . . . , j) z
J = J +J z z
GI/.>O/kM@3 [L/2<I6l/kWI3l69;=_]WI< 69ef/2;@1 -jWqI/2JP[ <c3dM@WI6KWN/2WM@E2643769JL/2/26^-AWI3dM@F 6 <I-(/2-I19/2V5i?[P/mGI/ 2j + 1 E`#373xMO37-X1l3K69/2/2[ [PJL/E2-I1l1K//-]V53KiI6K/w[L/m/2G <UefZEk3WNMOM@3K16

1 2
2
j +j
1 2 1 2
J
M\<?- /J3<I- 1K/<I[ 69/2WI69E219/2-A3M@-A3wMT=M@-A3m<Im-I/Q=>@−j,
+ −
MO[P/2<?−j6xGI+;@-I1,-IE2./:. .GI,/ jm B;=V&WI6KJL1K/Q/2-A3769/ −j /k3 j `
0 . h,

.10 . 0 ,
c J ;@- GIE219JPg=-?/5WNM@6 N (j) [L/-?;=V5iI69/5G eo/2-I19/2V5iI[L/21 G eoE37MO371GIJLyYE269/2-A371mMT=M@-A3m<I- j GI;=-I-?E@q

/3vWNM@6 n(m) [L/m-I;=V5iI69/wG efEk3MO3K1dGIJLyYE269/2-A371vMTAM@-A3x<I- m GI;@-I-IE@q;=-M GI;=-?B&
n(m) =
X
N (j) (m ≥ 0)
`
,.6\- VX /2143X19JPV&WI[P/V\/-]3&EgAM@[vM@<-I;@V5iI6K/GI/C
M 2;=-?1GI/B I;=JP19JP6 m /k3 m 3K/2[P1\_]<I/
j≥m
m +m =m
1 2
`c<IWIW;=19;=-I1 j ≥ j 1 2
1 2
,.-(>@;=JL3dG?;=-IBw_]<I/


 n(j1 + j2 ) = 1



`=

 n(j1 + j2 − 1) = 2

 n(j − j ) = j + j − (j − j ) + 1 = 2j + 1
1 2 1 2 1 2 2

 n(j1 − j2 − 1) = 2j2 + 1

;=<



 ···

 1
n(0 ) = 2j2 + 1
,.62q N (j) = n(j) − n(j + 1) qNGI;=-IB
2


 N (j1 + j2 − 1) = 1



`L =

 N (j1 + j2 − 2) = 1

 ...

 N (j1 − j2 ) = 1



 N (j1 − j2 − 1) = 0



...
@M 6^M@JP[L[P/2<?6K12qAJL[/2193^B2[MOJP6_U<?/ N (j + j ) = 1 ` { -/yY/3qcJP[NTM:<I-Z/3h<I-Z1K/<I[jEk3MO337/[j_]<I/
G eoE3M 371 G?/ j q G?Fv;=1K-IM-I>=E;=JLWY6 ;=[<?efEk6 3|jMO3 |j− jj j| ≤j j>≤`xj<?+j3769/2V&q}/2/k-A3 3|JLGI[AJL- 32eoqTQJP[=// -5cMvJP19M@3K/<IB2<?<?--5/kWY3 ;@<I<I-Q6 1Kj/<I≤[]/2|j-I19/2−V5ji?[P|/ `

1 2
z
J = j +j 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
0 .

.10 . ;0 ,
2E 6KJzNBM 37JP;@- NB;=V&WNM@6K;@-I1l[P/1d37M@JP[L[P/1^GI/21d/1KWNM@B/21xGI/Q~xJP[LiY/6932ùeI/219WNM@B2/WI6K;UGI<IJz3^37/-cp
1K;@6KJP/[M (2j + 1)(2j + 1)M E37MO371`reo/219WNM@B/:MTAMO-]3Qw/2-?1K/2V:iI[P/wG eoE37MO371dGI/ j GI;=-I-IEwW;=<I6

|E37jMO37− 1vM j iI|≤JL/2- j ≤ j + j (2(j + j ) + 1) + (2(j + j ) − 1) + · · · + (2(j − j ) + 1)

1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
`z=
>@;=JP6l[PM5GIE2V&;=-I14376KMO37JL;=-(g=67M@W IJP_]<I/mBJzpbG?/21K19;=<I17k`
(2(j + j ) + 1) + (2(j + j ) − 1) + · · · + (2(j − j ) + 1) = (2j + 1)(2j + 1)
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
h;=-?B2[P<?1KJP;@-I1
[P/1^ >OMOM@-I[P/1u<I[n6Keo/21d19WWNM@;=B21K19/lJPiIG?[L/l/21lGIJPGIV&/ /2j-I1919JP;=;=-A- 3(2j +1)(2j +1)
1 2
/2-Ig@/2-IGI69ElWNM@6t[L/21 >@/2Bk37/2<?6K1 |j j m m i 1 2 1 2
`L}=
B NM@_]<I/w>OM@[P/<I6lGI/ B;=6K69/21KW;=-IG<I-/3v<I-1K/<I[+/2-I19/2V5iI[L/wG efEk3MO3K1
1 |j − j | , |j − j + 1| , . . . , j + j
2 1 2 1 2
1
j
|j i ⊗ |j i = |j − j | ⊕ (|j − j | + 1) ⊕ · · · ⊕ (j + j )
2 1 2 1 2
|jmi
`LA
1 2

!"#$%"'&(*)+-,."/0
[neo/219WNEM@1KBJLg=/Q-IG?;=/-I1Z~vJPB[L/2iY1Z/69Ek33`.MO3K1X/QW?WN6KM@;=6 iI|j[L82V&j /mjmi

1 2
/2143x` G?1v/Q;=[L/2<I1l1X69G?/2[PJPJL1K/2W6l;=/19-];=3K-I6K1X/wGI/2[LE[P1K/;=1m69V MOJP1G?/GI/2<ciNM@19/21ZGI/
|j j jmi =
1 2
X
1 2hj j m m |j j jmi|j j m m i
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
`L ]
/21dB2;U4/ 3&BJP/2-A3K1 12efM@WIW/2[L[P/2-A3d[L/21lB2;U4/ 3&BJP/2-A3K1xGI/h[L/2iI19B c p 5m;=6KGIM@- `
m1 ,m2 2
(m1 +m2 =m)
hj j m m |j j jmi
1 2 1 2 1 2
6 /2[PMO37JL;=-ZG eo;=693 I;=g=;=-IM@[PJz37E h;@V\V&/ 0 0

qN;=-MZ
`L =
hj j j m |j j jmi = δ δ
1 2 1 2 jj 0 mm0
X
0 0
1 2 hj j j m |j j m m ihj j m m |j j jmi = δ δ
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 jj 0 mm0
|;@<I6 /3 m = m qNJL[Y>UJP/-]3Q

m1 ,m2 2
(m1 +m2 =m)
`z "A

0 0
j =j
X
2
| hj j m m |j j jmi | = 1
1 2 1 2 1 2
m1 ,m2 2 (m1 +m2 =m)

h/3937/Q6K/2[PMO37JL;=-X19/267M#<?3KJP[P/WY;=<?6dc?/6d[M -I;=69VM@[LJP1KMO37JL;=- `
|;=<?6QB;=-I14376K<?JP6K/#[L/21wB2;U4/ 3&B2JL/2-A371QGI/\h[P/iI1KB Up 5m;=6KGI;@- q+[P/ WI[L<I1w1KJPV&WI[L/5/2143:GI/ CM@JL6K/ [L/
BGIM@/w[LB2iN<IM@[ 19/GI/#/19WI3v6KG ;UeoB E2IB2/#69JP69/2/&- WI6K;UB I/#/2- <?3KJP[PJL17M@-A3GI/21Q6K8g=[P/1mGI/#6KE2B<I6K19JP;=-3K6K821w19JPV&WI[P/12ùeoJPGIE/
q J =J +J
M@JL1
+ + + − − −
1 J =J +J
2 1 2

p
/3
+
1 2 J |j j jmi = ~ j(j + 1) − m(m + 1)|j j jm + 1i 1 2
hj1 j2 m1 m2 |J1+ = (J1− |j1 j2 m1 m2 i)†

p
= (~ j1 (j1 + 1) − m1 (m1 − 1)|j1 j2 m1 − 1m2 i)†
p
uefJLGI/2-A37Jz37E = ~ j1 (j1 + 1) − m1 (m1 − 1)hj1 j2 m1 − 1m2 |
B2;=-?GI<IJL3vF( hj1 j2 m1 m2 |J + |j1 j2 jmi = hj1 j2 m1 m2 |J1+ + J2+ |j1 j2 jmi
p
j(j + 1) − m(m + 1) hj1 j2 m1 m2 |j1 j2 jm + 1i
p
= j1 (j1 + 1) − m1 (m1 − 1) hj1 j2 m1 − 1, m2 |j1 j2 j, mi
p `L0=
/QV1V\/ + j2 (j2 + 1) − m2 (m2 − 1) hj1 j2 m1 m2 − 1|j1 j2 j, mi
p
j(j + 1) − m(m − 1) hj1 j2 m1 m2 |j1 j2 j, m − 1i
p
= j1 (j1 + 1) − m1 (m1 + 1) hj1 j2 m1 + 1, m2 |j1 j2 j, mi
p
+ j2 (j2 + 1) − m2 (m2 + 1) hj1 j2 m1 m2 + 1|j1 j2 j, mi
`L
h;=-I19JPGIE6K;=-I1 q /3 GI;=-I-?E212` /21.>OM@[L/2<I691mWY;@1K1KJLiI[P/1mGI/ m 19;=-A3w1KJPV&WI[L/21mMZ6K/WI6KE p
1K/-]3K/26v1K<I6d<I-g=6KjM@W#IjJL_U<?/&j
1 2
h;=-I19JPGIE6K;=-I1d<I-(3769JM@-?g=[P/Oq

B2;@-I-NefM@M WI3d6982[P/1 [MW?` 6K/2V&/wJPV86K12/0V&69/@/2qI[PMO1937JJL;=;=-(- B2GI;=/S-?1K69JPE2G?B282<?6K6K/Q1KJL[P;=/.- 3Kq.6KJPM@19J5-Ig=;=[L- / B2;@-I-NM 3GI/2<U B2;U/43&B2JL/2-A371q.;=-

3
G e+MOWI6K81Q[PMXGI/2<U?JL82V&/#6K/2[PMO37JL;=- GI/#69E2B2<?6K1KJL;=- qJL[t1K.< 3#3QGI/#B2;@-I-NM 376K/:GI/2<c G?/21wB2;U/43 p

B2WJL;=/21K-A1937JP1wiI[LW/21;=<I16wesMO-IB2;@-]-I<I-N[P/M -]37326Kq@/ 37;@[L<I/ 1t3[P/1tB2` ;Uh/43&;=V&BJPV\/2-A/3K1u37;=WY<I/1w<?>=[L/2/1w-]3rB2;U19/l/43&GIE2B2G?JL/2<I-AJP37691Q/^F(G eo<I[neo-/kUB237;UE/46K3&JL/2<IB2JL6m/2-AGI3u/1mGI< >@MOi[P/2;=<?69G 6K1 q

WNM@JL-N6mM@/ [Pc/V\/2V&/-AWI3[P/q?[LMO/m< WI6KW/;=V\JL-]JL3/26^5B`+;c/c3&J ;=B2JP-/-AB 3xI;=/JL191K3vJL3.?c[P/5EwWI/269-/2V&JPV&JP/WY6.;=B21KM@;U-A4/ 3&3l[B2M JL/269-A/23w[M 6K37EJP/2;@[- q JP[L1[P/:1K/269;=-A3w37;=<I1`

X
|hj j m m |j j jji| = 1
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 `z A
m1 ,m2 2 (m1 +m2 =j)
\
* ) "+* ! , 'd) "$ ! % !-+ ' ! "
& '
ueNM@V&JP[L3K;=-IJL/2-XGIEB269JL>OM@-A3v<I-(E2[P/B3K6K;=-M@<?3K;=<I6lG eo<I--I;}TAM@<12eoE2B269JL3w
` A
;=R H /193x[M WNM@6437JP/mG?/[eNMOV\JL[L37;@-IJP/-_]<IJ+-I/QGIE2W/2-IGWNM@1dGI<1KWIJL- `h;=V&V\/ L , L , L
~ ·S
H = H0 + λL ~
B<I2;@-IV\/dV5iNMO<c1K37/v/2-AB2;=3.V&M}>@V5/2<IB -IH/O` q λM@6L~ M@·JL[PS~[L/2<IB2;=6912V&q V5<?3K/5M>=/B H `,.- W/2<?3mG?;=-IB5[L/21G?JM@g=;@-NM@[PJL1K/6vGIM@-I1 + − z
~ B2;=V&V5<?3K/dM}>@/2B H /k3 λL ~ Ù,.-\W/2<c3G?;=-IBdB2[PM@1K19/26

0
[P,./1- Ek/319MO3Q3K1GI;=G -?efB\M@WIMO69V\821X/-I[L/2E#1\F>OM@B ?[L/2/2<I6K69B 1?/2GI6Q/ [P/2L~1wEk` 3|MO3KM@1Q6XW?B26K;@;=-]WI3K696K/2/O1Qq FZL [neoJP-I-A/H37E6KBJL;=/2V&<I6.V5Gj<?ef37<I/- WN1KM@;=1X<?14M}pb>@//21KBWNMOλB2L/&~ GI· / S~ `
0 0
L 0
~ ·S
2 z
GI;=-?-IE@qIV\M@JL1/-B;=<IWI[PM@-A3^GIJzyjE6K/-]3K/21^>OM@[L/2<I691^GI/ m iIJL/2-Z/-]3K/2-IG?<[PM:WNM@6437JL/67MOGIJM@[L//193l
B2;@V\WI[L83K/2V&/2-A3QGIE2B;=<IWI[LE2/} `th;@V\V&/ H /21435WI69;=WY;@6937JL;=-I-I/[rF[efJLGI/2-A37Jz37E GNMO-I1:<I- 1K;=<?14p
/219WNM@B/GI/ l G?;=-I-IEOqNJP[ 19<.3#3xG?/QG?JM@g=;@-NM@[PJL1K/6h[neo;=WE26KMO37/<I6 λL~ · S~ ` M@JL1 0

λL ~ ·S ~ = 1 [(L ~ + S) ~ −L 2 ~ −S 2 ~ ] = 1 (L
2 ~ + S) ~ − l(l + 1) − 3
2
` U
,.- /193GI;=-IB M@V&/2-IE 2FB ?/26KB ?/26H[L/21E37MO371WI6K;@WI26K/1/k3H[L/21Z>OM@[P/<I26K1WI6K;@WI86K/1GI/ (L~ +
~ ` esMOWI6K81\[L/XWNM@6KM@g=67MO# W I/ZWI69E2B2EGI/2-A32q/[P[L/21 1K;@-]3#G?/[PMHCD;=6KV&/ ~ j(j + 1) M}>@/2B j =
S)
2
l − , . . . l + #
1
2
1
2
` |;=<I6 l = 0, j = WY;=<?6 l > 0 q j = l ± `,.-(/2-GIE2G?<IJL3Q
1
2
1
2
2
~ s, j, mi = ~ (j(j + 1) − l(l + 1) − 3 )|l, s, j, mi

2
~ · S|l,
L
[ 5 =

2 4
1 3 3
(l + )(l + ) − l(l + 1) − = l
2 2 4

~ s, l + 1 , mi = ~2 l |l, s, l + 1 , mi
~ · S|l,
⇒L
` =@
[ p @

(l > 0)
2 2 2
3
(l − 1/2)(l + 1/2) − l(l + 1) − = −l − 1
4
~ s, l − 1 , mi = ~2 −l − 1 |l, s, l − 1 , mi
~ · S|l,
⇒L
` @=
2 2 2
2/ Bk37/2<?6K1vWI6K;=W?6K/21 ,.-([P/1d3K6K;=<c>=/w/2-<?37JL[PJL17M@-A3l[L/21lB2;U/43&BJP/2-A3K1xGI/h[L/2iI19B cp 5m;=6KGIM@- `

^M@1 l = 0 q j = 1/2
hl, s, m m |l, s, j, mi = δ
WI<IJP19_]<I/ m = 0 (l = 0)
^M@1 l 6= 0 h;=-I1KJLGIE269;=-I1&[P/BM@1 j = 1 + 1/2 `h;=V&V\/(JL[v-jeoT M _U<jef<I-E3M 3XM>=/B
1 2 m2 ,m 1
l + 1/2 = m
qN;=-G?;=JL3dM>@;=JP6m
1 1 1
hl, s, l, |l, s, l + , l + i = 1
/QV1V\/Oq 2 2 2
1 1 1
|CD;=;=JP1d<?6 W;=−l<I6v−6K/[PJP/6d[P/21vB2;U/ &BJP/2-Aq 3KJP1.[r/219-A< 37#69/:35/G <ceoY<?37` JL[PJL1K- /26w/kyj[L/2/k1:3q69[/2M#[PMOGI37/2JL;=<U-I?1wJL82GIV&//:6969E2/2B[<IM 6K3769JP/2;@-I-BMO/ZWI<IWI-I[PJL/_]<I19/2E2<I/[LF/

hl, s, −l, − |l, s, l + , −l − i = 1
2 2 2
{
1 1 .3
< m < l+2
69/2[PJL/hGIJL6K/B37/V\/-A3 hj j` m/ mV 1|jV\j/Oqjj,[PMmWI−6K/1iV\JLF 8269hj/:6Kj/[mMO3KJP;=+- 1,M@WImWI[L|jJP_]<IjE2/:j,F mi WI<IJL1K_]<I/
2 43
m = 1

6K/[PJP/mG?JP6K/B3K/2V&/2-A3 hj j m m |j j j, mi F hj j m − 1, m |j j j, mi `
2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1
hj j m m + 1|j j j, mi = 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 m =− 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
,.62qI19J j = l q j = l + /3 m = m + qI;=-M

1
1
2 1
3
2
3 1 3
j(j + 1) − m(m − 1) = l2 + 2l + − m2 − m = (l + m + )(l − m + )
/3 4 2 2
3 3 1
j1 (j1 + 1) − m1 (m1 + 1) = l2 + l − m2 − + 2m = (l − m + )(l + m − )
JL-I1KJ[PM5GI/2<ccJL82V&/Q69/2[PMO37JL;=-XB2;@-IGI<IJz3FZ

4 2 2
s
3 1 1 l + m − 1/2 1 1 1
hl, s, m − , − |l, s, l + , m − 1i = hl, s, m − , |l, s, l + , mi
2 2 2 l + m + 1/2 2 2 2

;=<(/2-?B2;=69/
s
1 1 1 l + m + 1/2 1 1 1
hl, s, m − , |l, s, l + , mi = hl, s, m + , |l, s, l + , m + 1i
2 2 2 l + m + 3/2 2 2 2
h/3937/.69` /2[PMO37JL;=-#WY/<?3 1k376K/6KE2<c37JP[LJP19E2/ <I1K_]< efF5B2/x_]<I/.[P/vGIE-I;=V&JP-NMO3K/2<I6r19;=JL3E2gAMO[jF

l + (l +
1 1
2
) + 2
1 1 1
hl, s, m − , |l, s, l + , mi
s2 2 2s
r
l + m + 1/2 l + m + 3/2 ··· 1 1 1
= ... hl, s, l, |l, s, l + , i
l + m + 3/2 l + m + 5/2 2l + 1 2 2 2
r
l + m + 1/2
=
/21d6K/[MO3KJP;=-?1^g=E2-?E267MO[P/21d19;=-A3

2l + 1
1 1
hl, s, m − , ± |l, s, l +
1
, mi =
r
l ± m + 1/2 ` ]
` =
2 2 2 2l + 1
r
1 1 1 l ∓ m + 1/2
hl, s, m − , ± |l, s, l − , mi = ∓
2 2 2 2l + 1
, ,. " " $
/ .
& ,.
-IJz>={ /- MO<c6K M@JP 19;=-GI< B;=<IWI[PM@g=/ 1KW?JP-cp ;=6KiIJz37/Oqh<I--IJL>@/M@< l 6= 0

/193GI;=-IB 19E2WNM@69E /- GI/<c
eo/2143B/Q_]< eo;=-HM@WIW/2[P[L/.[M !"wG?/Q[esM 37;=V&/.G eATcG?6K;=g=8-I/@`

!#"$ &%(') "+* !

u ef<?3KJP[LJP17M 37JP;@-:GI/1hWI69;=WI6KJLE3KE21rGI/d19TUV&E3769JP/ ;=<I/v<I-&6 =[L/lB2/-]3K67M@[GNMO-I1[PM.CD;=6KV5<?[MO3KJP;=-5/k3
GNM@-I1v[M 69E21K;@[P<?3KJP;=-(GI/Q-I;=V5i?6K/2<UWI6K;=i?[P82V&/21d/-V&E2B2M@-IJP_]<I/Q_]<NM@-A37JL_]<I/@` 1x;@<I1x/-HM>@;=-I1
GIWYE;O37Fv/2-A>c3K<:JP/2GI[r/hB-I;=<I;@V5[P;@iIV56KiI/JP<c/- /kMc/2-IV&;@WI37M@[L/2V&12`V\+/Mx-]3w6KEEk1K37;=E\[L<?B237;=JL;=-I-Q19JPGIGI<5E67V&M@i?;=[P<?/2V&>=//2V\-A/3Q-A1K3tJLV\G eoW?<I[P-IJLI/Ê2WI/ M@/269-3KJPB26K<?/[PV/rM@GN69M@_]-I<N1|M@<I-A- 3

_]<I/X[ne NM@V&JP[z37;=-?JP/2-HGI<019TU143782V&/XB;=V\V:<?3M@Jz3QM>=/2B L /k3 L~ `|h/XB NM@W?JL3769/\W?6KE219/2-A37/Z<?-I/

MV@WIMOWIJP69-I;c/B 12?` /:<I-IJzNE2/QGI/[M#-I;@37JL;=-GI/:14TcV&E3K6KJL//k3GI/1K/1JPV&WI[LJPBM 37JP;@-I1^GNM@-?1xGIJzyjE6K/-]3K1GI; p z 2
h;=V&V\/- 2;=-?1:WNM@6:<I-I/XGIEkN-IJz37JP;@-0g=E2-?E267MO[P/@` { -S#W ATU1KJP_]<I/Oqu;=-SM@W?WY/[P[P/ !

! 37;=<?3K/3K67M@-?19CD;=69VMO3KJP;=-G eo<I-I/_]<NM@-A37Jz37E_U<?Jx-I/B NM@-?g=/HWNMO1\B/26937M@JP-?/21G?/19/21
WI6K;@WI6KJLE37E12` |M@6 /kc/2V&WI[L/@qt[PMH3767MO-I1K[PMO37JL;=-0g=[L;=iNM@[L/XG eo<I-/2-I19/2V5iI[L /(GI/(WY;=JL-A3715V\MO37E6KJL/2[P1
B2[PM@1K19JP_]<I/21/2-\JP-A37/67M@Bk37JL;=-#-I/dB NM@-Ig=/vWNM@1[neoE2-?/26Kg@JP/lG eoJP-A37/67M@Bk37JL;=- FwB2;=-IG?JL37JL;=-#_]<I/xB/2[L[P/kp
B2GIJ|/w-I19/ TUV&GIE2EW3769/2JP-?/OGI` / _]<I/5GI/5[PMW;=1KJz37JP;@-H6K/[MO3KJL>@/:GI/1.WNM@6437JPB<I[P/1 ` eo/2143wGI;=-IB <I-?/5;=WE267M 37JP;@-
GI/w{ 19-:TUV&V&EE237B69MOJP/m-IJP19_]J<I/2/r[P[L_]/.<N-IM@/m-A37B JLN_]MO<I-I/@g=q /Q[M^WN37M@6K1lM@-I1K;@14CD-;=6K19V\WY/MOB3737JL;=69/w-mGIG /meo@-IMO/[P/2;=<?iI6K1K1l/69WI>O69M@;=iIWI[L6K/r//21219`3 hM@/wWIW1K//267[LM#E2/[P/.;=WB2E2M@671dM 1K37JJP;@[P-M

376KM@-I19CD;@6KV\MO37JL;=- ?`z
WY/<?3v1K/wV&/3K3K6K/w1K;@<I1d[M:CD;=69V\/ A → f (A)
−1 N;=WE26KMO37/<I6d[PJL-IEM@JL6K/ ?` @
{ -/kyj/k3qN[P/1l>@MO[P/2<?6K1lWI69;=WI6K/1dGI/ f (A) 1K;=-A3vGIE3K/269V\JL-IE2/1vWIM@6l[neoE2_]<NMO3KJP;=-
f (A) = U AU f f U f
[ [
|f (A) − λ | = U AU − λ
= |A − λ | = 0
−1
f
[ f
?`fA

1KJ λ /2193v>OM@[P/<I6lWI69;=WI6K/mG?/ A `
-V&E2B2M@-IJL_U<?/Z_U<IM@-A37JP_]<I/Oqr1K/2<?[P/21&[P/15>OM@[P/<I6K1#V&; T@/2-I-?/21&GI/21&;=iI19/269>OM@i?[P/21#GNMO-I1#GI/21
EW37/2MO{<?373 1 1GI3K/r6K/Q[neo/2GI19E2WNBM@6KBJL3K//GIG?/<H~xWJL[P;=iJP/2-A643v3+GI;=/w-A3|>c<?<?-I/:/GI19/JPg=~x-?JL/NJP1KB2/MO-]37iYJL;=/- 6K`g B/;=V&VV\12V&/w/r[neo_UE<?>@;=/[P[<cefEk37>=JP;@;=-[L<?G?37JL/2;=1-.;@37iI/1KV\/69W>O;=M@6KiI/[L[P/2[L/1
;=[P;@<(g=JPGI_]<<I/.WY;@GjJPef-AJLV\3lWGI;=/m1K>U/<I6^/w_]< GIeo/Q<I-Ic/mB I376 6KcM@G?-IJP19-ICD;@g=6K/V\6lB2MO;=37V&JL;=-XV&WI/m<I<IJL-I1K19/m/mE1K>@/m;=[PC<cM@JP3769JP/.;@-GI/.G?/2C1lM
>=;=/-(B37E2/_]<I<I6KJz1v>@MOG [Peo/2E-A37MO3K/m3711KqN<IJP6l[ /[L/21931
>=37JL/;=B- 3K/2<I691xG eoE37MO371` E1KJPg@-I;=-I1dM@[L;=6K1WNM@6 U˜ [neo;=WYE67MO3K/2<I6B2;=696K/1KW;=-IGNM@-A3xF5[MQ3767MO-I19CD;=69VM p
?` ]
f
ab[YCMO<?3^_]<I/.[PM>OM@[P/<I6V\;}T=/-I-I/mGI/x37;=<?3K/.;=iI19/264>@MOiI[P/xGNM@-I1h3K;=<?3hE3M 3dM@JL3[MQV 1V\/v>OM@[P/<I6

f : |Ψi → U˜ |Ψi f
_]<I/2[+_]<I/w1K;@JL3d[P/mW;=JL-]3^GI/Q>U<I/w_]< eo;=-M@GI;=W?3K/@` xJP-I19JnqI;=-(GI;@JL3dM>=;@JP6

hΨ|U AU |Ψi = hU˜ Ψ|A|U˜ Ψi
−1
?!` =
M@JL1 hU˜ Ψ| = hΨ|U˜
f f f f
†
f f
?`"A
†
→ hΨ|Uf−1 AUf |Ψi = hΨ|U˜f AU˜f |Ψi
→ U˜f = Uf
/k3 †
U˜f = Uf−1
xJP-I19Ju[neo;=WYE67MO3K/2<I6 I
G =
; z
J 3 13769/ 37/2[ _U<?/ ˜ x<?3769/2V&/2-A3QGIJL32q <I-I/#;=WE26KMO37JL;=-
`
GI/w19TUV&E3K6KJP/mW/2<c3 1k3769/QG?E2B269JL3K/Q/-V&E2B2M@-IJL_U<?/m_U<IM@-A37JP_]<I/QWNM@6l<?- ! U `
U U =U
† −1
{ [P[L/.WY/<?3 13K6K/wGIE2B6KJz37/wGI/wGI/2<U(CM
2;=-?1Q
f f f
=` NWY;@JP-A3dGI/m>U<I/wWNM@1K19JLC
(
A → U AU † ?!` 0=
c`
|Ψi
( NW;=JP-A3dGI/m>U<I/QM@B3KJLC ?`
JA P-IB IM@-Ig=E
|Ψi → U Ψ
cJw<I- ;=WE2/6K3MO37/<I6 S /2143 I/6KV&JL3KJP_]@/2-A3 1k3769/Q69/2WI69E219/2-A37E/21.WNMO6l<I-;@WYE67MO3K/2<I6dGI/w[M:CD;@6KV&/ e `
U = e † −iS
UU = e e † iS −iS
=
iS
iS
<I-I1v/;=;=<IW1tE26KMMO>@37;=JL-I;=-w1 G?GI;=/-I14BhTUV\G?E2EkV&376K;=JL/@-A`}37ab6K-AE>=_]/< 6K19eo<I/2-5V&;=/2W-A3E2qO6KMO;=37-/<IW6|/2<c[LJP3|-I[LE2E2M@g=JPJz6937/uJLV\/3|/<IV\-I/Jz-]3M@3 JL1K6K//uGIW/2;=V\<?>OM@M@-IJLGI3 /696+/2WI_U<?69E2/21K[A/3b-ATU37WY/2/6

G>U <Ieo;=/@Wq@E2[P/67M B2376K/2Jz<?37866K//l19M@3G?1K;=<IW?19B237E/2Wc/23714JP3ri?/2[P/v- GIg=/xE-I69/2E2WI6KM@69[cE219_]/2<I-A/l37/[L/26h1 =` E /21/v` B2x/v<?W3769;=/2JPV&-A3/2GI-A/3
GIJz3qI19J<I-I/w;=WE267M 37JP;@-Z/2193vGIEB269JL37/wWNMO6Q
|Ψi → U |Ψi
?` A

JP[jCMO<?3d_]<I/
c`L =
JPg=-?/26+MlGIE2V&;=-A3769Er<I-69E219<I[L37MO3+g=E2-?E267MO[ B2;@-I-]<:1K;@<I1+[P/u-I;=V GI/u3%IE;=6K8V\/rGI/ JPg@-I/267
2 2
|hU Ψ|U Φi| = |hΨ|Φi|
1K/[P ;=-[P/_U<?/2[[P/1d;=WYE67MO3KJP;=-?1lGI/14TUV\Ek376KJL/m-I/QWY;=<c >@MOJP/2-A3 1k376K/Q6K/WI6KE1K/-]3KE2/1._]<I/WI M@6lGI/2@17M@;=-AJP6 3dBMOJz<cpbG?(/2GI1K19/<I<c15WI/k6K3\;@WI[L/26K1#JLE;=37EW1dE26K1KMO<I37Jz/>@<IMO6&-]3KM@/2-A1w37Jzp
=` /193M@-A37JL[PJP-?EM@JL6K/Q K
K(|Ψi + |Φi) = K|Ψi + K|Φi

/3
K(c|Ψi) = c∗ K(|Ψi)
?`L@
c`
?`z =
M@69V\Ju[L/21w19TUV&E3K6KJP/1B;=<I6KM@V\V&/2-A3w69/2-IB;=-A376KE/215/- W#ATU1KJL_]<I/@q 1K/<I[P/#[neo;=WE26KMO37JL;=- 6K/2-Up
∗
hKΨ|KΦi = hΨ|Φi (= hφ|Ψi)
>=/6K1K/V\/-A3mGI<3K/2V&WI1v/2193x6K/WI6KE1K/-]3KE2/ WNMO6v<?-H;=WE26KMO37/<I6MO-]3KJzp <I-IJL37M@JP69/ >@;=JP6dBJzpbG?/21K19<I1 `

;@<?37/1x[L/21dM@<?3K6K/1v;@WYE67MO3KJP;=-I1l19;=-A3v6K/2W?6KE219/2-A37E/21.WIM@6l<I-;=WYE67MO3K/2<I6l<?-IJL37M@JP69/@`
$ ' + +
,^"$|* ' + ! % ' ! " ' +
M@-I1hB2/3937/m19/2B3KJP;=-jq?-I;=<?1lM@[P[L;=-I1WNM@191K/26h/2-(6K/k>c<?/.[P/1h376KM@-I19CD;@6KV\MO37JL;=-I1G ef/1KWNMOB2/m/3^GI/
37/V\ WI1^CD;@-IGNM@V&/2-A3MO[P/21h/2-(V\EBM@-?JP_]<I/._]<NM@-A3KJP_]<I/m-I;=-(69/2[M 37JL>UJL1937/Oqc/k3l-I;=<?1dM@[P[L;=-I1hEk3M@i?[PJP6
[M5CD;=69V\/.G?/Q[ef;@WYE67MO3K/2<I6l_]<IJ[L/2<I6l/193M@1K19;cBJPE@`

,./0" 0, / .0"
/0
- V&E2B2M@-IJP_]<I/ B[M@191KJL_U<?/@q<I-I/ 3K67M@-I14CD;=6KV\MO3KJP;=-G eo/219WNM@B/\B;=6K69/21KW;=-IG FZ<I-I/ CD;=-IBk37JL;=-

GI/2{1vB2;U;=69GI;=-I-IE/21w
?`z}A
efM@WI6K81h[L/vW?6KJP-?B2JPW/lGI/vB2;=696K/1KW;=-IGNM@-?B2/@qU[MmV12V&/l3767MO-I19CD;=69VM 37JP;@- /2-V&E2B2M@-IJL_U<?/v_]<NMO-cp
37 JL_U<?/QG?;=JL3 1k3769/QG?E2B269JL3K/QWIM@6
~r → f (~r)
?`L ]
M@JL1lB2/3937/w376KM@-I19CD;@6KV\MO37JL;=-XGI;=Jz3dWY;@<?>=;=JL6^1K/QGIEB26KJL6K/mWNMO6v<?-I/m3767MO-I19CD;=69VM 37JP;@-X<I-IJz3M@JL6K/5
b
~r → f (b ~r)

f (b~r) = U b ~rU
c`L
@
†
cJ[neo;=-M@GI;@W?37/m[L/mWY;=JL-A3dGI/m>c<?/ M@B3KJLC OqI[L/21 O/371v1K;@-]3d3K67M@-I14CD;=6KV&E21l19/2[L;=-

f f
|Ψi → U |Ψi
?`L "A
f
#
u K
6 @
; Y
W =
; 9
1 L
J K
3 P
J =
; -
376KM@-I14CD;=6KV&/m1K/[P;=-
c
N
G @
M I
- h
1 I
< I
- .
/ 7
3 K
6 @
M I
- 4
1 D
C =
; K
6 \
V O
M 7
3 L
J =
; &
- I
G
E N
?
- P
J m
/ N
W @
M 6 b
~
r → f (b
~r )
c
q
[
M D
C @
; I
-
B K
3 P
J =
; X
- j
G f
e =
; ?
- I
G .
/ K
1 /
−1
?`z
0=
EV\;@-I193K67MO3KJP;=- NWNM@6lG?EN-IJz37JL;=-(GI/21l>=/B3K/2<I691WI69;=WI6K/1dGI/ b~r ;=-MZ
Ψ(~r) → Ψ(f (~r))
b
~r|f (r~ )i = f (r~ )|f (r~ )i
?`z
/2V&V&/
0 0 0
?`z A
EV\;@-I193K67MO3KJP;=-
U |r~ i = |f (r~ )i
f 0 0
f (b ~r) = Uf†b~rUf
⇒ b ~rUf = Uf f (b ~r)
⇒ b
~rUf |r~0 i = Uf f (b ~r)|r~0 i
= Uf f (r~0 )|r~0 i
= f (r~0 )Uf |r~0 i
?` A
2
/ 4
1 3 I
G =
; ?
- X
B =
> 2
/ k
B 7
3
/ I
< 6 I
W K
6
M>@/2BQ<I-B ?;=JzXGI/W NM@1K/QF [M B[PE} `
Uf (~
ro )
@
; I
W K
6 X
/ ?
G / ~
r
?
G
/ O
> @
M P
[
/ I
< :
6 I
W 9
6 =
; I
W 9
6 / f (r~0 )
q JL/@q U |r~ i = |f (r~ i
f 0 0
6 />@/2-I;=-?1.F [M5WI69;=W;=1KJz37JP;@- `
|Ψi → Uf |Ψi
Ψ(~r) = h~r|Ψi → h~r|Uf |Ψi = (Uf† |~ri)† |Ψi
@M JL1
{ -/kyj/k3qNWNMO6vG?EN-IJz37JL;=- q f −1 (b
~r) = Uf b
~rUf†
/3 f −1 (f (b
~r)) = b
~r
JL-I1KJqIG efM@WI69821d[P/m[L/2V&V\/Oq
Uf f (b
~r)Uf† = Uf Uf†b
~rUf Uf† = b
~r
Uf† |~ri = |f −1 (~r)i

→ h~r|Uf Ψi = hf −1 (~r)|Ψi = Ψ(f −1 (~r)).
?`sc
1K<?JLh>O;=M@-?-A3B2[PΨ(~
<?1KJP;@- UGNM@-I1<I-I/x3K67` M@-?19CD;=69VMO3KJP;=- ~r → f (~r) qU[MmCD;=-IBk37JP;@-\G eo;=-IG?/.1K/v3767MO-I19CD;=69V\/
−1
r ) → Ψ(f (~r))

h;=-I19JPGIE6K;=-I1d<I-?/w3K67M@-?1K[M 37JP;@-ZWNM@6 a Gjef<I-19TU143782V&/F#<?-GI/g=6KEwGI/w[LJPi/2693KE5
,.-B I/6KB I/<I-(;=WE267M 37/2<?6 T (a) 37/2[_]<I/
x̂ → x̂ + a
c` =@
{ -V5<?[L37JLWI[PJPM@-A3^F gAMO<IB I/QWNM@6 T (a)qNJP[Y>UJL/2-A3Q
T † (a)x̂T (a) = x̂ + a
?`s@A
^M@[PB<I[P;@-I1 T (a)|xi `,.-M(
[x̂, T (a)] = aT (a)
(x̂T (a) − T (a)x̂)|xi = aT (a)|xi

x̂T (a)|xi − xT (a)|xi = aT (a)|xi
x̂(T (a)|xi) = (x + a)T (a)|xi
?`s ]
V\,.-;UGI/<I-[L;(GIE[P/&GI<IB JzI3d;=-IJz ;@3GjMOefV\<I-V&/2CM@-AB3d3K_]/2<I<I6Q/ GI/\W#NM@19/@` ,m- 6K/k376K;@<?>=/\[P/#6KE1K<I[z3MO3g=E2-?E267MO[W?6KE2BE2GI/-A3`
⇒ T (a)|xi = |x + ai
Ψ(x) → hx|T (a)|Ψi = (T (a)† |xi)† |Ψi

c` @
1x;@3K;=-I1&M@<WNM@1K1KM@g=/_]<I/H[L/21#;=WE267M 37/2<?6K1 CD;=6KV&/2-A3&<I-g@6K;=<IW/@` { -WIM@693KJPB2<?[PJP/62q
= hx − a|Ψi = Ψ(x − a)
T (a)T (b) = T (b)T (a) = T (a + b)

` T (a)
{B2/[M?1Kq 17B2M;=T@-?;=1K-IJP1ZG?E2V\6K;@M@-IJP-A1:37<I/-N-?M@/-A373&6KM@GI-I/1K[P3KMO6K37;=JL;=<c->=/2JP6\-?N<I-?-IJL/37ECD1K;=JL6KVV&M@/([L/ /kcWI[PJLB2q+Jz37//(3GICM@/HJP19[;=ef;@-IWY1QE<I67MO-S3K/2GI<IEk6 >=/2T[L;=(a)WIW` /2V& ;=/2<I-A36

[PJLV\Jz37EG?/ T (δ) T (δ)
c` "=
[
B2;=/#-?CGIMO<IBJL373v/<IF#6 <I−1-;=W/19E2367M B237;=/2-A<?>@6 /2K-A37JLI;=/-I6K-IV&/[nJLq37JLV\_]<IM@/@JP1.` { [L/ -B /IyY;=/J 32q G Teo(δ)<I- CEMO37BM@37-A/3x<I6<?-IiJL37/2M@143JP69/@JL-Aq?37;@E2-H69/2MZ1917M@-A3BM@6mJL[
2
T (δ) = − iδK + O(δ )
[
1K;=Jz3
†
T (δ)T (δ) =
[ − iδK + iδK + O(δ ) = [

?` 0=
† 2
6 /WY;@6937;@-I1dB2/wGIE>@/2[L;=WIW/2V&/2-A3v[PJPV&JL3KEGNMO-I1d[M56K/[MO3KJP;=- `Nab[ >UJP/-]3w

†
⇒K =K
[ [
[x̂, T (a)] = aT (a)
[x̂, − iδK] = δ + O(δ )
→ [x̂, K] = i
[ 2
?`s

,.-/-G?E2GI<IJz3d[P/m69E21K<?[L3M 3l376K81dJPV&WY;=643M@-A3l19<IJL>OM@-A3w
K=
p̂ ?` A
~
{37JL;=-I-?1mN -jq|;=- WY/<?3QiIJP/- 1 I6G?E2B2;@V\W;=1K/6<?-I/&3K67M@-?1K[M 73 JP;@- I-IJP/#/2- WI6K;UGI<IJz3QGI/&3K67M@-?1K[M p

a N
T (a) = T ( )
N
a [ 1
= [ − i K + O( 2 )]N
@M JL1 n N
?`s
A

x 1
{ -/kyj/k3q
lim [1 + + O( 2 )]N = ex
N →∞ N N
x 1 x 1
lim ln[(1 + + O( 2 ))N ] = lim N ln[1 +
O( 2 )]
N →∞ N N N →∞ N N
x 1
= lim N ( O( 2 ))
N →∞ N N
JL-I1KJq
= x

T (a) = exp(−ip̂a/~)
?`f?
., -GIJL3d_]<I/w[neo;=WE26KMO37/<I6 p̂ /2143[L/ ! ! ! k`

+Mg=E-IE26KM@[PJL17MO3KJP;=-FX\GIJPV&/2-I19JP;=-?1v/193mJLV\V&E2G?JMO3K/@`+M\3K67M@-I19[MO3KJP;=-WNM@6v<I-H>@/2Bk37/2<?6
/2143vGIEN-?JP/wWNM@6 ?`fA=
~a
uef;@WYE67MO3K/2<I6 >@E269JLN/ T ~a) b~rT (~a) = b (

~r + ~a †
T (~a) ?`f=A
/mC
M ;=-/ cWI[PJLB2JL3K/@qcJP[ W/2<?3v1efEB26KJL6K/#
T (~a)|~ri = |~r + ~ai
T (~a) = exp(−ip̂~a/~)
?`f ]

B2/k3Kh3K/Q;=-?691K;@JP3G?M E2376KJP;@;@-I-Z1/2G?-E2V\1K;@E6KBV\M@M@-IJPJL1w_]<I<I/w-I/&_U<I6KM@;O-A3MO37JP3K_]JP;=<I- /wR/193vGIG EefM@I-I-Ig=J+[LWN/ M@α6 = k~αk ` uef;=WE26KMO37/<I6wGIE2B6KJz>@MO-]3

α
~
†
R (~ α)b ~rR(~
α
~ α) = R (b ~r)
?`f =

efM@WI6K81d[P/21CD;=6KV5<?[P/21g=E2-?E267MO[P/21hGI/.376KM@-I19CD;@6KV\MO37JL;=-I1G ef/1KWNMOB2/@qNB/3d;=WE26KMO37/<I6lM@g@JL3^19/2[L;=-
R(~ α)|~ri = |R (~r)i
?`f "A
|;=<?6x3769;=<?>@/26.1KM\CD;=6KV&/w/kcWI[LJPB2Jz37/OqB;=-I19JPGIE6K;=-I1F\-I;@<?>=/2M@<<I-I/6K;@37MO37JL;=-JL-?N-IJz37E1KJPV\M@[L/@`
α
~
efM@WI6K81xB/w_U<jef;=-M >c<1K<?6v[PM56K;@37MO37JL;=-ZGI/1x19WIJP-I1qN;=-MZ
R = ~r + δ~n ∧ ~r + O(δ ) 2
c`s 0@
;=R ~n /2143<I-(>=/B3K/2<I6v<I-IJz3M@JL6K/@.` 1x;=<?1vB ?/26KB ?;=-I1[ef;@WYE67MO3K/2<I6 R(δ~n) 1K;=<?1v[PM:CD;=6KV&/
δ~
n
[
R(δ~n) = − iδK + O(δ ) 2
c`s
/mB2;=V&V5<?37MO37/<I6dM>=/2BQ<I-I/wB;=V\W;=1KM@-A37/ GI/ b~r 12eoE2B6KJz3
x̂ i
G eo;=R [xbi , R(δ~n)] = δ(R(~n ∧ ~r))i + O(δ 2 )
K1 ;=Jz3 − i[xbi , K] = (~n ∧ ~r)i

[xbi , K] = iijk nj xbk
c`s =
,.6:-I;=<?1 M>=;=-I1>c<S[L;=6K1QGI/X[efEk37<IG?/GI<0V&;=<?>@/2V&/2-A3 B/2-A376KM@[h_]<I/X[L/\V&;=V&/2-A35BJP-IEk37JL_U<?/
17MO3KJP14CM@JP1KM@JL3h[P/21d6982g=[L/21lGI/wB2;@V\V5<c3MO3KJP;=-
[Lbi , xbj ] = i~ijk xbk
~b · ~n, xbj ] = i~ijk ni xbk
[L
;=</2-IB;=6K/
~b · ~n] = i~ijk nj xbk
[xbi , L
K=
~b · ~n
L c` =
~
{ -EB26KJz>OM@-A3 R(~α) = R( ) qN/3v/2-WI6K/-NM@-A3v[M [PJLV\Jz37/ N → +∞ qNJP[Y>cJL/2-A3w
α
~ N
N
R(~
α) = exp(−i
α
~ ·L~b
)
cÌ}
~
,V\.-;@V\69//37-]693d;=<?BJP>@-I/&Ek37[LJL/ _U<?6KE/m1K<I/219[z33xMO[P3w/ Ek3M@! iI[LJ [L;=6K1m GI/#[efEk37 <IGI / G?! /&k` [PMX6K;@37MO37JL;=-GI< 1KWIJL- `+,.- GIJL3w_]<I/#[L/

eo/2143[ef;=WE26KMO37JL;=-Z_]<IJB2;@-I1KJL1937/QF JP-A>@/26K19/26v[P/m19JPg=-I/mG?/21vB2;U;=6KGI;@-I-IE2/1w
?`]=
ueo;=WYE67MO3K/2<I6vM@191K;UB2JLE@qN/2-g=E-IE26KM@[-I;@3KE Π qN/2143vGIEN-?J WIM@6
~r → −~r

cÀ=
,.-/2-GIE2GI<?JL3d_]<I/ [`/21dCD;=-IB3KJP;=-?1lG ef;@-IGI/w1K/m376KM@-I14CD;=6KV&/2-A3v1K<IJz>OM@-A3w
Π|~ri = | − ~ri
Π2 =
?` ]
+M 3767MO-I19CD;=69VM 37JP;@- Π B2;=-I19/264>=/Q[P/mWI69;cGI<?JL3d1KB2M@[MOJP6K/O` { -/yY/3q
Ψ(x, y, z) → Ψ(−x, −y, −z)

Z Z
d(−~r) ∗
Ψ (−~r)Φ(−~r)d~r =
∗
Z
Ψ (~r)Φ(~r)d~r = Φ† (~r)φ(~r)d~r c` @
d~r
2/ 193XGI;=-IB<I-IJL37M@JP69/ Π = Π `hh;=V&V\/ [q;@-/2- G?E2GI<IJz3 Π = Π ` /21
;=WE26KMO37/<I6K1d1K/m3K67M@-I14CD;=6KV&/2-A3vGI;=-?BQ19<IJL>OM@-A3w
Π † −1
Π2 = †
?` "A
|;@<I6 ~r q?;=-1esM 3K37/-IGF 3K6K;=<c>=/26Q

Â → ΠÂΠ
?` 0=
{ 3v/2-/yY/3qN;@-M( Πb
~rΠ = −b
~r
Πb
~rΠ|~ri = Πb
Πb
~rΠ = −b
~r| − ~ri = −b
~rΠ| − ~ri = −b
~r|~ri
?`
/wV12V&/ q Πbp~Π = −bp~ ` E2V&;=-A376K;@-I1d[P/mW;=<I6l<I-I/QB2;@V\W;=17MO-]3K/
~r
[b
x, pb] = i~
Π[bx, pb]Π = i~
Πb
xΠΠb
pΠ − ΠbpΠΠb xΠ = i~
[b
x, ΠbpΠ] = −i~
?` A
MO6vB;=-A3769/@qN[P/mW?6K;UGI<IJL3 xb pb -I/wB NMO-Ig=/QWNM@1dGI/w1KJLg=-I/@` { -/yY/32q
Πb pΠ = −bp
i j
?` A
,.-/-G?E2GI<IJz3d_]<I/[L/.V&;=V\/-A3dB2JP-?E37JL_]<I/w/2193vJL-]>OM@69JM@-A3m
Πxbi pbj Π = Πxbi ΠΠpbj Π = (−xbi )(−pbj ) = xbi pi
~b = L
~b
?` U
/21+ >= /Bk37`/<Ih6K/21 <U_U<?_UJU<?B IJM@-I-I/wg=B /N-]M@3 -IGIg=//-A1KJP3g@-IWN/rMO1vGNM@G?-I/Q1|19<IJPg=-I-?//m;=1KWY;=E-A673xMO3KM@JPWI;=-wW/2GI[LE2/1WNM@69JL3K E19;= -A3tMOWI WY/=[P` E1

ΠLΠ

/

ab[M@696KJL>@/w1K;=<?>@/2-A3x_U<?/[L/m[M@g=6KM@-Ig=JL/2-X19;=JL3dJL-IGIEWY/-IGNM@-A3vGI<1KJPg@-I/mGI/
?`!==
q̇
;=<_U<?/Q[L/w~M@V&JP[z37;=-?JP/2-\1K;=Jz3dJP-A>OM@6KJPM@-A3lWNM@6dB NMO-Ig=/2V&/2-A3vGI<1KJLg=-I/mGI/ p~
Lcl (q̇, q) = Lcl (−q̇, q)
?` OA
M@-I1vB2/wB2M@12qN19J ~r(t) /214319;=[P<c37JP;@- q ~r (t) ≡ ~r(−t) /193x1K;=[L<?37JL;=- `
H(~
p, ~r) = H(−~
p, ~r)
0
~M@V&E2JPV&[z37;=;=-A-H3769 ;=-I1m[L/5GNM@-I1m<?-BM@1m19JPV&WI[P/\+c;=Jz3 q(t), p(t) <I-I/ 19;=[P<?3KJP;=-HGI/21mE_U<IMO37JL;=-I1mGI/

(
2q̇(t) = ∂ H(q(t), p(t)) c` A
/3v1K<?WIWY;@1K;=-I1v_]<I/ H(q, −p) = ṗ(t) = −∂ H(q(t), p(t))
1
?` =
H(q, p)
V\E2JL[LV&3K;=;=-Z-A37M@69WI;=W?-I[P1mJP_]_]<I<IE/ /21v{q̃(t) 2
/ 4
1 w
3 K
1 =
; L
[ ?
< 7
3 L
J =
;
- ` +/1wE2_]<NMO3KJP;=-I1GI/#~M p
2 → −∂ H(q, −p) = ∂ H(q, p)
2
M@<Z37/V\W?1 −t GI;=-I-I/-A3:
≡ q(−t), p̃(t) ≡ −p(−t)}
(
2 q̇(−t) = ∂ H(q(−t), p(−t)) c` "=
ṗ(−t) = −∂ H(q(−t), p(−t))
,.62q (q̃(t) ˙ = −q̇(−t) q p̃(t) ˙ = ṗ(−t)) `Y,m-(/-GIEGI<IJz3
1
(
˙ = ∂2 H(q̃(t), −p̃(t))
−q̃(t)
˙ = −∂1 H(q̃(t), −p̃(t))
M@JL1
p̃(t)

∂1 H(q̃(t), −p̃(t)) = ∂1 H(q̃(t), p̃(t))
JL-I1KJq
∂2 H(q̃(t), −p̃(t)) = −∂2 H(q̃(t), p̃(t))

(
˙ = ∂2 H(q̃(t), p̃(t))
q̃(t)
˜˙p(t) = −∂1 H(q̃(t), p̃(t))

,.-/193vGI;=-IBw-NM 37<I69/2[P[L/2V&/2-A3dM@V&/2-?EF B;=-I1KJLGIE269/26d[M53K67M@-I14CD;=6KV\MO3KJP;=-XG?EN-IJL/wWNM@6m

(
θ −1b
~rθ = b
~r
θ p~θ = −b
−1b
p~

E2_]<IJz>OM@[P/-]3vF( (
θb
~rθ −1 = b
~r
θbp~θ = −b
u6K;@WY;=19JL3KJP;=- +M5376KM@-I19CD;@6KV\MO37JL;=- θ /2143MO-]3KJP[LJP-IE2M@JP69/@`
−1
p~

EV\;@-I193K67MO3KJP;=- efM@WI69821d[P/1d3K67M@-?19CD;=69VMO3KJP;=-?1^GI/ b~r /k3 bp~ q

θ[xbi , pbj ]θ −1 = θ xbi pbj θ −1 − θ pbj xbi θ −1
= θ xbi θ −1 θ pbj θ −1 − θ pbj θ −1 θ xbi θ −1
= xbi (−pbj ) − (−pbj )xbi
?` =0
^M@[LB2<I[L;=-I1 hθΦ|θ[xb , pb ]|Ψi GI/:CM
;=-I12`
= −[xbi , pbj ]
?`!
i j
V\M@JP1lMO<I1K19J
hθΦ|θ[xbi , pbj ]|Ψi = hθΦ|θi~δij |Ψi
hθΦ|θ[xbi , pbj ]|Ψi = hθΦ|θ[xbi , pbj ]θ −1 θ|Ψi

= hθΦ| − [xbi , pbj ]θ|Ψi
= −hθΦ|i~δij θ|Ψi
c`
=
efM@WI69821v[P/.3%?E2;=6982V&/mGI/ JPg=-I/62qI[PM53767MO-I19CD;=69VM 37JP;@- θ /2193vGI;@-IBQM@-A37Jzp <I-IJz3M@JL6K/@`
⇒ θi|Ψi = −iθ|Ψi
I/6KB I;@-I1 V\M@JP-A37/-NM@-A3 <I-I/ CD;=6KV&/ /kcWI[LJPB2Jz37/ GI/ [M 376KM@-I14CD;=6KV\MO37JL;=- θ ` efM@WI69821
θ b
−1
~r θ = b ~r
qI;=-M ?`" A
;=-?B θ|~ri /2143d>=/2Bk37/<I6WI69;=WI69/mGI/ b~r qNGI/m>OM@[P/<I6lWI69;=WI6K/ ~r `cJ;@-(CMOJL3l[L/mB I;=JzZGI/wW#NM@19/
b
~rθ|~ri = θb ~r|~ri = θ~r|~ri = ~rθ|~ri
?` "?
[M 376KM@-I14CD;=6KV\MO37JL;=-(/2143mWNM@64CM@JL3K/2V&/2-A3vGIEN-?JP/@` { - /yY/32qYB;=V&V\/w/2[L[P/Q/2143mM@-A37JL[PJL-IEM@JL6K/Oq?;=-
θ|~ri = |~ri
M ?` "A=
<B2;=<?W qNWY;@<I6d<I- @/3 |Ψi GI;@-I-IEwWNM@6
∗
θc|~ri = c |~ri
Z
|Ψi = d~rΨ(~r)|~ri
?!` "@A
JP[Y>cJL/2-A3Q Z
θ|Ψi = d~rΨ∗ (~r)|~ri

/

1K;=Jz3 c`!" A

{ -?N- qN-I;O37;=-I1d[PM5[P;=J G?/w3K67M@-?19CD;=69VMO3KJP;=-GI<V&;=V&/2-A3dB2JL-IE3KJP_]<I/
∗
θ|Ψi = |Ψ i
~b = −L
θ −1 Lθ ~b
c`!"@
_]<IJGIE2B;=<I[L/QG?/QB/2[L[P/21lG?/ b~r /3 bp~ /3vGI/w[M5GIEkN-IJz37JP;@- ~b = b
L ~r ∧ b
p~
`

00$ 0 -,'$$
1x;=<?1mM>=;=-I1GIE F\>U<_]<I/ 19J|[eNMOV\JL[L37;@-IJP/-Ek3M@Jz3JL-IGIEWY/-IGNM@-A3mGI< 3K/2V&WI12q[neoE>@;=[P<c37JP;@-

37/V\W;=6K/[P[L/ _U<?/m[neo;=-XW/2<?3dB;=-I1KJLGIE269/26lB;=V\V&/<?-I/376KM@-I19[MO3KJP;=-XGIM@-I1^[L/37/V\WI17W;=<?>OM@JL3

13K6K/w6K/WI6KE1K/2-A3KE2/:WIM@6d<I-;@WYE67MO3K/2<I6lG eoE>@;=[P<c37JP;@-
− ~i Ht c!` " "=

1K ;=<-A3dWY37;=6KJLM@-A-I3l14GICD;=/m6KV&>U<IE2/w/1QGI/w ~x/JP1K/-]iY/6Kg ;=<(W;=JP-A3lGI/m>U<I/wWNM@191KJzC qIB2/m19;=-A3x[L/21l;=i?1K/264>OM@iI[P/ 1d_U<?J
U (t) = e
?!` " 0=

<WY;=JL-A3dGI/m>c<?/GI/cB ?6 UGIJP-Ig@/262q?B2/w1K;=-A3v[P/1l>=/2Bk37/<I6K1xG efEk3MO3K1d_U<?J1K;=-A3d376KM@-I19CD;@6KV&E21w
H A b (t) = U (t)AU † b (t)
c!` "
/2 14ef3xM@WI[L/m6K8g=1wE2-?[ME267CDM ;=3769/2V\<?6x/5GIG?//&1l[37ef;@67MOWY-IE1K67[PMOMO3K37/2JL<I;=6.-I1^GjGNefEkMO>=-I;=1d[L<?[P37/.JL;=37- /V\qj;@W?- 12qN>@B2;=/wJL3._]<IGIJ+JP69GI/2EBB23K/2;=V&<I[L/2/w-AM@3Q<I_]19<I1KJ+/ GI[n/#e NM@V&JP[z37;=-IJL/2-
|Ψ(t)i = U (t)|Ψ(0)i
H dA b
= [A
1 b
H , H]
c!` " =
dt i~

! $|* ! ) ' ' " /* + (% ' ) :-! + ' $ "+* !

+MxWI69/2V&JP8269/^M@W?WI[PJLBMO3KJP;=-wGI/^B/21tB;=-I19JPGIE67MO3KJP;=-I1 GI/^14TUV\Ek376KJL/@q /3 WI6K;=iIM@iI[P/V\/-A3t[MvWI[P<?1

JPV&WY;@693MO-]3K/@q/2143B/2[L[P/:;@R [e IM@V\JL[L3K;=-IJP/-(/2193QJL-]>OM@69JM@-A3WNM@6.<I-?/ ;=WYE67MO3KJP;=-G?/ 19TUV\Ek3769JP/@`
M@6#/ ?/V\W?[P/ZGNM@-?1&<?-W;@37/-A37JP/[^B2/-A3767MO[nqu[ne NM@V&JP[z37;=-?JP/2- /2143&VM@-?JLCD/21437/V\/-]3#JL-A>@MO6KJMO-]3
WNM@66K;@37MO37JL;=- ` /xC
M 2;=-\g=E2-?E267MO[P/@q]B/3K3K/JL-]>OM@69JM@-?B2/v1K/x3K67M@G?<IJL3WNM@6[P/dCM@JL3_]< eoJP[/kcJL1937/x<I-
;37=/W[E2_U67M<?37/ /2<?6 K /3V 1V\/d<I-?/vCM@V&JP[L[P/G ef;@WYE67MO3K/2<I691hGNM@-?1[L/vB2M@1hG?/2119TUV\Ek3769JP/21B2;=-A3KJP-]<I/217
?!` 0
A
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hθΦa |Φb i = hθΦb |θ 2 Φa i = eiα hθΦb |Φa i

= eiα hθΦa |θ 2 Φb i = ei2α hθΦa |Φb i
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/ 3
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p
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p
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l

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U (α + α ) = U (α )U (α )
c` 0@
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G eo;=RU † (α)HU (α) = H
[H, U (α)] = 0
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?` A
2
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⇒ [H, T ] = 0
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p~
x y z

p~x p~y p~z

q q `h/w67M@JL1K;=-I-?/2V&/2-A3dB2;=-?GI<IJL3vMO<c(;=-IG?/21vWI[M@-?/21 e ` i~
p·~r/~
/2<U- 6j`6K;@E3 MOM [P<037JLJP3K;@E@B-I;=qY1<I[neoW <IUqJP-I[/;=T\- GIM /-?1QM@/<IBW1K;=19/2V&J <?WY:35;=g@FH1KE2M@-IWI-AE6K37JL67/;=MO1m6K3KJu/2B2<I;=<c69V&371 JP[LV5JPL̂19<?/26w3Kq /#L̂_]M@< <Iq ef<?1KL̂-019Juqc1KMV\/>=<I/M@[hB JL1GI/\JL[P1B2/-I15/.g=B2E2;@-?V\E2V567M <c37/237/2<?-A6K3h15WNFM@[1^MZ/CD-];=3KJP6K1/ `
{GIJPM@g=;=-NMO[PJP19/26 GNM@-I1x<I-I/iNM@1K/B2;=V&V5<I-?/:F /k3 `Yeo/2L193.q B2/k/:3w_];=<I- /WY-I/;=<?<I3w1vWNCM@M@JP6m19;=/ -I?1v/V\WY;@W?<I[P/6
x y z
[P/B2M@1ZGI/ [M0HWIM@693KJPB2<?[P/ GNMO-I1(<I-W;@3K/2-A37JL/2[.BL/2-A376KM@[nL~` +MSWI69E21K/-IB2/ GI/ g=E-IE26KMO37/<I6K1_]<IJ

z
2
-I[ne /QNM@B2V&;=V&JP[z37V5;=-?<?JP3K/2/2-j-A`3xWNM@M@-I1v1+/2[P-A/ 37B69M@/:1+/2GI<U/H1 /69;@193.3M F&37JP[;@ef-I;=6912JPqkg=1KJLJA-I[/.ef;=GI-w/MlGI<?E23Kg@JP[LE2JP-I1KEE6K/219B2/k/3 -IB2/ q 1efJL[P1d/kB23 ;=V&V5/2<?-?3Kg=/2/2-A-I3G?M}6K>@/2-A/2B3

z
/2- /yY/3QGI/1wE3M 371wGI/ V12V&/ E2-I/6Kg=JL/ 12eoJP[P1m-jesM@-?-U<?[P/2-A3QWNM@L1w[L/:>=L~/B37/L<I6Q1K<IL6w[P/_]<I/2[u;=- [L/21 2 + −
M@WIW?[PJP_]<I/O`
z
\ , ' !# " + (% ' " (, w$ * ' (% ' + w $ ' ' +h ' Z $ , + ' !#"

"+* ! +
+M1K<IBB2/1K1KJL;=-G?/G?/2<c;@<WI[L<I1KJL/2<I691 ;=WE267M 37JP;@-I15GI/(19TUV&E3K6KJP/Z/193&/2-?B2;=69/<?-I/(;=WYE p
67M 37JP;@-SGI/14TUV\Ek376KJL/@-` ueo/2-I19/2V5i?[P/GI/21#;=WE26KMO37JL;=-I1 GI/(19TUV&E3K6KJP/(_]<I/[neo;=-S/2-?g=/2-IG?6K/WNM@6
M@WIW?[PJPB2MO37JL;=-X19<IB2B/21K19JL>@/:GI/wB2/wWI69JP-IBJPW/mB2;=-?1937Jz37<I/w/-g=E-IE26KM@[<I- k`
6 M@WIW/2[ N<I-g=69;=<IW/m/2193vGIEkN-IJ+WNM@6l[L/21l6982g=[L/21d1K<IJz>OM@-A37/21w
=` /lWI69;cGI` <?JL3uGI/dGI/<c&E2[LE2V&/2-A371uG?<\g=69;=<IW/l/2143<?-&E[PEV\/-]3rG?<\g=69;=<IW/m a, b, ∈ G ⇒
c` ab/w∈WI6KG;UGI<IJz3l/2143xM@1K19;cBJMO3KJLC a(bc) = (ab)c `
?`dab[/ ?JL193K/Q<?-E[PE2V&/2-A3d-I/<?3769/ e ∈ G 3K/2[_]<I/ ea = ae = a (∀ a ∈ G)`
I`x NMO_U<?/E[PE2V&/2-A3vM <I-JP-A>=/6K19/-I;O37E 3K/2[_]<I/ aa = a a = e `
-I;=V:/ZiI6Kg=/.69;=N<I-?WJ/G /2efE14[P3#EV\GIJL/3 -]3K12 ` ab[ /193x GI JL3 19 J ab =^19Jba[P/m(∀-I;@V5a,iIb)6K/m`|Gjab[hefE/2[P14E23#V&GI/2JL-A3 3K1v!/19m3v12NeoJP-I[JWY;=;=<(191KGI8EGI-I/Z;=V<I- p
−1 −1 −1
a

iI6KM@iI[P/OÌab[/2143vGIJL3 ! !19JP-I;@- `

{ c/2V&WI[P/1
=` ueo;=WYE67 [MO` 3K/2<I6 WNM@6KJz37E Π B2;@-I193KJL37<?/lM>=/2Bl[efJLGI/2-A3KJL37Ex [c<?-&g@6K;=<IW/hGjef;=69GI6K/l: Π = Π q −1
c` Πueo/2-I=19/2V5iI[L/wGI/21l376KM@-I19[MO3KJP;=-I1^CD;@6KV&/.<I-g=6K;=<?WY/mB;=-A37JP-]<
2
T (~a)T (~b) = T (~a + ~b)

−1
?` ?
?` 69u;@eo3/2MO-I3K19JP/2;=V5-?1iI[LGN/M@GI-?/21 1Z69;@3/2M 14373wJP;@JP1K-I;@1&V\CD;=;@696K#WV&I/ / <IMO-< g@g=6K69;=;=<I<IWW// B2;=-A3KJP-]< GI` /2{1m- V\MO/37yY69/JP32Bq^/21.[P/;=64g=%3 6KI;@;@<Ig=WY;=/H-NM@GI[L/2/211
T (~a) = T (−~a)
3
R SO(3)

Π = Π GI/G?E37/6KV&JP-NMO-]3(EgAM@[mF +1 q/3[P/HWI6K;UGI<IJz3ZGI/ GI/2<UVM 376KJLB2/1XGI/

B2;@V\W;=17/2MO14-]3l3K<I/21d-I/.GI<V\V\MO3K;@6KJPV\B/x/-]G?3d/ BSO(3)
JP-IEk37JL_U<?` /m-IMO/wJP1 B2R(~ M@1da/2-A+3K~6Kb)/Q/2B[PMO[L6h/21[P` /1^GIJzyjE6K/2-A3K/21
t −1
SO(3) ;=V&aV5)R(<?3K~b)/2-A3d6=WNR(~

", /
" -,'
., -ZM@WIW/2[L[P/v6K/2W?6KE219/2-A3M 37JP;@-ZGI/.GIJLV\/-I1KJL;=- n G ef<?-Zg=6K;=<?WY/v37;=<?3h/2-I19/2V5i?[P/.GI/xVM 376KJLB2/1

JP19;=V\;@6KW#I/hM@< g=69;=<IW/h/3 37/2[c_]<I/^1KJ R(a) GIE1KJLg=-I/^[PMxV\MO3769JPB2/M@191K;UB2JPE/lF.[neoE2[LE2V&/2-A3
Ga I<g=69;=<IW/@qI;=-M@Jz3m
(n×n)
c` A@
{g=6K;@<I?WY//wV\GIW?/[P/21d1 6K;@37[PMO/2371xJL;=V-IM 1^37GN6KJLMOB2-I/11vG?/ ` SO(3) CD;=6KV&/2-A3x<I-I/6K/2W?6KE219/2-A3M 37JP;@- GI/:G?JPV&/2-I19JP;=-\GI<
R(ab) = R(a)R(b)
R 3

c J+[neo/219WNM@B2/GI/:G?JPV&/2-I19JP;=- n GIM@-I1[L/2_]<I/[|[L/21vVMO3K6KJLB2/21dG eo<I-I/6K/WI6KE1K/2-A37MO37JL;=-M@g=JL1K19/2-A3
WYiI[P/;U<?B@3 qj1[MX3K6K/#6K/1KWIE6KWNEM@1K/6K-]E&37/2MO- 37JL;=1K-;@<I/21414p 3/21KG?WIJLM@37B2/ /1 37 /[P1w_] OM@6KJPM@-A3WIM@6B/26937M@JP-?/21.;=WE26KMO37JL;=-I1xGI/519TUV&E3K6KJP/OqjMO<?3769/2V&/2-A3
GIJL3d_]< eoJP[jB2;=V&V5<?3K/wHM}>@/2BQ[P/1v;@WYE67MO3K/2<I691 U (a) MO1K1K;UB2JLE21vM@<cZE2[PEV\/-A371 a Gjef<I-g=69;=<IW/ G `
[H, U (a)] = 0
?` =A
,.- 19<IWIW;=1K/#WNMO6mM@JP[L[P/<I6K1x_U<?/ U (ab) = U (a)U (b) ` c;=Jz3 E <I-I/5>OM@[L/2<I6WI6K;=W?6K/ n CD;=JL1
GIE2g@E2-IE6KE2/GI/ H
?` ]
u6K;=W;=1KJz37JL;=- N[P/1lVM 376KJLB2/1 GIEkN-IJL/21vWNM@6
H|Ψ i = E|Ψ i , k = 1 . . . n k k
D(a)
D (a) = hΨ |U (a)|Ψ i
c` @
CD;=6KV&/2-A3d<I-?/Q69/2WI69E219/2-A3MO3KJP;=-GI/wGIJPV&/2-?1KJP;@- n GI<g@6K;=<IW/ G`
ij i j
E2V&;=-I14376KMO37JL;=- h;=V&V\/ H /3 U (a) B;=V\V:<?37/-]32qI;=-M(

HU (a)|Ψ i = U (a)H|Ψ i = EU (a)|Ψ i k
c` "= k k

/ 193lGI;@-IBx>@/2B3K/2<I6dWI69;=WI69/GI/ H GI/>OM@[P/<I6hW?6K;=WI69/ E `?ab[jM@WIWNM@6437JL/2-A3^GI;@-IB.M@<

1K;@<I14p /21KWIM@B2/QWI6K;@WI6K/wGI/m>OM@[P/<I6lWI69;=WI6K/ E /k3xW/2<c3x19/wGIE2B;=V\W;=19/26dGNM@-I1dB/19;=<I14p /219WNM@B2/&
U (a)|Ψk i
U (a)|Ψ i =
X
|Ψ iD (a) k
?` 0= j jk
W?WI[PJL_U<?;=-I1l<I-I/wGI/<ccJP8V\/w;=WE26KMO37JL;=-ZGI/w19TUV&E3769JP/#
j
X
U (b)U (a)|Ψk i = U (b)|Ψj iDjk (a)
j
XX
= |Ψl iDlj (b)Djk (a)
j l
X X
= |Ψl i Dlj (b)Djk (a)
M@JL1lB2;=V&V&/ qN;=-M#M@<I1K19Jr l j
?`
U (b)U (a) = U (ba)
X
U (b)U (a)|Ψk i = |Ψl iDlk (ba)
;=-(/2-GIEGI<IJL3v_]<I/# l
Dlk (ba) =
X
Dlj (b)Djk (a)
?` A
;=<(/2-?B2;=69/ ?`z =

j
xWIWI[PJLBMO3KJP;=- ccJ<I-*NM@V&JP[z37;=-?JP/2-#B;=V\V:<?37/xM>=/2B[P/21E2[LE2V&/2-A371G eo<I-Xg=69;=<IW/@qU1K/21hE3M 371

D(ba) = D(b)D(a)
WI69;=WI6K/1hW/2<?>@/2-A3 13K6K/xB2[MO1K1KE1h/-CD;=-IBk37JP;@-GI/1^6K/WI6KE1K/2-A37MO37JL;=-I1hJL6K69E2GI<IBk37JLiI[P/1hM@<U?_]<I/[P[L/21
JP[L1mM@WIWIM@693KJP/2-?-I/2-A3` +M &W/269V\/k3wGI/#GIE3K/269V\JL-I/26m<I-?JP_]<I/2V&/2-A3Q1K<?6m[M
iCNM
M@ 19;=/X-GIGI/;=1 -A6K3#/2[P[PMO/3715JL;=>=-I/21QBk37/2/-A<I376K691\/XM@E21K[L19E2;cV&B/2JPE-A1#371:F GI<I<S-I/(g=6K6K;@/<IWIWY6K/\E1K[P/2/-A1537MO6K37/JLWI;=6K-E1KJP/26K-A6937E2MOGI37<?JL;=B37-IJL15iI[PJL/6K6K1KE/ZGI<I37Bk6KM@37JP-Ii?19[PCD/2;@16KV&/3:/2-A[M 3

WNM@6l[L/21dE2[LE2V&/2-A371dGI<(g=69;=<IW/@`
{W;=1K19c82/2GIV&/WIGI[P//2<Uj[M6K/WNWIMO6K6KEJL1K3K/2E5-A37B2MO;@37-IJL19;=3K-IJL371#<?JP/ 696K<IE2- G?<Ig=B6K3K;=JPiI<?[LWY/2/#15MGI>=/(/B#GIJL[nV\eoJPGI//-I-]1K3KJL;=JL3K- E Gt[n=eo<I-I{/Z [ ,BΠ};=6K69`/219hWY/ ;=-?g=G69;=<IM@<UW /
E37MO371dWNMOJP6K1qI[nefM@<?3K6K/wM@<U(E37MO371dJPV&WNM@JL6K1`

/(g=6K;@<IWY/(GI/1\69;@3M 37JP;@-I15W;=1K1982GI/GI/21&6K/WI6KE1K/-]37MO37JL;=-I1&JP696KE2G?<IB3KJPiI[L/21 GI/(GIJLV\/-I1KJL;=-
B;=-I14376K<?JL37/119<I6[PM&iNMO1K/:G?/21Ek3MO3K1WI69;=WI69/21 |l, mi G?/ L~ /k3 L~ `Yh/3937/:M 3&6KV\MO37JL;=-

6K/WY;@1K/w1K<I6d[L/m6KE219<I[L37MO3d1K<?JL>OM@-A3Q
2l + 1 2
u6K;@WY;=19JL3KJP;=-
hl m |e |l, mi = 0
19J l 6= l0 0 − ~i α
~L~ c`L c 0

E2V&;=-I14376KMO37JL;=- GNM@-?1Q[L/ 1K;=<?14pb/1KWNMOB2/ |l, mi qj;=- WY/<?3mCM@JP69/5[P/ B IM@-Ig=/V\/-]3QGI/#iNMO1K/

>=/6K1v[P/21dEk3MO3K1 |l, m; α~ i _U<?J1K;=-A3xE3M 371dWI6K;@WI6K/1vG?/ L~ · α~ /3 L~ ` M@JP1m 2
− ~i α
~L
e
~
|l, m; α ~i = e − ~i αm
|l, m; α ~i
?`z A@
M@<?3K6K/2V&/2-A3vGIJz3d[neo;=WYE67MO3K/2<I6 e -I/wB NM@-Ig=/wWNMO1v[PM:>OM@[P/<I6lGI/ l q `
− ~i α
~L~
<B2;=<IW[P/1lVM 376KJLB2/1
(l)
D (R(~ α)) = hlm |e 0 − ~i α
~L~
|l, mi
?`z =A
B2GI;=E2-?V&19;=37Jz-A3737<I69//2-A6d3_]<?<I-I/w/lB26K//1xWI696K/2EWI1K/269-AE21K37/MO-A37JL3;=MO-\3KJP;=G?-I/v1vG?1KJPV&;@-]/23v-IJL196KJP6K;=E- GI2l<IBk+37JPi?1[P/2GI1h<&/g=3v69_];=<I<I/W/^B/wGI/21K1r;=-A69;@3v3[PMO/3K1vJP;=19-?/2<I12À[L/2,.1`-#W/2<?3
m0 m

'd) " 'd' $ + ^" ' -! + 'd' $ + ' "S" (, Q$ ' (% ' * ! ' $ ) $|"
/wV 1V\/w_]< eoJP[/193v<?37JL[P/mGI/wB[M@191K/26v[P/1d;=WYE67MO3K/2<I691l>=/2Bk37;=69JP/[P1d/2->=/2Bk37/<I6K1M cJM@<cZ;=<

WYB2[P;@M@ [1KM@19JL/26K6w/21 [P/1K1.<IJzC>@M@MOV\-]3JL[P[LB/2;=1vV\G V&ef;@/2WY-AE3u67MOJL[P3K1u/2<I19/d691Q3K67/M@- -?19>@CD/2;=Bk6937V\/2<?/-]6K13u>UFJL14Zp F Bp ;=>UV\JP1uWGI;=/d1KM@[PM.-A37WN/2M@1w6KJz/k373EOq=W?JP[P[c<I/21m193g=E37-I6982E21r6KM@<?[P3K/JPV\[P/h/GI-A/3
/2GI-/21v37/26K;O-?31KMO/23K<?JP6K;=1x-IF1` 2l + 1 B2;@V\W;=17MO-]3K/21d1K<?JL>OM@-A3v[M5C
M 2;@-G?;=-A3JL[P1^19/Q3K67M@-I14CD;=6KV&/2-A3d>UJP1 p F pn>cJL1
,.
., -0GIJL3_]<I/(H;=WE26KMO37/<I6K1 Aˆ , Â , Â B;=-I193KJL3K<I/2-A3 [L/21:B;=V&WY;=1KM@-A37/15G eo<I-0;=WE26KMO37/<I6

>=/B37;@6KJP/[ ;=<&WI[P<?119JPV&WI[P/V\/-A3rG ef<?-\>=/B3K/2<I67 A~ 1KJqA1K;=<I1[nefM@Bk37JP;@- G ef<?-I/69;@3MO3KJP;=- G?EN-IJL/
WNM@6 α~ qN;=-M
x y z
~ α) = R A
† ~ ?`z ]
{B2;=-?19?37/Jz37V\<IW?/-A[P/ 3x@G?Gj;=es-IM@BwW?6K<I82-(1r[P>=M./2BkGI37E/N<I-?62JL` 37JL;=- V 12V&/^GI/ R(~α) q=;=-&M5 R (~α)~rˆR(~α) = R ~r ` (x̂, ŷ, ẑ)
R (~α)AR(~ α
~
†
α
~
u6K;=W;=1KJz37JL;=- ~ /2193t<I-:>=/B3K/2<I6u19Jc/k3t1K/<I[P/V\/-A3t1KJcJP[A>=E6KJzN/h[L/21 6982g=[L/21 GI/^B;=V\V:<?3MO3KJP;=-

A
[A , L ] = i~ A
?`z =
ijk
E2V&;=-I14376KMO37JL;=- efM@WI69821[PM&G?E2V&;=-I193K67MO3KJP;=-CM@JL3K/wWY;=<?6xEk3M@iI[LJP6d[M CD;=69V\/wGI/[neo;=WYE67M p

37/<I 6dGI/w6K;@37MO37JL;=- q?;@-H MZ
i j k
?`z "A
i ~ i ~
e ~ α~ L~rê− ~ α~ L = Rα~ (~rˆ)
⇔ [x̂i , L̂] = i~ijk x̂k

., 6dB2/3937/QGIE2V&;=-I14376KMO37JL;=-(-I/QCMOJL3vM@<IB<I-I/ ATcW;@3 I8219/21.19<IWIWI[LE2V&/2-A3M@JL6K/1v19<I6 ~rˆ` { [L[P/mW/2<?3

GI;=-?B 1k3769/QEk37/-IGI<I/Q17M@-?1xMO<IB2<I-?/V&;cG?JLNB2MO37JL;=-ZF537;=<c3d;=WYE67MO3K/2<I6 A~ = (A , A , A ) ` x y z
{ c/2V&WI[P/ p~ˆ /2193<I- >=/B3K/2<I6` { - /yY/32qj-I;=<?1mM>=;=-I1x>c< F&[neo;cBBM@19JP;=-GI/5[PM\6KE1K;=[L<?37JL;=-

GI/w[neoE2_]<NM 37JP;@-ZGI/cB I6 UGIJL-Ig=/26dGNMO-I1d<I-W;@3K/2-A37JL/2[ B/2-A376KM@[+_U<?/ [p̂ , L̂ ] = i~ Â ` i j
ijk
k
" ,'
v- ! ! ;=<S37/-I1K/<I65GI/Z6KM@-Ig n /k3#<I-/2-I19/2V5iI[L/(GI/ n ;=WE267M 37/2<?6K1

_]<IJ1K/w376KM@-I14CD;=6KV&/2-A3d1K<?JL>OM@-A3w
3
T ,··· ,T
c`L 0=
1 n
X
−1
R(~ α)T R(~ α) = k T D (R ) l lk α
~
;=R([P/1dVMO3K6KJLB2/21 D (R ) B2;@-I193KJL37<?/2-A3v<I-I/w6K/WI6KE1K/2-A37MO37JL;=-HGI<g=69;=<IW/mGI/21d6K;O3MO3KJP;=-I1`
l
lk α
~
<I-(6 >=/2/V\B37M@/6K<I_]62<Iq/#;=- =MZ ef/193riIJL/2-5<?-I/^g=E-IE26KM@[PJL17MO3KJP;=-GI/^[Mv-I;@3KJP;=-GI/h>=/B3K/2<I6912` { - /yY/32q=WY;@<I6

~ˆ α) = R̄ ~ˆ
c`L
;=BMOR 6937R̄¯E1KJL/2GI-IE2-I19/JPg=12-I`Y/,.[-M&/V-MOG?3KE26KJLGIB2<I/Jz3wI, (3) GIEB26KJz>OM@-A3.[M&6K;@37MO37JL;=-GIEN-?JP/:WIM@6 α~ /2- B;c;@6KGI;=-?-IE2/1
R(~α) AR(~ −1¯ A
α
~
α
~
R(~
α)R(~ ~ˆ α)R(~
α)−1 AR(~ ¯ R(~
α)−1 = R̄ ~ˆ α)−1
α)AR(~
c`L
A
α
~
~ˆ = R̄ ~ˆ α)−1
M@JL12q R̄¯ qNWI<IJP19_]<I/ R̄¯ /193v<I-I/wV\MO3769JPB2/;=693 I;=g=;=-IM@[P/O`
A ¯ R(~
α)AR(~
α
~
−1 ¯
α
~ = t R̄ α
~ α
~
R(~ ~ˆ α)−1 =
α)AR(~ t¯ A
R̄ α
~
~ˆ
X
R(~ α)−1 =
α)Âi R(~ t ¯
R̄ Âj
α
~
c`L= A
ij
j
X
R(~
α)Âi R(~
α) −1
= Âj ¯
R̄ α
~
ji
6 /2V\M@6K_]<I/ Ih/k3K37/xB2;=-A>@/2-A37JL;=-XW;=<I6hG?EN-IJL6[L/21r37/-I1K/<I6K1h>UJL/2-A3^G eo<I-ZMO<?3769/xW;=JP-A3GI/

j
>U<I<I-I/@/rqA37B6K/2M@[L-I<I14JICD;=GI6K/V\1 MO37 JL;=! -. B2 M@!-I ;= -IJL_] <I! /r/219 3|! =-I//rBdB N[M.M@-?V&g=E2/hBMOMO-I<IJPB2_]<I<I-?/l/BWI[69M@;=19WI1KJP69_]JP<IE3K/OE q

GI<Z14Tc14378V\/O` 3x-I/x37/2[L[P/d376KM@-I19CD;@6KV\MO37JL;=-\B;=-I19JP193K/mF:B NMO-Ig=/26l19JPV5<?[L3MO-IE2V&/2-A3[P/21>=/B37/<I6K1

/;=3(WE2[L6K/2MO1Z37/;=<IW6 E26KMO37/<I6K1` M@JL1X1KJm;=- B IM@-Ig=/ [P/1X>=/B37/<I6K1/3([L/21Z;=WE26KMO37/<I6K1F0[esM@JLGI/ G eo<I-

U
|Ψi → U |Ψi
?`z==

;=-GI;=JL3^B NM@-Ig=/6d[P/21d;=WE26KMO37/<I6K1w
A → U ÂU †
?`z= =
WY;@<I6l_]<I/[L/21^>OM@[L/2<I691vV&;}T=/-I-I/w-I/w1K;=JL/2-A3vWNM@1dV&;cGIJzNE2/12` { -/yY/3Q
hΨ|Â|Ψi → hU Ψ|U ÂU † |U Ψi
= hΨ|U † U ÂU † U |Ψi
= hΨ|A|Ψi
/214<?3x3KG?6K/E2V\B269/JL3K-]/Q35WIGIM@JL6w32q| [PM376KM@-I19CD;@6KV\MO37JL;=- B2M@-I;=-?JP_]<I/ZM@191K;UB2JLE2/ZF <I-?/X;=WE267M 37JP;@- GI/Z14TcV&E3K6KJL/
(
|Ψi → U |Ψi ?`z=}A
h;=V&V\//2-V\EBM@-?JP_]<I/ B[M@191KJP_]<I/Oq^<IÂ-I/3767→MO-I19CDU;=69ÂUVM 37JP;@-BMO-I;=-IJL_U<?/iIJP/- B I;=JP19JP/WY/<?3
†
B2;=-?1KJPG?E267MOiI[P/V\/-]3d19JPV&WI[PJzN/26h[P/mWI69;=iI[P8V\/O`
,' 4"& ,." % $
,, ,'/0

., - M@WIW/2[P[L/Q3K/2-I19/2<I6 1KW#IE6KJL_U<?/}JP696KEGI<IB3KJPiI[L/:GI/:67M@-Ig k qj[L/:BMO1mWNM@693KJPB<I[PJL/26vGI/ 2k +
k
;GIJPV&=W/2E2-?6K1KMOJP;@37/- <I6K1 T _] <IJ19/3K67M@-I14CD;=6KV&/2-A3XF [nefM@JLGI/G?/H[M 6K/WI6KE1K/-]37MO37JL;=- JP696KEGI<IB3KJPiI[L/(GI/

1 q
?`z= A
k
2k + 1
M@<?3K6K/2V&/2-A3vGIJz3d_U<?J1K/m376KM@-I19CD;@6KV&/2-A3dG efM@WI6K81
(k) 0 −i~ ~
αL/~
D (R ) = hkm |e mm0 |kmi α
~
R(~ α)T R(~ α) =

X q
T D (R )
k
−1
k
?`z=
= q0
k
(k)
q0 q α
~
u6K;=W;=1KJz37JL;=-
q 0 =−k
?`z="A
 q q
 [J , T ] = qT p zk k
q q+1
[J , T ] = pk(k + 1) − m(m + 1)T
+ k k

[J− , Tkq ] = k(k + 1) − m(m − 1)Tkq−1
/3 2EIq V&/k3v;=G -Ief14<c37376KJPMO[L37JP19JL;=/2-6^[LN/21lab[E21K[L<.E2V&3#/23v-AGI37/w1dGIB2;@/w-IV\1KJLMOGI37E26969JP/2B6d/.GIGI/2/21d1v69B2;@;@3V\MO3KWJP;=;=-?17MO1l-]JP3K-?/2N1d-?GIJL37/ E1KJLV >@M@;=[L/2JP6l1hM@/ c<?/2376K;@B<IJP6lB/}GIk/ ` x̂ q ŷ
ẑ ~
L
u6K;=W;=1KJz37JL;=- cJ ~ˆ /193x<I->@/2Bk37/2<?62q[P/1l;=WYE67MO3K/2<I691w

A
T =−1
1
Â − iÂ
x
√
y q T = Â q T = Â √+ iÂ
0
1 z
1
1
x y ?`z=
0=
2 2

B2;@-I193KJL37<?/2-A3v<I-3K/2-I19/2<I6vJP696KEGI<IB3KJPiI[L/.GI/w67MO-Ig 1 `
V5<? 37EMOV\37/;@<I-I6K1193KM67>=MO/3KBJP;=[L- /21 B;=hV\/[WM;=GI1KM@E2-AB;=37/2<I1+[P/\GI/ GI/q}[PM/3+G?G?E/N[P-IM^Jz37WIJL6K;=;@- WY;=G 19eo<IJL3K- JP;=-m>@/2WIBk6937E2/2B<?E26 GI/F-][3Kes/ M@JL GI>=/#;=JLGI6//kc19/2/2691B2JPB2B;=/2V 17kp `
~
L
ueoJP-A37E6 13#G?/XGIEI-IJP65G?/21537/-I1K/<I6K1#69E21KJLGI/ZGNM@-?15[P/CMOJL35_]<I/Z[L/215E[PEV\/-]3K15GI/ZV\MO3769JPB/
GC M@eoBk<I37-\/2<?3K/26v-I_]19<I/2J<I6-?/Q1K/vG?CE2M@WB/23K-I;=G6KJL1KWN/2M@-A1d3GI/2-\/21d[P/d-I;@WIV569;ciIGI6K<?/JL1d3_UG <Ieo<IM@--A37BJP_];c<I/ 3\/1xB69JP//2-][PMO3h37JzGICD/1lFh[P/2i?1K B cp5w;=69GNM@- q]/k3hG eo<I-

?`L@
L̂ z
0 0 q 0 0 0
;=R([P/mW?6K/2V&JP/6hCM@Bk37/2<?6lGI<V&/2V:iI6K/mGI/mG?6K;=Jz37/m/2143v<I-(B2;U4/ 3&B2JL/2-A3vGI/h[P/2i?1KB cp 5w;=69GNM@- q?/3

hj m |T |jmi = hjkmq|jkj m ihj ||T ||ji
k k
[P/Q` GIh//<cc6KE2JP8219<IV&[L37/@MOqj3xM@WI/219W3./2[LM@EWIWE[P/2E2[LV&E /2 -A3 GI /: V\ MO3769 JPB/69E2!"GIU<Z_]<I/.[L/21B2;U4/ 3&B2JL/2-A371

GIGI/&/hh[P[L//2iIiI1K19BB Uc p p 5m5m;=;=6K6KGNGIMOM@-- _]1K;=<I-A/ 3m3MOiI<I[PE12` { - WNM@6437JL17B2M@<I<?[LJPC|/21K6Juq;= - GIE2GI<?JL3wM@JL1KEV\/-]3wG?/21mWI69;=WI6KJLE3KE21

0 0 q
hj m |T |jmi = 0 k
0
m =m+q
0 0
c`L= A
+MxWI69/2V&JP86K/rB2;=-?GIJL3KJP;=-QGIE2B;=<I[L/GIJL6K/B37/V\/-A3 GI/1 WI69;=WI69JPE3KE21 GI/21|B2;U4/ 3&B2JL/2-A371|GI/hh[P/2i?1KB cp
|j − j | ≤ k ≤ j + j
5m;=6KGNMO- ` +M GI/2<ccJL82V&/QB;=-IGIJz37JL;=-X>UJP/2-A3vGI<(CM@JL3^_U<?/ hjkmq|jkj m i = 0 17MO<?Ct19Ju 0 0

 j − k ≤ j0
0
|j − k| ≤ j ≤ j + k ⇔ k − j ≤ j0
 0
j ≤j+k

 k ≥ j − j0
⇔ k ≤ j + j0

k ≥ j0 − j
⇔ |j − j 0 | ≤ k ≤ j + j 0
c`L A
+M GIE2V&;=-I143767M 37JP;@-G?<(3 IE2;@6K82V&/wGI/ JPg=-?/264p { B OMO693d1K/67M CM@JL3K/m/2-GI/>@;=JP6`
u6K;@WY;=19JL3KJP;=- WNMO6937JL6dGI/G?/2<c>=/B37/<I6K1 ~ /k3 ~ q;=-WY/<?3xCD;@6KV&/26 3K/2-I19/2<I691.1KW IEkp
6KJL_]<I/21dJP696KEGI<IB3KJPiI[L/21lGI/w6KM@-Ig 0 q 1 qI/k3 2 A B

3
6KM@-Ig 0 → A.~ B~ c`L U

6KM@-Ig 1 → A~ ∧ B~ c`L @=
6KM@-Ig 2 → (A B + A B , A B + A B , A B + A B ,
A B − A B , 3A B − A. ~ B) ~ 1
1
1
2
2
?`L}@A
2
2
1 1
3
3
3
3 1 2 3 3 2

aWNM@15[3K/k6Kc;=JP<?1437>@/Q/26 GI/w/ I-IMO;=BV537/i?V\6K/2/<U-A3\WI[L/26K1 ;=i?Ek[P382MOV&3K1 /21^WI6Kp;=[nW?eoJP6KV&/21 V&/k/23#-I19[P/./15VE2M -I/;=6K6Kg=JzJL37/2E1 cWIp69W;=;=WI<I69/26d1 [L/2GI1K/Z_]<I[/eN[P1vMOV\;=-JL[L37-I;@/w-I17JP/M@- Jz3 `
b
JLyYE269/2-A37/1l37/2B ?-IJP_]<I/1xMOWIWI6K;cJPV\MO3KJL>=/1^/kcJL1937/-A3dWY/6KV&/3K37M@-A3d-IEMO-IV\;@JP-I1G ef;@i?37/-IJP6lGI/1

JP -?CD;@6KV\MO37JL;=-I1hW/26437JL-I/2-A37/12`
\2 & Z$ ) ' $ * "+* ! ' '
-I;=uV efJLGIG?E2/ /Z GI!/(!"iN MO1K/Z GI /(! B2/k 3K 3K!/!"V& rE3 I;UGI/Z6K/WY;=19/(1K<I6#[P/\3%IE;=6K8V\/(1K<?JL>OM@-A3qtB;=-I-]< 1K;=<I1#[L/
(∀ |Ψi)
E2-?/26Kg@JP/wGI<(CD;=-IGNM@V&/2-A37M@[
hΨ|H|Ψi
≥ E0 E0
?`L}
hΨ|Ψi
[neoE2gAMO[PJL3KE- eoE37M@-A3d>=E269JLNE/w_U<?/W;=<I6l[L/.CD;=-IGNM@V&/2-A37M@[ GI/ H `
E2V&;=-I14376KMO37JL;=- c;=JL/2-A3 |N i [L/21lEk3MO3K1vW?6K;=WI69/21dGI/ H `,.-WY/<?3vE2B6KJP69/
X
H = EN |N ihN |
N
X
hΨ|H|Ψi = EN |hΨ|N i|2
N
X X
≥ E0 |hΨ|N i|2 = E0 hΨ|N ihΨ|N i
`

= E0 hΨ|Ψi
N

N
?`s=
<?3K6K/wGIEV\;=-?19376KMO37JL;=- N;=-(W/2<?3vGIEB2;=V&WY;@1K/26 19<I6d[P/miNMO1K/ |N i q
|Ψi

X
|Ψi = ci |ii
⇒ hΨ|H|Ψi =
X
i
|ci |2 Ei ≥ E0
X
|ci |2 = E0 hΨ|Ψi
?`fA
i i
h/QWI6KJL-IB2JLWY/x>@MO6KJM 37JP;@-I-I/2[YWY/<?3 13K6K/w<?37JL[PJL1KE.GI/wWI[L<I1KJL/2<I691^CM

2;@-I1w
=`d_]ab[|<IWYJ/W6K/2V&<?/3 3w1k37G 6Keo/w;=i?<?3K3K/2JP-I[L/@JLq?6./GI-/21mWIM@i69;=3K69JPB2-I<?/2[P1mJP/196^<IWWY;=E6K<IJL6l/2<IGI69//21v1mG?WE2;=V&<I;=6.-I[19efE3K-I67MO/23K69JPg=;=JP-?/51lG?6K< JPg@CD;=;@<I-I6KGN/M@<IV&1K//212-A` 3MO[nqB2/
c`dab[AW/269V\/k3+GI/u376K;@<?>=/6 <?-I/rE2-I/6Kg=JL/rCD;@-IGNM@V&/2-A3MO[P/uM@W?WI6K;UB IE2/r/-V&JP-IJLV\JL17M@-A3
WWI69;=;c<IB 6m?<IE2/w-?/&GI<(CM@CDV&;=-IJP[LGN[P/QM@V&GI/ /2-A@37/kM@37[n1Q` G ef/1K1KM@Jnq M@JL-I1KJt_]<I/&G eo;=i?3K/2-IJL6m<I-I/#CD;=-IB3KJP;=-Gjef;=-?GI/MOWcp hΨ|H|Ψi
hΨ|Ψi
{ c/2V&WI[P/ NB;=-I1KJLGIE269;=-I1d[neo;=19B2JP[L[MO3K/2<I6 NM@69V\;=-?JP_]<I/5 GIEkN-IJ+WNM@6l[e NMOV\JL[L37;@-IJP/-

H=
−~2 d2
2
?`]
1
+ mω 2 x2
2m dx 2
/3t/21K1KMT=;=-I1rGI/376K;@<?>=/6t[P/V\JL-IJPV5<?V GI/ F.[neoJP-A37E6KJL/2<I6 GI/^[PMvCM@V&JP[L[P/uGI/ O/3K1uGIEN-?JP1

WNM@6l[L/21lCD;=-IBk37JL;=-I1lG eo;=-IGI/ Ψ (x) = M>@/2B a > 0` hΨ|H|Ψi
hΨ|Ψi
;=69V5<I[P/1l<?37JL[P/1. a
1
x2 +a
Z +∞
dx 1 x pi
I1 = = √ [arctan( √ )]+∞
∞ = √
|;=19;=-I1 −∞ x2 +a a a a
Z
+∞
dx
In =
−∞ (x + a)n
2
dIn
= −nIn+1
da
1 dIn
⇒ In+1 = −
G ef;@R
I2 =
n da
dI1 π
= a−3/2
da 2
3π −5/2
I3 = a
8
5π −7/2
I4 = a
16

Z +∞ Z +∞ 2
dx d2 1 d 1
2 2
( 2 )dx = − ( 2 ) dx
−∞ x + a dx x + a −∞ dx x + a
+∞
1 d 1
+ 2 ( )
x + a dx x2 + a −∞
d 1 −2x
2
=
dx x + a (x + a)2
2
Z +∞ Z
dx d2 1 4x2
( )dx = − dx = 4[I3 − aI4 ]
−∞ x2 + a dx2 x2 + a (x2 + a)4
Z
dx
x2 2 = I1 − aI2
(x + a)2
−~2 1
(−4)[I3 − aI4 ] + mω 2 [I1 − aI2 ]
⇒ hΨ|H|Ψi =
2m 2
hΨ|Ψi = I2
hΨ|H|Ψi ~2 1 1
⇒ = + mω 2 a = E(a)
W;=<I6
hΨ|Ψi 4m a 2
dE
= 0
da
~
⇔ amin = √
1
2mω
⇒ Emin = E(amin ) = √ ~ω
?` @
2
h /3937/wE2-I/6Kg=JL/w/2193v19<IWYE6KJL/2<I69/F [PM >OM@[L/2<I6l/ ?M@B3K/ B2;@V\V&/mJP[ 19/wGI;=JL32`
h/3937/vV\Ek3%I;UGI/d>@MO6KJM 37JP;@-I/2[L[P/h/193376K81<c37JP[L/l[P;=691K_]< eo;=-XMw<I-I/xiY;@-I-I/vJP-A37<IJz37JL;=- GI/21 WI6K; p ~ω
W37I696K/2JL/E3KE21r;cBGIX<&W19TU;=<I193K6l82V&[L/m/@WI` 6K{ ;@[PiI[P[P/l8V\/193/wFwF [WIM.[L<IiN1KM@JL19/2/x<I69G?1v/vE[P[PM./B3%37I69E;=;=-I6K17JL/lkqNGI//23v1/MO[P37[P/;@V\/219/3x1uF#/3[neoGI;=/26KJL1g=V&JP-?;=/[PEGIB2/w<IWI[L/2[L1<I1KJL~/2<IM@696 1p

2
WI6KJ 1v;=iY/[ 3 IE2;=69JP/mGI/w[PM#19<IWI6KM@B2;=-?GI<IB3KJL>UJL3KE@qI3 IE2;=69JP/mGI/w[ef/kyj/k3v~M@[L[j_]<NM@-A37JL_]<I/@`z`L`sk`

\% $ (, w$ * ' (

% ' + ' $ " ' $ "+* -! + ! ! % , ,d-! ,^ $ , ' +

c<IWIW;=19;=-I1d_]<I/[e IM@V\JL[L3K;=-IJP/-\Gjef<I-19TU193K82V&/w1K;=Jz3dGI/w[M5CD;=6KV&/
?!` "=
;=R H /2143[e NMOV\JL[L37;@-IJP/-_]<I/:[ef;@-1KM@JL3v69E21K;@<IGI6K/Q/k?M@Bk37/V\/-]3 WNMO6v/ c/2V&WI[P/Q<I-;=1KBJP[zp
H = H + V̂ 0
[MO3K/2<I6 NM@6KV&;=-IJL-I_]/<I/}WYx;@/k1K3 1K8V̂GI/H/214W?3w[P<I<I1#-GI37//2691KV\;=[L/ <?37BJL;=;=V&-WI/k[P?EM@V\Bk/37-]/ 37M@ WNJP69M@/:6#MO/kWIcWY//V\[PE WI[L /(<I- 3K/2 6K V& /(! G 37/eo;=[t6K_]GI<I69//
0
1K<IWE269JP/<I6vF\ /2- x̂ `

Ĥ = Ĥ + V̂ 0

xWIWY/[P;=-?1 |ϕ i [P/1lE3M 371dWI6K;@WI6K/1vG?/ H /3 [P/1vE-I/269g=JP/1dWI6K;=W?6K/21w

p 0 p
?`!0=
//23:19WY1KE;=6KJz/3 6|ϕ3769;=i<?>@<I/2-06^<IEk3-\MOE3:37WIMO3h6K;@W?WI6K6K;=/ WI69! / GI! / k! WI6K;UkB ` IU/ JkGI[PM/ W/26437<IGI69;=iN-AMO337JL[n;=eoE2- -I//196K3g=JL/xWY19/k/23767JzM 37/ WIq 6K;@;U-0B IWY/ /GI<?/3
H0 |ϕp i = p |ϕp i

`
n
H |ϕ i n
u[P<?1vW?6KE2BJP19E2V&/2-A3qNB;=-I1KJLGIE269;=-I1v[P/mWI69;=iI[L82V&/.WI[P<?1vg@E2-IE67M@[GI;@-I-IEwWNM@6
n
?`

WNM@c6J [λFA /q19;=3x-1K<.W3&/2<?1KM@3XV\/2V&1KW/2E2-A693v/26(W/E237BJz6K3 JL6K/ -I;@[P<IM 1v1K>@;=/2[L<?696K37;=JL;=-I-1xF#19;=[<IM:1ZN[-M GICD<;=6KB2V&M@/ [PB<IG [eo<IB2-/w_]GI< E>@eoJP/2[ [LC;=M@WI<cW3x/2/V&-A/237-A/2-?3(GI/26K- /
H = H + λV̂ 0
WI<IJL1K1KM@-IB2/1xG?/ λ
|Ψn i = |ϕn i + λ|Ψ(1) 2 (2)
n i + λ |Ψn i + . . .
En = n + λEn(1) + λ2 En(2) + . . .
?` A
cJr[L/&6KMT=;=- GI/&B2;=-A>=/6Kg=/-IB2/GI/\B/3937/&1KE269JP/#/2143:19<IWE26KJL/2<I6w;=< E2gAMO[rF = q;@- M@<?67M(<I-I/
i;=-I-I/QM@WIW?6K;cJPV\MO37JL;=-XGI/w[neoE2-?/26Kg@JP/m/2-1K/w[LJPV&JL3MO-]3hF#_U<?/2[P_]<I/1v3K/269V\/12`
{ 1K1KMT=;=-I1GI;=-IBwGI/wGIEk37/269V\JL-I/26l[L/21^3K/26KV&/21dGI/wB/3K3K/w1KE269JP/O`
~dTcW;@3 I8219/ ;=- MZ[MX[LJPi/26437E5GI/#B I;@JP1KJL6m[MX-I;@6KV\M@[PJL17MO3KJP;=-GI/ |Ψ i ` /#B I;=Jz[P/5WI[L<I1
B2;@V\V&;cG?/lB2;=-I19JP1437/.FwWI69/2-IGI69/ hϕ |Ψ (λ)i = 1 W;=<I6u3K;=<?3 λ qUM@<?3K6K/V\/-]3GIJz3 hϕ |Ψ i = n
W;=<I6l37;=<c3 i ` n n n
(i)
n
6 /2W;=693K;=-I1 [L/21:/ cWI6K/1K1KJL;=-I1#GI/ k

/ 3 2
/ S
- I
W I
< L
J K
1 K
1 @
M I
- 2
B
/ #
1 I
G / I
G @
M I
- 1 n
[ o
e 2
E ]
_ N
< M 7
3 P
J @
; 0
- I
G /
0
cB I6cG?JP-Ig=/6m |Ψ i E λn n
ab[ >UJP/-]3Q (H0 + λV̂ )|Ψn i = En |Ψn i
?`z A
(1) (2)
(H0 + λV̂ )(|ϕn i + λ|Ψn i + λ2 |Ψn i + . . . )
(1) (2) (1) (2)
= (n + λEn + λ2 En + . . . )(|ϕn i + λ|Ψn i + λ2 |Ψn i + . . . )
h/k3K37/QE2_]<NM 37JP;@-G?;=JL3 1k376K/m>U67MOJP/wF B NM@_]<I/Q;=6KG?6K/w/2- λ `
=`x,.6KG?6K/
?`L@
c`x,.6KG?6K/# H0 |ϕn i = n |ϕn i
H0 |Ψ(1) (1) (1)

n i + V̂ |ϕn i = n |Ψn i + En |ϕn i
?`L}=

?`x,.6KGI69/ ≥ 2
H0 |Ψn(k) i + V̂ |Ψ(k−1) i = n |Ψn(k) i + En(1) |Ψ(k−1) i + · · · + En(k−1) |Ψ(1) (k)
n i + En |ϕn i ?`z}A
M@JP19;=-I1l[L/mWI6K;UGI<IJz3d1KBMO[M@JL6K/.GI/Q[neo;=69GI6K/ wWNM@6 hϕ | `/QW?6K/2V&JP/6h37/6KV&/wGI<V&/2-]iI69/
n n
GI/QgAM@<IBB I/:/193E2gAM@[ F hϕ |ψ i WI<?JP1K_]<I/ H |ϕ i = |ϕ i q/3x1K/1KJPV&WI[LJLN/mM>@/2B

[P/mW?6K/2V&JP/6^37/6KV&/mGI<V&/2-]iI69/wGI/wGI6K;=Jz37/OÌab[ >UJP/2-A3dGI;@-IB#
n
(1)
n n n 0 n n
hϕn |H0 |Ψ(1) (1) (1)

n i + hϕn |V̂ |ϕn i = n hϕn |Ψn i + En hϕn |ϕn i
?`z ]
/wV12V&/@qI19J-I;=<I1lCM@JL1K;=-I1l[L/mWI6K;UGI<IJz3d1KB2M@[M@JL6K/.G?/Q[ef;@6KGI69/ k M>@/2B |ϕ i qNJP[>UJP/2-A3Q
En(1) = hϕn |V̂ |ϕn i
?`z
=
n
|;@<I6r_U<?/v[esMO[Pg=;=69JL3 IV\/r19;=JL3uB;=V&WI[P/k3q@JL[cCM@<c3r17M>=;=JL6uGIE3K/269V\JL-I/26 B;=-I-NMOJP1K1KM@-A3

(k) (k−1)
E = hϕ |V̂ |ϕ
n n n i
/k3 Ψ . . . Ψ ` h;=V&V&/5[P/1 |Ψ i 1K;=-A3QWNM@6 ATUW;@%3 I81K/\;=693 I;=g=;Op |ϕ i

(k)
n
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E ...E
(1)
n
(k)
n
n
(1)
n
(k−1)
n

(k)
n
(k)
n m

m 6= n k hϕ | m
hϕm |H0 |Ψn(k) i + hϕm |V̂ |Ψ(k−1)

n i
= n hϕm |Ψn i + En hϕm |Ψn i + · · · + En(k) hϕm |ϕm i
(k) (1) (k−1)
⇒ m hϕm |Ψn(k) i + hϕm |V̂ |Ψ(k−1)

n i
= n hϕm |Ψn(k) i + En(1) hϕm |Ψ(k−1)
n i + · · · + En(k−1) hϕm |Ψ(1)
n i
1
hϕm |Ψn(k) i = hϕm |V̂ |Ψ(k−1)
n i − E (1)
n hϕ m |Ψ (k−1)
n i − · · · − E (k−1)
n hϕ m |Ψ (1)
n i
|;@<I6 3769;=<?>=/6 |Ψ i q2JP[O1K<.3#3 GI;=-?BuGI/uB2;=-?-NM 3K6K/ |Ψ i, . . . , |Ψ i / 3 E . . . E `

n − m

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(k) (1) (k−1) (1) (k−1)
3%?E2;=69JP/mGI/ ! `

n n n n n
(k)
E n

^M@1dWNM@6437JPB<I[PJL/26
M@JP19;=-I1 [L/hB2M@[PB<I[?F.[ef;@6KGI69/lc`@,.-#M.GIE Fx3K6K;=<c>=E E = hϕ |V̂ |ϕ i ` M@JL1K;=-I1|[P^/ W?6K;UGI<IJL3
1KB2M@[M@JL6K/mGI/w[ef;=69GI6K/:WNMO6 |ϕ i `

m
(1)
n n n

hϕ |Ψ i =
1
m
(1)
hϕ |V̂ |ϕ i
?`z "A
m n
B2/w_]<IJGIEkN-IJL3 Ψ `
n
− n m
(1)
n

En(2) = hϕn |V̂ |Ψ(1)

n i
X
= hϕm |V̂ |ϕm ihϕn |Ψ(1)
n i
m
X
= hϕn |V̂ |ϕm ihϕm |Ψ(1)
n i
m6=n
WI<?JP1K_]<I/ hϕn |Ψn i = 0

(1) q?G ef;@R
?`L0=
2

X hϕm |V̂ |ϕn i
En(2) =
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n − m
6 2/ V\M@6K_]<I/1
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n

n m
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1
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1
hϕm |Ψ(2)
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n i − E (1)
n hϕ m |Ψ (1)
n i
n − m
!
1 X
= hϕm |V̂ |ϕp ihϕp |Ψ(1) (1)
n i − hϕn |V̂ |ϕn ihϕm |Ψn i
n − m p6=n
!
1 X hϕm |V̂ |ϕp ihϕp |V̂ |ϕn i hϕn |V̂ |ϕn ihϕm |V̂ |ϕn i
= −
n − m p6=n
n − p n − m

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?`z
m
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(En − m )hϕm |Ψn i = λhϕm |V̂ |Ψn i

hϕn |Ψn i = 1
X
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?`zA
m6=n
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|Ψn i = |ϕn i + λ |ϕm i
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X 1 1
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c
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n

6 /k>=/-I;=-I1v/2-/yY/3xF [neoE2_]<NMO3KJP;=-(GI/cB ?6 UGIJP-Ig@/26m
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A
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0 n n n
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?`sc
n
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E = + λhϕ |V̂ |Ψ i
n n n n

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n
n
n |Ψ i n
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X hϕ m | V̂ |ϕ i
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h;=V&V&/[PM#-?;=6KV&/G?/
hΨ |Ψ i n n
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(1)
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2

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≤ hϕm |V̂ |ϕn i
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!
1 X 2

= hϕn |V̂ |ϕm ihϕm |V̂ |ϕn i − hϕn |V̂ |ϕn i
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n

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1
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,
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i
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n i +
X
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X
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n ihϕnj |ϕni i
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i
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q
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n
ni n1 nk
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nj ni n
?`s ]
eo/2143GI;@-IBwiIJP/-[PM5iNM@19/_]<IJ+M@-?-U<?[P/m[P/1dE2[PEV\/-A371d-I;=-(GIJPM@g=;=-NMO<cZGI/ V̂ `
hΨni |V̂ |Ψnj i = En(1)
i
δij
6 /2V\M@6K_]<I/
En(1)
i
6= hϕni |V̂ |ϕni i
?`s =

{ -Zg=E2-IE67M@[q?[L/21Ê-I/269g=JP/1 E 19;=-A3l37;=<?3K/21lGIJzyjE6K/-]3K/21`,.-ZGIJL3^M@[P;=691h_]<I/m[PM:WY/693K<I6KiNM p
37JL;=-M ! !"k`
(1)
ni
{ ?/V\W?[P/
h;=-I19JPGIE6K;=-I1&H-?JL>=/2M@<c0GIE2g=E-IE269E21 |ϕ i /3 |ϕ i ` +M [P/>@E2/ZGI/ZG?E2g=E-IE269/21KB/2-IB//193#;=iUp
37M@/<c-UZ<?/:>OM@/2[L-/2<IGI691lJMOWIg=6K;=;@-NWIM@6K[L/JP1K1M@-A3l[M V\MO3769JPB2/ V̂ = hϕ |V̂ |ϕ i qNB/:_]<IJ+B2;@6K6K/1KW;=-IGHF\[neoE2_]<NM 37JP;@-
ij
1
ni
2
nj

V11 − E V12
=0
V21 V22 − E
(V11 − E)(V22 − E) − |V12 |2 = 0

E 2 − E(V11 + V22 ) + V11 V22 − |V12 |2 = 0
q
1
E± = [V11 + V22 ± (V11 + V22 )2 − 4V11 V22 + 4 |V12 |2 ]
=
2
1
(V11 + V22 ) ±
1
q
(V11 − V22 )2 + 4 |V12 |2
?`f "A
{ -WNMO6937JLB2<I[LJP/62qU1KJ[P/1dE2[PEV\/-A371lGIJPM@g=;=-NMO<cZ19;=-A3xEgAM@<c V = V = V qNJP[j>UJL/2-A3w
2 2
?`f 0=
11 22
?`f
(1)
± E = V ± |V | 12
+M.[P/>@E2/lGI/lG?E2g=E-IE269/21KB/2-IB//193 ! lGNMO-I1u[P/1t37/269V\/1t-I;=-#GIJPM@g=;=-IM@<cYÀh/l69E21K<?[L3M 3

(1) (1)
⇒ E − E = 2|V |
+ − 12
/2GI14/23 1vFHE37BMO;=371d-A37-I67;@MO-1937/G?65E2g=ME>=-I/E2BX69E2[M1.MOB2<;=-AG?3KE26KJPWNi?M@<?64373JLqN;=_]- <IG?J/2/15193xE/2[PE2[P[LV&//237-A;@3K< 1;=GI<I/\691vV_]M <N37MO6KGIJLB267/&MO3K-IJP_];=-<I/OGI` JM@g@;=-NM@<c M>@/2B

cJ V = 0 ;@-(3K6K;=<c>=/

12 (
(1)
E+ = V11
@M JL1l1KJ V 6= 0 qIB2/w- eo/2143WIM@1d[P/mBMO1 >=;=JL6l6K/VM@69_]<I/wB2Jzp GI/2191K<I17

(1)
E− = V22

|;=<?6M@[L[P/6dF\[neo;=69GI6K/w1K<?JL>OM@-A3qB2;@V\V&/2-IB;=-I1dWNM@6vGIEk37/269V\JL-I/26 ` { - WI6K/-NM@-A3x[P/wWI6K; p
12
m

GI1K;=<I<?Jz3#14pb/1KB1KWNMO[MOM@B2JL/:6K/XG?E2GIg=/(E- [efKE;=69kGIqN6KJP/[Y>cJL/2WN-AM@3Q6 hϕ | M>=/B 6= WI<IJL1K_]<I/ |ϕ i /193\/2- GI/ I;@6K1#GI<
m
|Ψ i
n
(1)
n
m
X
hϕm |H0 |Ψ(1)
n i+ hϕni |Ψ(0)
n ihϕm |V̂ |ϕni i
i
X
= n hϕm |Ψ(1) (1)
n i + En hϕni |Ψ(0)
n i hϕm |ϕni i
| {z }
i =0
#

hϕm |Ψ(1)
n i =
X hϕn |Ψn ihϕm |V̂ |ϕn i
i i
?`s
A
n − m
ueoE2_]<NMO3KJP;=-F [neo;=6KGI69/ 2 GI;=-I-?/MO[P;=691m
i
H0 |Ψ(2) (1) (2) (1) (1) (2)

n i + |Ψn i = n |Ψn i + En |Ψn i + En
X
hϕni |Ψ(0)
n i|ϕni i
?` A
i
u6K; /37;@-I1x19<I6 hϕ | `cJ;=-(CM@Jz3l[neATcW;@3 I8219/Q_]<I/

nj hϕnj |Ψn i = 0
(1) qoJP[>UJP/2-A3Q
?`?
1K;@JL3 hϕnj |V̂ |Ψ(1) (2) (0)
X hϕnj |V̂ |ϕm ihϕm |V̂ |ϕni i

hϕni |Ψ(0) (2) (0)
?À=
m − m
x<?3769/2V&/2-A3G?JL3q E GI/>U6KM@JL3 1k376K/m>OM@[L/2<I6lWI69;=WI69/QG?/Q[PM VMO3K6KJLB2/
m,i
(2)
n
X hϕnj |V̂ |ϕm ihϕm |V̂ |ϕni i ?`=A

m − n
/vWI6K;=i?[P82V&/@q@B@eo/2193_]<I/v[P/^>=/B3K/2<I6WI6K;@WI6K/vB2;=696K/1KW;=-IGNM@-A3 13K6K/dE2g=M@[F hϕ |Ψ i `
m
V\,.6uMO37B269/^JPB2>@//21mB3K-I/2/#<I6B2;=WIV&69;=V5WI<?6K/l3K/2/-A1933qjGIB2E /#Fm_]>@<I/2JuBk- 37/2eo/2<?1963W?WN6KM@;=1wWI69[L/d/5GIBM@/ 1whϕ/- |g=V̂E|ϕ-IE26KM@i[nq@qj/[P/231mFm>@V\/2B;@3KJP/2-I<I1|69_U1:<?WI/v69;=B/2WI1r69/2GI1w/<c-I /

(0)
nj n

1K;@-]3vWNMO1vB;=V&V5<I-I1`
ni nj
37/<I6Keo1w;=RXWI69>U;=JPWI/69-A/23l1w[P/v1K<IWI6 6K;@iI[P8V\1K/ ;@.a-]3Qb[WI>U<?JP/26K-A/2V&3lG?/2-A/3-IG ;@3Keo;=6K/6KGI]69TU/ W ?;@` %3 ?82- 1K/mCMO_]JL<I3/mqYWY[L/2;@1<IB26m;=;=V&i?WY3K/2;@-I17JLM@6m-A37<I/-I1h/ GI%3 /I1hE>=;=/6KBkJL/p

|ϕ i
ni
{
B2V&; /2I-AE23t69/2/-A- 37/OqY` JLr[ [LC<?M@3 <? O3x3t1K_]<I<IWI/^WGI;=/19/2376/2-A_]3K<I/2/6u<IB2/-51xG?BE;c>=/ /3\[P;=BW?JP/WY-]/3KV\1/W-];=3r1K1419TU82GI1937/E-AV3mM /237<cJP]_]p<IV /h1GNV\M@-I/1t1xB<I/-3937GI/ÊGI>@JL/26K[L/;=BWI37WJL;=/k- p
JL[+/kcJP1437/5λGI/1.V&E%3 ?;cGI/1WI[L<I1B;=V&WNM@B3K/21.W;=<I6x[P/wCM@JP69/} qB;=-A37/-]3K;=-I1 pb-I;=<?1mWY;=<?6[P/V\; p
V&[neoE2/2_]-A<N3&M 37G JPef;@;@-Zi?37GI//-IJPc6&B I<I6 -IU/GIJLM@-IWIg=WI/2696w;? JLVM 37JP;@-SB2; IE6K/-]3K/ F [neo;=6KG?6K/c` |;@<I6\B/2[PM?qu6K/WNM@693K;=-I1&GI/
(H + V̂ )|Ψ i = E |Ψ i
?` ]
GIEk>=/[P;=WIW;=-I1 |Ψ i 1K<I6d[M5iIM@1K/wWI69;=WI6K/wGI/ H
0 n n n
|Ψ i =
n
X
hϕ |Ψ i|ϕ i +
ni n ni
X
hϕ |Ψ i|ϕ im n m
?` =
/k3xB ?/26KB ?;=-I1<?-Ek3MO3dWI69;=WI69/ |Ψ i G eoE2-I/6Kg=JL/ E WI69;cB ?/QG?/ `h;=V&V&/
i
n n
m
n

Ĥ0 |Ψn i = n
?`"A
X
hϕni |Ψn i|ϕni i + m
X
hϕm |Ψn i|ϕm i
/3 Ĥ|ψ i = E |ψ i = E P hϕ |Ψ i|ϕ i + E P hϕ |Ψ i|ϕ i qI-I;@<I1vM}>@;=-I1Q

i m
?` 0=
n n n n i ni n ni n m m n m
(Ĥ − Ĥ )|Ψ i = V̂ |Ψ i 0 n n
X X
⇒ (En − n )hϕni |Ψn i|ϕni i + (En − m )hϕm |Ψn i|ϕm i =
i m
X X
hϕni |Ψn iV̂ |ϕni i + hϕm |Ψn iV̂ |ϕm i
M@JP19;=-I1^[L/mWI6K;UGI<IJz3d1KBMO[M@JL6K/mM>=/B `Nab[Y>cJL/2-A3Q
i m

hϕnj |
X
(En − n )hϕnj |Ψn i = hϕni |Ψn ihϕnj |V̂ |ϕni i
i
X
+ hϕm |Ψn ihϕnj |V̂ |ϕm i
<WI6K/V\JL/26^;@6KGI69/Q19JPg=-?JLNB2MO37JzC q
m
hϕm |Ψn i ≈ hϕm |Ψ(1)

n i
X hϕnj |Ψn ihϕm |V̂ |ϕni i
=
i
n − m
X
(En − n )hϕnj |Ψn i = hϕnj |V̂ |ϕni ihϕni |Ψn i
i
X X hϕnj |V̂ |ϕm ihϕm |V̂ |ϕni i
+ hϕni |Ψn i
n − m
c;=Jz3
i m
!
X X hϕnj |V̂ |ϕm ihϕm |V̂ |ϕni i
(En − n )hϕnj |Ψn i = hϕnj |V̂ |ϕni i + hϕni |Ψn i
i m
n − m
?`
JP-IM@[P/V\/-]32qc[PM B2;=696K/2Bk37JL;=-F#[efE-I/269g=JP/m/193d>OM@[P/<I6lWI69;=WI6K/wGI/w[PM5VMO3K6KJLB2/
hϕnj |V̂ |ϕni i +
X hϕnj |V̂ |ϕm ihϕm |V̂ |ϕni i ?` A
m
n − m

/k3x[L/21dB2;U/43&BJP/2-A3K1 hϕ ni |Ψn i
1K;=-A3v[P/1l>=/2Bk37/<I6K1vWI6K;@WI6K/1M@191K;UB2JLE212`
GIEg=E2;=-I-?E1K6KE2/_]1K<IB2//-I-IB2B2/d/ -I+/hc1KJt/2WN6KMMO6m[P/k/k>=cE/2/hV&_]< WI[PefM@/ < W1K;=/<IB26m;=-IG?G /21w;@6K67GIM@JL691K/@;=q -?/1.3t[LGI/2/#1 >@19TUMOV&[P/2<?E376K691 JPWI/Oq6K;=hϕW?6K/21 |V̂B2;=|ϕ696K/219iWY=;@-I0GIqY/2-A[M 3
h
F [M GIJPM@g=;=-NMO[PJP1KMO37JL;=-&GI/w[M5V\MO3769JPB2/
nj ni
X hϕ |V̂ |ϕ ihϕ |V̂ |ϕ i

nj m m ni ?` A
6 /2V\M@6K_]<I/ cJM@< WI6K/V\JL/26w;=69GI6K/#<I- -IJL>@/M@< /2193-I;=- GIEg=E2-IE6KEOq|;=- W/2<?3<?37JL[PJL1K/26[M
m
−n m
3%?E2;=69JP/5GI/1.W/2693K<I6KiIMO37JL;=-I1.-I;@-GIE2g=E-IE269E2/1QW;=<I6.M@[P[L/26xFX[neo;=6KGI69/:19<IJL>OM@-A3` c;=Jz3 |Ψ i [L/

>=/B3K/2<I6dWI69;=WI6K/mB;=6K69/219WY;=-?GNM@-A3qI/k3 + E 1K;=-(E-I/269g=JP/O`h;=V&V\/ hΨ |V̂ |Ψ i /193v-]<I[ nj
W;=<I6^37;@<I1d[P/21 |Ψ i JP1K19<I1d1K<1K;=<?14pb/1KWNMOB2/QGIE2g=E-IE269E@q;=-(3769;=<?>=/#
ni
n
(1)
nj ni nj
E = (2)
X hϕ |V̂ |ϕ ihϕ |V̂ |ϕ i
nj m m ni ?` U
,.-(WY/<?3dV&;=-A376K/6l_]<I/wB2/3937/mB;=6K69/2B3KJP;=-(/193d+[M5EV 12−V&/m F5[ef;=69GI6K/m _]<I/wB/2[P[L/.;=i?3K/2-]<I/QF
nj (1)
m n nj m
WNM@6437JL6^GI/w[neoE2_]<NMO3KJP;=-M@<UZ>OM@[P/<I6K1lWI69;=WI69/21dG eo;=6KGI69/c`
/ $ 0" .
WNM@6437/.JL6xCMOG B2eo<I;=--Zg=19;=E<I-I1E2pb6K/2M@19[PWN/OM@qcB[PM:/ GIGIEkE237g=/2E69-IV\E269JL-NE MOWN3KJPM@;=6x-[nefF:M@WI<IWI-Z[LJP;=B69M GI376KJP;@/.-Z_]<IG /ef<?[PB-I;=/5-I_]W<I/269/m3K<IGI6K/iI1lMO-I37JLJL>@;=/- M@<c19;=/:i?6K3KM@/2-]V\<I81v-IF/
F([MZGIJMOg=;=-NM@[LJP1KMO37JL;=-HG eo<I- ;=WYE67MO3K/2<I6QM@W?WY/[PE 2~MOV\JL[L37;@-IJP/- /yY/2Bk37JLC#M@g=JL1KV̂1KM@-A3GIM@-I1QB2/
1K;@<I14p /21KWIM@B2/QGIE2g@E2-IE6KE@`
;=1K;=-?1 k
/
3 2
B =
; I
- 9
1 P
J I
G
E K
6 =
; ?
-
1 I
< &
- I
- z
J =
>
/ O
M < I
G 2
E @
g 2
E I
-
E K
6
E ?
G / U
` U
=
; L
J 3 I
< &
-
E 7
3 O
M 3
WI69;=WI6K/w/ IMOB3vGI/ H G efE-I/269g=JP/ E W?6K;UB I/wGI/ `Nab[17MO3KJP14CM@JL3
H = H + V̂ 0 0 H 0 |Ψ i0
0 0
?` @=
E1KJLg=-I;=-I1WNM@6 [P/QWI6K; /B3K/2<I6x1K<I6x[P/Q1K;=<I1 pb/1KWNM@B/5GIEg=E2-IE6KEOqj/3xWNM@6 1K;=-HB2;=V&WI[PE p
V&/2 -A3M@JL6K/ Q = [ P− P m_]<IJWI69; /3937/19<I6w37;=<I1[P/1:M@<c376K/1Ek3MO3K12` ,.- B IQ/6KB I/XG?;=-IB<?-
H|Ψ i = E |Ψ i
0 o 0

;=WE26KMO37/<I6l37/2[j_U<?/
?` OA
MOJP1^[efE_U<IMO37JL;=-ZM@<c\>OM@[P/<I6K1hWI6K;=W?6K/21lW/2<c3l1K/m69E2E2B6KJL6K/.WNMO6îI[P;UBv/2-(1KEWNM@67MO-]3d[ef/1KWNMOB2/
H P |Ψ i = E P |Ψ i
ef f 0 0 0
GI[nef/M@<?~v3K6KJP/O[Pi` /264[P3X[P//WI- 6K/GI-I/2GH<c [PM:^CD;=[P/6KV&1K;=/ <I 1 pb/1KWNM@B/ GIE2g=E-IE269E G ef<?- B @37EOqh37;@<I1Z[P/1ZM@<?3K6K/21ZEk3MO3K1ZGI/

{

P HP P HQ P |Ψ0 i P |Ψ0 i
= E0
QHP QHQ Q|Ψ0 i Q|Ψ0 i

ab[ /2-GIE2B;=<I[L/
k/ 3 P HP |Ψ0i + P HQ2 |Ψ0 i = E0 P |Ψ0 i

QHP |Ψ0 i + QHQ2 |Ψ0 i = E0 Q|Ψ0 i
,.-G?E2GI<IJz3vGI/w[M5GI/<ccJP82V&/wE2_]<NMO3KJP;=-
U;=JL3 QHP |Ψ0 i = (E0 − QHQ)Q|Ψ0 i

Q|Ψ0 i = (E0 − QHQ)−1 QHP |Ψ0 i
{ 3dGI/[PM5WI6K/V\JL8269/
P HP |Ψ0 i + P HQ
1
QHP |Ψ0 i = E0 P |Ψ0 i
?`! ]
;=-IB E0 − QHQ
1
Hef f = P HP + P HQ QHP
E0 − QHQ
= P H0 P + P V P + P HQ
1
QHP
c` @
h;=V&V\/ H /2193GIJMOg=;=-NM@[+GNMO-I1.[P/1K;=<?14pb/1KWNMOB2/ GIEg=E2-IE6KEOq QH P = QP = 0 qGI;=-IB
E0 − QHQ
QHP = QV̂ P
0
` JP-IM@[P/V\/-]3.

0 0
H = P H P + P V̂ P + P V Q
ef f 0
1
QV P
c` "=
h/x69E219<I[L37MO3r/2143h/ IMOB3qUV\M@JP1tJL[NB2;=-A3KJP/2-A3[neoE2-?/26Kg@JP/dJP-IB;=-I-]<I/ E Ùc<IJL>OM@-A3[M.CM@B;=-&GI;=-A3
E − QHQ 0
;GI=-&/\GI3bTUEW>@/2/ [P;@WIMWYTc/d[L/2[LJL/lg GIcE2p4U-IB;@IV\6 UJL-NGIMOJP-?37/g=<I/26 6m;=< h6KJL[P[LqA;=;@<I-&JP-UWp /2<cJP3g@;@-Ii?/2376/2` -I JP6u;=<IGI6Q/1uGI%3 /2I<cE ;=6K;=JLW/21rE26KGIMO/l37/W<I/26K691 3K<I6KiI/MO3 37JL;=- q
0
1

;=-WY/<?3vE26 B269JP69/
E0 −QHP
A B
1
=
1X
∞
B
1
n
?!` 0=
|;=19;=-I1
A−B A n=0
A
A = − QH Q
B = QH Q − E +
0 0
?!`
,.-/-G?E2GI<IJz3v[P/mGIEk>=/2[L;=W/2V&/2-A3Q
1 0 0

X∞ n
1 1
?` A
Hef f = P H0 P + P V P + P V Q (QV − E0 + 0 ) QV P
0 − H0 n=0 0 − H 0
[neoE2-?/2/#6Kg@37/2JP/l69V\W/2/ 69n3K<I6K=iE20/-IFQ/\[efG?;@6KE2GIW69/2/v-IGcÙWNM@ef1Q/19GI3h/#[P/d[neo6KE2E-I1K/<I6K[zg=3JLMO/ 3JPE-I37BM@;=iI-I[LJI-IWI-]6K<IE/ B2EEGI/2`V&abV\[uW/-A/2693^V\GI/k/l3CM@G?B/&;=-B2M@V&[PB;=<IJP[P-?/61

19TU1437E2V\MO3KJP_]<I/@`
0

Q2 Y! "$ %('() "+*:! ,^$ " 'd' $ % , ' "+* !

uefEk>=;=[L<?37JL;=-&3K/2V&WY;@6K/2[L[P/lG eo<I-\19TU193K82V&/./2-\V\EBM@-IJL_]<I/x_]<NMO-]3KJP_]<I/x/2193h6KEg=JP/dWNM@6[neoE2_]<NM p
37JL;=-(GI/cB I6 UGIJL-Ig=/26
∂
i~ |ϕ(t)i = Ĥ(t)|ϕ(t)i
==`z
F <I-Zef/JP19-I3h143<IM@-I-A/3dEGI_];@<N-IMO-I37JLE@;=q?-&WNGIM@6^JLyY/ E2?69//2V\-A37W?JL/2[P/[P∂t[L/dGI<WIqI69/2;=V&-ZJP[L//.6B2;@;=6K-?GI-N69/@M `c3lcJF:;=37-\;=<?B3d;=-IJL-I-N19M 37M@3-A[n3eoEqc3B2M /m3_]G?<I<Jnq?19B2TU;=1437V&82V&V\//

-IWN;=M@6w<I1v [neM>@;=-I1x>U<HM@=;=[L<?37JL;=-GIEN-?J

0

==`s=
cJ~ /2143vJP-IGIEWY/-IGNM@-A3vGI<(37/V\WI1qNJP[ /193vGI;=-?-IEwWNM@6w
|ϕ(t)i = Û (t, t )|ϕ(t )i 0 0
Ĥ(t−t0 ) @=`s=
|;=<?6u;=i?37/-IJP6 <I-I/d/kcWI69/21K19JP;=-&/kcWI[LJPBJL37/hGI/l[neo;=WE267M 37/2<?6uG efEk>=;=[L<?37JL;=- [P;@6K1K_]<I/ G?E2W/2-IG
−i
Û (t, t ) = e
0 ~
GI<(37/2V&WI1qN6K/>@/2-I;@-I1F#[neoE2_]<NM 37JP;@-ZGIJLyYE269/2-A37JL/2[P[L/.17M 37JP14CM@JL3K/.WNM@6 Û (t, t ) Ĥ 0
∂
i~ Û (t, t ) = Ĥ(t)Û (t, t )
@=` A
ab-A37E2g@6K;=-I1dB/3K3K/E_]<NMO37JL;=-(/2-A3769∂t/ t /3 t
0 0
h
i~ Û (t, t ) − Û (t , t ) =
0 0 0
i Z t
dt Ĥ(t )Û (t , t )
1 1 1 0
@=` @
t0

MOJP1 Û (t , t ) = [n`,.-M GI;=-IB#

0 0
Û (t, t ) = −
[ i
Z
dt Ĥ(t )Û (t , t )
0
==`"A
t
1 1 1 0
~
6 /2W;=693K;=-I1dB2/k3K3K/Q/ cWI6K/1K1KJL;=-HG?/ GNM@-I1d[P/mV&/2V:iI6K/mGI/wGI69;=JL3K/@Ìab[ >UJL/2-A3Q
t0
Û (t, t ) 0
Û (t, t ) = −
0
[ t
i
Z
1 dt Ĥ(t ) + 1
Z
−i
2 t
1 dt
t1
2
Z
dt Ĥ(t )Ĥ(t )Û (t , t )
1 2 2 0
==`!0=
~ ~
{ -H69E2WE37M@-A3xB/3937/w1K<Ii?1937Jz37<?3KJP;=-F [neoJP-cN-IJ JL[Y>UJP/-]3Q
t0 t0 t0
Û (t, t ) = +
0

+∞
[ X −i Z n t
1 dt
t1 Z
2 dt · · ·
tn−1 Z
n dt Ĥ(t ) · · · Ĥ(t )
1 n
==`
~ t0 t0 t0
h/k3K37/w/ ?W?6K/2191KJL;=-/193dGIJ 3&B2JP[L/.F <?3KJP[PJL1K/6B2M@6l[P/1liY;=69-I/21lG?/21lJP-A3KE2g=6KM@[P/1^1K;=-A3d>OM@6KJPM@iI[L/212`

n=1
1x;@<I1^M@[L[P;=-?169E2EB26KJLB2/xB2/3937/x/kcWI6K/1K19JP;=-ZGI/xVMO-IJP86K/vF:B2/x_]<I/x3K;=<?37/1h[L/21hJL-A37E2g@67M@[L/21r1K;=JL/2-A3
/yY/2Bk37<IE/21xGI/ t F t `
MO-I1xB/wiI<?3qN-?;=<I1dGIEI-IJP191K;=-I1v[neo;=WE26KMO37/<I6lB I6K;@-I;=[P;@g=JP_]<I/ T WNM@6m
0
==` A
;=R p /193r<I-?/lWY/6KV5<?37MO37JL;=-5_]<I/[PB2;@-I_]<I/dGI/ 1, · · · , n Àh/k3r;=WE267M 37/2<?6uM.GI;=-IBlW;=<I6 /yY/3rGI/
T (Ĥ(t ) · · · Ĥ(t )) = H(t ) · · · H(t ) si t > · · · > t
p(1) p(n) 1 n 1 n
6K//2V\V\/kM@3K3K6K6K_]/#<I;=GN-?M@1X-I1w_]<I[ef/ ;=69GNGIM@6K/-I1ZB ?[6Kef/ ;=?-IW?;@6K[P/2;=19g=1KJLJL_];=<I- / =[P/=1Q` ;@qhWY[LE/ 67MOWI3K69/2;c<IGI69<?1 JL3H(t ) 19<I6w[P/219_]<I/2[L1Q/JL19[t3(12GIefM@E WIFW?[PJPGI_]M@<I-I/O1 `
[n65meo;=6 69@BGI6K/w/F&B I[6Kef;=;=W-?E2;=6K[PMO;=37g@/JP<I_]6<I/@q qNB2M@;=6 -(GIW<5/2<?CMO3vJL3|6KEGIE2/2B1t6KJPi69;=/w69[n-Ieo/k/2c1tWIGj6Kef/JL-]1K193KJPE2;=g=- 6KMO=37=Ĥ(t
JL;=` -I1 q )-?·;=·<I·1uĤ(tM>=;@-I)1 t > · · · > t `
i

1 n
1 n

T
[ +∞ X −i 1 Z n Zt Z t @=`L A
t
Û (t, t ) = +
0 dt dt · · ·
1 dt T Ĥ(t ) · · · Ĥ(t )
2 n 1 n
~ n!
BMO6[neoJP-A3KE2g=6KM@[P/mGNMO-I1B NMOB2<I-GI/1 n! 19/2B3K/2<I691mGIEI-IJP1xWNM@6v[M\W;=19JL37JL;=-(6K/[MO3KJL>=/QGI/1 t /193
n=1 t0 t0 t0
[[nMXeo/kcVWI1269V&/219/:1KJP;@>U-< JL_U-I<?JL3K/&JM@[[Lef/@;@`WYE67MO3K/2<I6.B ?6K;=-I;@[P;=g=JL_]<I/5[P/1m6K/V\/k3wGNM@-I1m[L/5V1V\/ ;@6KGI69/ _U<?/&GIM@-I1 i
h/k3K37/Q/kcWI69/2191KJP;@-HW/2<?3 13K6K/wB2;@-IGI/2-?1KE2/Q/2-
Û (t, t ) = T exp
0

−i
Z
Ĥ(t )dt
t
@=`L@
0 0
6 /2V\M@6K_]<I/1
~ t0

=` M@-?1 [L/tBMO1g=E2-IE67M@[q2-I;@<I1+M>=;=-I1 T exp R Ĥ(t )dt 6= exp − R dt Ĥ(t )`

,.-Z-I/.W/2<?3hGI;=-IBWNM@1^/-Zg=E2-IE67M@[YBM@[LB2<I[L/26[neoJP-A3g=6KM@[P/ R Ĥ(t )dt qUWI<IJL1^[neo/kcW;=-I/2-Up
−i t 0 0 i t 0 0
~ t0 ~ t0
37GNJLM@/2-?[L[P1^/t[PW/x;=B<IM@6+1^/2g@-E2GI-IE2EG?67M@<I[JPqc69/ JL[ÛCMO(t,<?3^t69/)>=q /Fv-IB2JPM@6^<IF:19/[neoGIE2_]/<N[nMOeo;=3KWJP;=E2-6KMO=37/=<I`z6 ?TqU/`

3h B;=M@<I[L6 B2<I<I[L-Q/26hBM@B [LIB2M@<I_][]<I/k/.cWI37[L/JP6KBV&JL37//
t 0 0
t0
GI< GIE>@/2[L;=WIW/2V&/2-A3 ;=R [P/1 H(t ) M@WIWNMO67M@JL1K1K/-A3Q3K;=< ;=<?6K1mGNM@-?1Q[ef;@6KGI69/ B I6K;=-?;=[P;Op

0
g=JL_U<?/}kq?WI<IJP1dB2M@[PB<I[P/6l[M51K;@V\V&/@` i

c`x6KcEJ ;=[6KĤ(t Y
W @
; I
<
6 7
3 @
; I
< m
1 P
[
/ 1
q
G?;=-I-I/mGI/1^37/6KV&/21^_]<IJYGI/.37;=<c37/21CM@B2;=-ZB;=V&V5<?37/-A3q?/k3l;=-ZW/2<?3^GI;=-IBmEB26KJL6K/
), Ĥ(t )] = 0
i j t ,t

[ f
e
i
=
;
W j
2
E K
6 O
M 7
3
/ I
< 6 /193w17MO-I1m/yY/3wWI<?JP1K_]< eoJP[

Û (t, t ) = +
[ X −i
0
+∞ n
1
Z t
dt1
Z t
dt2 · · ·
Z t
dtn Ĥ(t1 ) · · · Ĥ(tn ),
==`z =
~ n!
G eo;=R n=1 t0 t0 t0
Û (t, t0 ) = exp −
i
Z t
dt Ĥ(t )0 0

si [Ĥ(ti ), Ĥ(tj )] = 0 (∀ ti , tj )
==`z}A
~
M@-?1vB/wBM@1qN;=-(WY/<?3vBM@[LB2<I[L/26 R dt Ĥ(t ) qNWI<IJL1l1K;=-/kcW;=-I/2-A3KJP/2[L[P/Oq?W;=<I6lGIEk37/26 p
t0
V&JP-I/6 Û (t, t ) `
t 0 0
t0
?`d1KJ Ĥ /193JP-IGIEWY/-IGNM@-A3GI<H37/V\W?12q-I;=<I1M}>@;=-I1.i?JP/2-1 I6 [Ĥ(t ), Ĥ(t )] = 0 q/3GI/

0
WI[L<I1 R dt Ĥ(t ) = Ĥ(t − t ) qN/k3WNMO6vB;=-I19E2_]<I/2-A3 Û (t, t ) = exp( Ĥ(t − t ))`

1x;@<I1d6K/3K6K;=<c>=;=-I1v[neoE2_]<NM 37JP;@- ==`fA `
i j
t 0 0 −i
0 0 0
I` M@-?1X[P/BM@1g=E2-IE67M@[v;=R
q L
J l
[
C @
M ?
< X
3
/
- I
W 9
6 P
J I
-
B P
J
W
/ 2
B @
M P
[
B I
UJPGI/V\V&/2-A3/2- g@E2-IE67M@[JP-?CMOJP17MOiI[P/Oqj/3:<I- 3K/2[GIE>@/2[L;=WIW/2V&/2-A3

[Ĥ(t ), Ĥ(t )] 6= 0
- eo/2143^<?3KJP[P/l_]<I/x1KJ;=-\WY/<?3h19/[LJPV&JL37/6tFQ_U<?/2[P_]<I/13K/26KV&/21`cef/193^W;=<I69_]<I;=JB2/xg=/2-I69/
i j
G efM@WIWI69;cB ?/12efM@WIW?[PJP_]<I/\M>OM@-A3:37;@<?35FGI/21WI6K;@iI[P8V\/1;=R [ne NM@V&JP[z37;=-IJL/2- /193:GI/[PM

CD;=69V\/ =@`L A
;=R V̂ (t) /2/2-193W?W<I/JP3719Jz173wM@-IGIB// >OM@GI-A/ 3 Ĥ ` r` eoJPG?M@E2JP/ 1\/21K14Jv35;=MO- [P;=69M@1mWIW?G [PefJP;@_]i?<I37//-I[PJP/6mGI<I/- >@/2GI[LEk;=>=WI/2W[L;=/2V&WIW/2/2-AV&3 /2=-A@3`L GI c/ q
Ĥ(t) = Ĥ + V̂ (t) 0
GI/(t,137t/6K)V&/21XG eo;=69GI6K/ V̂ >=;=V̂-A(t)3(1k3769/ g=E2-?E26KEHWNM@6\3K;=<I1X[L/21&37/269V\/1G eo;=69GI6K/ n > p

0

Û
GIWI<0<IJL1KG?1KEM@>=-I/B2[P/;=W?GIWY/ /V\/-]q3:JP[@/2-CM@<cĤ(t ` ;=<I6;=i?37/-IJP6QGIJL6K/2Bk37/V\/-]3:<I-0GIEk>=/[P;=WIW/2V&/2-A3:/2-
0
p
V̂ (t)
3 B NMO-Ig=/26 GI/6K/2W?6KE219/2-A3M 37JP;@-:GI/[MdV\EBM@-?JP_]<I/_U<IM@-A37JP_]<I/O`
) i
Q%$ ' + $ ' Z$ , + ' !#" "+* !-+ (% ' , ) !Z* . (

' ' . ' !#"+*/. (' '
1x;=<?1xM>@;=-I1vGIE M#6K/-IB2;=-A3K6KE:[L/21d6K/WI6KE1K/-]37MO37JL;=-I1vGI/Q~x/JP1K/-]iY/6Kg/k3cB I6 UGIJL-Ig=/26dGNMO-I1

[PWI/6K1|JLEB 3KNE2MO12WIq+JLM3K>O6K/2M@1 -A3wWI69G E2eoB2JPE-AGI3769/2;c-AG?3K1 <IJP 69>@/5;=JP<I6|-I /&NM@M@<?W?3KJL6K37/69/ 69?/2WI`]69 E2` 1K1x/-A;=3<?MO1|3KJP/;=-:- 67MOGIWIJz37WY/ /6K[P;=/-?WI16KEJL1KB2/JA-][L/2371MO37WIJL6K;=JL- -IB2JPJL-AWN37M@/[P67/M@1BkWI37JP6K;@; - p

_]<IJB2;=-?GI<IJL3xM@<(GIEk>=/[P;=WIW/2V&/2-A3xB I/269B IE@`

00

", ./ 0 '& , 0,
6KEkCDE269eo/2/214-I3lB/:[MQF 6K/2[M W?6K69E2/219WI/269-AE231KM /37-AJP3;@MO-X3KJPGI;=/->@/2GI-]/<Ic/mB 37I6K6M@cGIGIJz37JL-IJP;@g=-I/-I6h/2[LE[P/O>@`;=[P<?/2/21^-AEk3319MO<I3K1JL>O|ϕM@-A3 (t)i [efJL-IGIJLB2/ S CM@JL3JPBJ
S
∂
i~ |ϕ (t)i = Ĥ (t)|ϕ (t)i
==`z
=
/21m;@iI1K/69>OM@iI[L/21.19;=-A3wGI/21.;@WYE67MO3K/2<I691?cE21w<I-I/CD;=JP1xWY;=<?6x37;@<?37/12` { [P[L/21xWY/<?>=/-]3wG?Ekp
S S S
∂t
W_]< /2-Ieo;=GI-69/x>@/2G?<?<\3x37V&/V\/21KW?<?126Kq]/2V6` MOJP1u[P[PJP/[N1- esefMO/g=19JL3x3WNM@M@[L;=1d6K6K1uEG g=JPeo<I/m-IWI/xM@6lGIE2[nWef~/2-?M@V&GNM@JP-I[z37B;=/-?JPJP-A/2-j3K6K` JP-?1K82_]<I/v[PJLE2/dFQ[Mm_]<NM@-A37Jz37E

{
00

", ./ 0 % ,
{/3v[L/2-#1v6K;=/WYWIE6K67EMO1K3K/2/2-A<I37MO691d37JLGI;=E2-#WGI/2/l-IG?~x/2/-AJP3.19/2GI-]<iY/376K/gIV\q@[PWI/21d1|19>=/2/2[PBk;@37- /= |ϕ (t ) >
H S
†
0 @=`L "A
+>=/2BQB2/1xG?EN-IJz37JL;=-I12q?;=-M&iIJL/2-
Ô (t) = Û (t, t )Ô (t)Û (t, t )
H S 0 S S 0
< ϕ (t)|Ô (t)|ϕ (t) >=< ϕ (t )|Ô (t)|ϕ (t ) >

S S S S 0 H S 0
==`z
0=
Q
' Z$ , + ' ! " "+* ! *2! " ' $ Q) "+* :!

c<?WIWY;@1K;=-I1v_]<I/Q[ne NM@V&JP[L3K;=-IJL/2-&1K;=Jz3dGI/w[M:CD;=69V\/
+F M:6K/WI19<I6KE6d1K/[P/2-]1d37MO;=37i?JL;=1K/2-X64>OJL-]M@3KiI/2[P6K/M@1wB3KJP;=-\12eo;=i?37JL/2-A3l/-376KM@-I19CDE67M@-A3l[PMGIEWY/-IGNM@-?B2/.37/V\W;=69/2[P[L/dGI<I/
Ĥ(t) = Ĥ0 + V̂ (t).

Ĥ0
|;@<I6^_]<I/m[P/1h>OM@[P/<I6K1V\;}T@/2-I-I/1dGI/21^;@iI1K/69>OM@iI[L/21l6K/193K/2-A3dJP-IB IM@-Ig=E/212q?JP[CM@<?3ÊgAM@[L/2V&/2-A3
ÔI (t) = eiĤ0 (t−t0 )/~ ÔS (t)e−iĤ0 (t−t0 )/~
V&;cGIJzN/26h[P/21lEk3MO3K1w

., -MXiIJL/2- 1 I6 |ϕ (t ) >= |ϕ (t ) >= |ϕ > `,.- G?EN-IJz3.[ef;=WE26KMO37/<I6GjefEk>=;=[L<?37JL;=- /2-

|ϕI (t) >= eiĤ0 (t−t0 )/~ |ϕS (t) >
6K/WI6KE1K/-]37MO37JL;=-JP-A37/67M@Bk37JP;@-WIM@6m

I 0 S 0 H
|ϕI (t) >= ÛI (t, t0 )|ϕI (t0 ) >

ab[/2143xG?;=-I-IEwWNM@6
E3K/269V\JL-I;=-I1d[neoE2_]<NM 37JP;@-ZGIJLyYÛE269/2(t,-A37tJL/2)[P[L/.=_]e<IJ6KEg=JL3d19;=Û-E(t,>=;@t[P<?)3KJP;=-
iĤ0 (t−t0 )/~
I 0 S 0

∂ iĤ0 (t−t0 )/~ iĤ0 iĤ0 (t−t0 )/~ −i
ÛI (t, t0 ) = e ÛS (t, t0 ) + e Ĥ(t)ÛS (t, t0 )
∂t ~ ~

iĤ0 (t−t0 )/~ −i
= e Ĥ(t) − Ĥ0 ÛS (t, t0 )
~

iĤ0 (t−t0 )/~ −i
= e V̂ (t) ÛS (t, t0 )
~
−i iĤ0 (t−t0 )/~
= e V̂ (t)e−iĤ0 (t−t0 )/~ eiĤ0 (t−t0 )/~ ÛS (t, t0 )
~
−i
= V̂I (t)ÛI (t, t0 )
==`z
~
∂
⇒ i~ ÛI (t, t0 ) = V̂I (t)ÛI (t, t0 )
∂t
ef/193w[PMV1V\/E2_]<NMO3KJP;=-H_U<?/ B2/2[L[P/;=i?37/-]<I/5W;=<I6.[ef;=WE26KMO37/<I6GjefEk>=;=[L<?37JL;=- Û (t, t ) /2-
6K/WI6KE1K/2-A37MO37JL;=-G?/QcB I6 UGIJL-Ig=/26q?V\M@JP1hB@eo/2193d[PM5WY/693K<I6KiNM 37JP;@-Z/2-(6K/WI6KE1K/2-A37MO37JL;=-(JP-A37/67M@B p
37JL;=- V̂ (t) _]<IJ ;=<I/w[P/m6 =[P/mG?/Q[es~xM@V&JP[L3K;=-IJL/2- `
S 0
<0B;=<IW q37;@<I1:[L/21QBM@[LB2<I[L1QCM@Jz371wW;=<I6Q/kcWI6KJLV\/6 Û (t, t ) F[nefM@JPG?/&G?/ Ĥ(t) W/2<c>=/2-A3

I
13K6K/m376KM@-I1KW;=19E21Q S 0
Û (t, t ) =
I
[ +
X −i Z
0 dt
Z
dt · · ·
Z +∞
dt V̂ (t )V̂ (t ) · · · V̂ (t )
n t
1
t1
2
tn−1
n I 1 I 2 I n−1
~
;=< Û (t, t ) = [ + X −i 1 Z dt Z dt · · · Z dt T V̂ (t )V̂ (t ) · · · V̂ (t )
n=1 t0 t0 t0
+∞ n t t t
I 0 1 2 n I 1 I 2 I n−1
~ n!
;=< Û (t, t ) = T exp −i dt V̂ (t ) =@`L=
n=1 t0 t0 t0
Z t
0 0
I 0 I
~
uef;=WE26KMO37/<I6 12eo/2-GIEGI<IJL3vWNMO6
t0
Û (t, t ) S 0
ÛS (t, t0 ) = e−iĤ0 (t−t0 )/~ ÛI (t, t0 )
2/-I,.14/#-3ZB2<IM;=-I-?GI/ 1K/2;=W64-I>O/BM@3K-AJL;=3K3i?/3K_]/2W<I-]/2/#<6437B<I<I/26969-iN37M@MOGIJP37-?EJL;=>@1.- /237[Lqr;=/269WI;=V\-W/2/WV&1m/2GI/2<c-A< 3X3GI;=G?Ei?/ >@3K/2/2Û[L-I;=JLWI6(t,WGI/2t/V&1Z)/2M@-A/WI3-`W?6KWI;<IMOcJL-IJP1KV\1w1KM@MO[P-I/ 37B2JL;=WN/-I1M@1#6KGIM@67/g=M@6KV̂JLM@1KW#;=(t)I-?/5-N`M@19ciI<IJ [LJL/2>OV̂1&M@-A(t)/232- q

S 0
37-IB EN;=VM@<IV&1xMO3KWIM@JP[L_]12[P`<I;=/-I1lM@-?<c;= <I1v;=69B2GI;=6K-A/371/-A1937<I/2JL6x>OM@G -Aeo37<?1\37JL/2[PJP14193\/26l3K67BM@/Jz3K373KE2/Q/CD;@GN6KM@V5-?1<I[L[P/Q/(M@B< ;=<I 6K1\;@GI6K/GI693 /@I`YE2c;@;=6KJP-/(<?_]37<NJL[PM@JP1K-AMO3K37JP_]JL;=<I-X/ 14GITc/1 1p

#

Q $ (* * ", %(' "$ !-+*k"+*! ' " $

' % w $ %(' ' $ *

c<?WIWY;@1K;=-I1v_]< eo<I- NMO\V JL[L37;@-IJP/-1K;@JL3dGI/w[M:CD;@6KV&/

==`s
A
M>=/B
Ĥ = Ĥ0 + V̂ (t)
( 19J @=` U

V̂ (t) =
0
91 tJ ≤tt> t 0
xWIWY/[P;=-?1 |ii [P/1dE3M 371dWI6K;@WI6K/1vG?/ Ĥ

V̂ (t) 0

0
@=` @=
/351K<IWIW;=19;=-I1#_]<I/Z[P/\19TU193K82V&/Z1K;=Jz3 GNĤM@-I1:|ii[neoE=3M 3 |ii|ii F
0 i
` <?- JL-I1937M@-A3 t > t q [L/
19TU143782V&/Q1K/26KM&GIM@-I1d<I-E3M 3 t = t 0 0
|ϕs (t)i =
X
cn (t)|ni
==`s@A
+M WI6K;=iIM@iIJP[LJL3KE\GI/Z3K67M@-I19JL3KJP;=-SGI/ /193&GI;=-?-IE2/WNM@6 `tab[l1esM@g@JL3#iIJL/2-
n
G eo<I-I/wWI69;=iNM@iIJL[PJz37E.WI<?JP1K_]<I/ P |c (t)||ii =→1`|ni efM@WI6K81xB/w_U<?JWI6KEB2|c82G?/(t)|q

n n
2
n
2
|ϕs (t)i = ÛS (t, t0 )|ii

⇒ cn (t) = hn|ϕs (t)i = hn|ÛS (t, t0 )|ii
i
= hn|e− ~ Ĥ0 (t−t0 ) ÛI (t, t0 )|ii
@=` ]
i
= e− ~ n (t−t0 ) hn|ÛI (t, t0 )|ii
2
2
⇒ Pi→n = |cn (t)| = hn|ÛI (t, t0 )|ii
efM@WI69821vB2/w_]<IJ+WI6KEB28GI/@q ! V̂ (t)qN;=-HMZ
Û (t, t ) =
I 0
[ −
i
Z
dt V̂ (t )
t
1 I 1
~ t0
Z t
i
hn|ÛI (t, t0 )|ii = − dt1 hn|V̂I (t1 )|ii
M@JL1 ~ t0
i i
V̂I (t1 ) = e ~ Ĥ0 (t1 −t0 ) V̂ (t1 )e− ~ Ĥ0 (t1 −t0 )
Z
i t
⇒ hn|ÛI (t, t0 )|ii = − dt1 ei(En −Ei )(t1 −t0 )/~ hn|V̂ (t1 )|ii
~ t0
Pi→n = −

i t

Z
dt1 e i(En −Ei )(t1 −t0 )/~
2

hn|V̂ (t1 )|ii
@=` =
~ t0

*

0 $/
c<IWIW;=19;=-I1d_]<I/ V̂ (t)
19;=JL3dGI;@-I-IEwWNM@6
( 1KJ
V̂ (t) =
0
L
J I
- I
G EWY/-IGNM@-A3vGI<(37/2V&WI1 19J
t≤0 ==`s "A
V̂ t>0
Pi→n

i
= − hn|V̂ |ii
Z t
dt1 e i(E n −E i )t 1 /~
2

==`s 0=
M@JL1
~ t0

Z t t
i(En −Ei )t1 /~ ~ei(En −Ei )t1 /~
dt1 e =
t0 i(En − Ei ) 0
~ ei(En −Ei )t1 /~ − 1
=
;=-IB
i En − E i
2 1 − ei(En −Ei )t1 /~ 2

Pi→n = hn|V̂ |ii
,.6 En − E i

1 − eix 2 = (1 − eix )(1 − eix )
= (e−ix/2 − eix/2 )(eix/2 − e−ix/2 )
= −2i sin(x/2)2i sin(x/2) = 4 sin2 (x/2)
JL-I1KJ

==`s
2

4 hn|V̂ |ii (En − Ei )t
Pi→n = sin2
{G eoE3737<?<IGIGIJP/JL;=6v-I[P1M:[PCDM;=-IGIBkE237WJP;@/2- -IGIM@-IB2/(37/V\W;=69/2[P[L/GIWI/(<IBJL1K/_]3K3K<I/Z/ CD;=-IB3KJP;=-j` |;@<I6#B2/ZCM@JP69/@q|JP[h/193&<?3KJP[P/

(E − E
n i )2 2~
4 2 ωt
f (ω) = sin ( )
ω2 2
2 E − E
n i
,.->@E26KJzN/QM@JP19E2V&/2-A3d[P/1dWI6K;=W?6KJPEk37E1l1K<IJz>@MO-]3K/21w
2
Pi→n = ~ hn|V̂ |ii f ( )
~
f (ω) = 0
19J ωt = kπ ⇒ ω = 2πk (k 6= 0)
2 t
lim f (ω) = t2
ω→0

91 J ωt = π + kπ 4
;=<I6^<I-?/>OM@[P/<I6G?/ GI;=-I-?E2/@qc[P/1376KM@-I19JL37JL;=-I1[P/1hWI[L<I1CM>=;@6KJP19E2/1^1K;=-A337/2[L[P/1h_]<I/
f (ω) =
2 2 ω2
2π
t
` t ω≤
2 2
sin (xπ)/(xπ)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2 ~ 0.047
0
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
x
37E 6K37M@MOc-I3lJw19NJL[37-Nef;=JLMO;=-[j-I1/2/-1K>=17/2M@MO69W?JP1l/ WIGI[PGIJL/2_U/ 1l<IEkGIM@3-AEMO3K3l3K/21l<I6KV&-IG /meoJPE2-?-IW/2//26(6K64g=37[<IJLMS/ 69iNGIMOJzyj37JLE;=6K-Z/2-?WB2/2/ -IGNG MOeoE2-]-I3d/<?6Kg=-(JL/ 3K/2/-I-]W?3K1 6K/ ∆t<IqI- ;@-E3WM 3;=<IJL69-I67JLM:3KJM@CM@[xJL6K//x3GI<I/2- 1
` x<?3769/2V&/2-A3dGIJz3qU[M:WI69E2BJP1KJL;=-XGI/[M
V&/21K<?6K/wGI/ ∆E -?/QW;=<I6967M 13K6K/wV&/2JP[L[PE/<I6K−/x_UE<?/ . ` n i
2π~
∆t
2π~
∆t
2π~
==`s
A
∆E &
∆t
h/k3K37/Q6K/[MO3KJP;=-Z6KM@WIW/2[L[P/.[PM56K/2[PMO37JL;=-ZG eoJP-IB/26437JL3K<IGI/
∆E∆t & 2π~
~ @=`s
A
1K;@-]h3v/5WN-jMOef1v/19G?3m/2WN1vMO;=1iI1K<I/-I69/:>OM@6KiI/2[L[P/2MO1d37JLV\;=-M@JPG 1êfJLBO-Ief/B219/3v693K<IJL37-I<?/QGI6K/:8MOg=<[P/.1K3K/6K-I81.1v<c193K376KJPJL[LB/@3.` B2M@6v[neoE2-I/6Kg=JL//k3m[P/w37/V\WI1x-I/
∆x∆p &
2
;=<I6v<I-I/m>OM@[P/<I6lGI/ GI;=-I-IE/@q;=-M WNM@6dM@JL[P[P/<I6K1

ω
4
f (ω) ≤
⇒
f (ω)
≤
ω2
4
→0
_U<IM@-IG t → +∞
<I-Ic/mJCD[P;=/d69V537/<IV\[PMOW?371JL;=37-X/-IWIG69E2>@B2/2JL6K1K1 /Q+∞ c
q L
[ 2
/ r
1 7
3 7
6 O
M I
- K
1 z
J 7
3 P
J @
; I
- h
1 F 9
1 =
; A
- ^
3 K
1
E P
[
/
B 7
3 L
J =
; I
- I
-
E 2
/
1 #|;@<I6hGI;@-I-I/26
`
f (ω = 0) ω 2 t2
F B2/k3K37/M 3&6KV\MO3KJP;=- qUGIEV\;=-A3K6K;=-I1l3K;=<?3dG efM@i;=6KG_]<I/

ω=0

*

1
sin2 (ωt) = πδ(ω).
@=`sc
ab[jCM@<?3vEk3M@iI[LJP6^_]<I/
lim
t→∞ tω 2
Z +∞
1 1
lim sin2 (ωt)ϕ(ω)dω = πϕ(0)
>@/2BQ[P/mB NMO-Ig=/2V&/2-A3vGI/m>OM@6KJPM@iI[L/ x = ωt JL[Y>UJP/-]32q
t→+∞ t ω 2
−∞

Z +∞ x dx Z +∞
1 t2 2 1 x
2
sin (x)ϕ = 2
sin2 (x)ϕ( )dx
t −∞ x t t −∞ x t
Z +∞ 2 Z +∞ 2
sin (x) x sin (x)
lim ϕ( )dx = f (0) dx = πϕ(0)
;=6K19/m_U6K<?E2/ 19<It[L→37MO3x+∞
M@-I-Iq?;@;=-I-HB2EwM 12GIeo/2;@--IGIB#E2 G?<IJL3d/-69/2V&WI[M@B2M@-A3 E − E WNMO6 ω /3 t WNM@6 `
t→∞ −∞ x2 t −∞ x2
t
n i 2~

1 (En − Ei )t πt
sin2 ≈ δ(En − Ei )
h /3937/Q/kcWI6K/1K19JP;=- /193 ! w/2- t ` xJP-I19JnqI[PM WI6K;=iIM@iIJP[LJL3KE.GI/w3767MO-I1KJz37JP;@-WIM@6d<I-IJL3KEwGI/
(En − Ei )2 2~ 2t
37/V\WI1d/193vGI;=-I-?E2/QWNM@6m
w =
i→n
2π
hn| V̂ |ii

2
δ(E − E ) n i
==`fA=
~
ef/193x[M `

c<IWIW;=19;=-I1dGIE219;=6KV\M@JL1l_U<?/ 1K;@JL3dGI;=-?-IEwWNM@6
V̂ (t)
( 19J
V̂ (t) =
0 t≤0
19J ==`f=A
V̂ eiωt + V̂ † e−iωt t>0
Z 2
i t
Pi→n = − i(E −E )t /~ iωt
dt1 e n i 1 (hn|V̂ |iie 1 + hn|V̂ |iie † −iωt 1
)
~ t0

1 − e−i( En ~−Ei +ω)t

= hn|V̂ |ii +
1 − e
E −E
−i( n ~ i −ω)t
2

hn|V̂ |ii
==`f ]
En − Ei + ~ω En − Ei − ~ω
<c(3K/2V&WI1v[P;=-Ig@12qN[P/1l3767MO-I1KJz37JP;@-I1l>=/2691[L/21dE37MO371vG eoE2-I/6Kg=JL/ K
1 =
; A
-
3
C
M @
> O
; p
6KJL1KE2/12`?MO-I1x69/CM@JL6K/.[L/21dBMO[PB2<?[P12q?;=-(;=i?37JL/2-A3w E = E ± ~ωn i

wi→n =
2π 2

hn|V̂ |ii δ(En − Ei + ~ω) +
2π 2

hn|V̂ † |ii δ(En − Ei − ~ω)
==`f=
~ ~
G eoE23v-I-I/6K/Zg=WYJL/2/1l693K37<I/[P6K[LiN/2M1l73 _]JP;@<I- / ∆E
NM@6KV&;=-IJL_]<I/GI/XCD69E2_]<I/-IB2/
= ±~ω
` ω
JP-IG?<IJL3:GI/2153K67M@-I19JL3KJP;=-I1:/2-A3769/ZE3M 371

Z

$#2 Y! "$ %('() "+*:!

6K/-]3K/M@-IG?1m/1KMX[PM >=GI/269/21K19JLB2;=69-JPW?-I3KJP;=;=- -6KG /[eo<IMO3K-IJL/(>UJPWN1437M@/6437[JLMB2<IV&[L/ZE2B2B2M@;=-IV&JP_]V\<I/:/_U[neo<IE2[PM@/-AB373KJP6K_];=<I- / ` G? ;=M-I-IWN/MO69<I37JL-?/Z/51K>=WN/2M 69371KJJLMO;=[P- /XB2GI; /(IE[PM p
CD;=-IBk37JP;@-Gjef;=-?GI/w/2193v69E2g=JL/mWNM@6d[neoE2_]<NMO3KJP;=-ZG?/:UB I6 UGIJP-?g=/26w
−~ 2
4Ψ(~r) + V (~r)Ψ(~r) = EΨ(~r)
U`L
{M@B3KJP;=1K17-mMT@>U;=JMl-I<I1t-GI/WYg=;OE237/2-?-AE23K67JPMO/2[P[]JP19Fl/26GI/B22m<c/k3KQ3|B2E2;@_]6K<NWIMO1 3KJP;=-:M@<:B2M@1 WNGIM@/6+GI/ /2?<U/:V\WIW?M@[P/r693K[JPM^B2<?69E2[P/2WI1 <IJP[LG?1KJL/2;=-A-w37JLB2_U;=<?<I/2[L1 ;=V5/-:iIJLJL-]/23K-I/2-?6 / p
/2-A3769/G?/2<c(E[P/B3769;=-I1 k` U (r~ , r~ ) 1 2
G eo/k3xc-IJPg=/x/6|JPGI_]E<I/ /k[P-N/rMOWI3769<?;c6KGI/2[L<?[P/JL3 d19/267MOJL3GI/GIEB2691KJPMO6K37/xJL19B CNM@M@19_]1K/<I/.[neoE2WI_]M@<N69MO3KJP3KB2JP;=<?-w[P/vGIWN/hM@c6B <II-I6c/xGICD;@JL-I-Ig=B/3K6 JP;=M@-\W?WIG 6Kef;@;=-IW?GI6KJP/E/d/k3

e2
|r~1 −r~2 |
Ψ1 (r1 )Ψ2 (r2 )

~2 ~2
−
2m
41 −
2m
42 + V (r~1 ) + V (r~2 ) + U (r~1 , r~2 ) Ψ1 (r~1 )Ψ2 (r~2 ) = EΨ1 (r~1 )Ψ2 (r~2 )
}c` @
M@JL1l<I-I/m37/[P[P/.M@WIWI69;cB I/Q1K<?WIWY;@1K/w_]<I/[efE_]<NMO37JL;=-ZGIJzyjE6K/2-A3KJP/2[L[P/

−
~2
41 −
~2

42 + V (r~1 ) + V (r~2 ) + U (r~1 , r~2 ) Ψ(r~1 , r~2 ) = EΨ(r~1 , r~2 )
}c`s=
2m 2m
1K;=Jz3.19E2WNM@6KM@iI[L/@qB2/ _]<IJ -jef/193w/2-g@E2-IE67M@[|WNM@1.[L/:BMO12` ;=<I6mGIEB269JP6K/<I-19T]3K82V&/#FGI/2<U
WN M@!"6437JPB<I ![P/12 q=[P M.! 1K/w<IGI[P/dE2Wg=E/2-I-?E2GN6KM@M@-A[P3JL17MOG?3K/wJP;=3K-5;=<?W3K;=/2191d1KJP[Pi?/1l[P/^B2B;U;=;=-I6KGI1KJL;@19-I3K/x-IE2Fm/GI12ÈB269JP6K/d[L/^19TU193K82V&/xWIM@6 !"
uefJL-]3K/269WI6KEk3MO3KJP;=-QGI/hB/3937/hCD;=-?B37JL;=-QG ef;@-IGI/^JLV\WI[LJP_]<I/u_]< eo/2[L[P/-I/hW/2<?34p 1k376K/_]<I/2[LB2;=-I_]<I/O`

{ -X/yY/32q |Ψ(r~ , r~ )| /193[MwWI6K;=iIM@iIJP[LJL3KE^GI/x3K6K;=<c>=/26<I-I/xWNM@6437JPB<I[P/dMO<W;=JP-A3 r~ /k3h[esMO<?3769/

1 2
2
1

@M <0W;=JL-]3 r~ ` M@JP1B2/k3K37/WI6K;=iIM@iIJP[LJL3KE&/193 EgAM@[L/2V&/2-A3:G?;=-I-IE/ZWNM@6 |Ψ(r~ r~ )| ` { -S/yY/32q

W ;= <I! 6t _] < eoJP[c! /2-# 1K ;= Jz 3u M@<c37 6K/ V\ /-A 3q= JL[UC M@<? GI67!M@Jz3t W;=<? >@1K;=<?JP6tWIG?WYJP;@191K3K/ JP-I_]g@<I<I/2/6|[n[Peo/2;=1 -WN-IM@69/3KJPWB<I/2<c[P/3(12` WI6K/EB2 JP19!E2 !"V&/2 -A3
2

2 1
2
WNM@1[P/1hGIJL1937JL-Ig=<I/62`/21hB;=-I19E2_]<I/2-?B2/21vGI/xB2/.WI69JP-IBJPW/x19;=-A3^CD;=-IGIM@V\/-A3M@[L/21/3^[PM@6Kg@/2V&/2-A3
>=_]E<I6K/&JzN E2/15WNM@6[neo/kcWYE6KJL/2-IB/@` 6 /2W?6K/2-?;=-I15[ef/ ?/V\W?[P/&GI/XGI/<c0WIM@693KJPB2<?[P/21` 1x;=<I1:M>=;=-I15>U<
|Ψ(r~1 , r~2 )|2 = |Ψ(r~2 , r~1 )|2

⇒ Ψ(r~2 , r~1 ) = eiθ Ψ(r~1 , r~2 )
Ψ(r~1 , r~2 ) = eiθΨ(r~2 ,r~1 ) = ei2θ Ψ(r~1 , r~2 )
⇒ ei2θ
eiθ
=
=
1
±1
c`]
x<?3769/2V&/2-A3G?JL3qc[neo;=WE267M 37/2<?6 P GIEN-?J WIM@6m

12
c`!=
M^B2;@V\V&/ >OM@[P/<I6K1W?6K;=WI69/21W;=1K19JPiI[L/21 ;=< ` /1 CD;=-IB3KJP;=-?1 W#ATU1KJP_]<I/V\/-A3tM@BB2/W?3M@i?[P/21
(P12 Ψ)(r~1 , r~2 ) = Ψ(r~2 , r~1 )
WGNM@;=-?<I1v6&[GIefEE2B BN6KJPM@69-I/g@/QG?/2G?1X/21vWNMOB269;U37;=JLB26KGI<I;@[L/2-I1#-IJPE2G?//21d-AGI37/wJL_UGI<?/2/2<c119;=WI-AM@3X693K19JPB2;=<?JL3&[P/2191TU` V&E3K6KJP_]<I/12q1K;=Jz3MO-]3KJP14TcV&E3K6KJL_U<?/21

+1 −1
x<XWI6KJL-IB2JLWY/dG eoJP-?GIJP19B2/269-NM@iIJL[PJz37E^GI/1hWNMO6937JLB2<I[L/21u>UJP/-]3h12efM ;=<?3K/26<I-I/M@<?3769/x;@iI1K/69>OMO37JL;=-

/kcWE269JPV&/2-A3M@[L/XjW;=<I6<I-3bTcW/ GI/ WNMO6937JLB2<I[L/:GI;@-I-IE@qj<I-I/ 1K/<I[P/ W;=191KJPi?JP[PJz37EQ/2143w6KEMO[PJP19E2/O`
Wc;=/26KJz3XV&[L//23d1G?CD/Q;=-?BB[M@37JL19;=1K/-I6v1\[LG /21def;@WN-IM@GI64/2371ZJLB219<I;=[L/2-A1^3(/19-TUV&GI/E<c3769(JP_]C<IM@V&/12JPq^[L[P19/2;=1xJL3 /2[P[L/21X19;=-A3(M@-A37JL19TUV&E3769JP_]<I/12`dh/[M

=` /269V\JL;=-I1 ICD;@-IB3KJP;=-I1lGjef;=-?GI/QF#W?[P<I19JP/2<?6K1dWNM@6437JPB<I[P/1lM@-A37JL19TUV&E3769JP_]<I/12`
c` h;@1K;=-I1 ICD;=-?B37JL;=-I1lG eo;=-IG?/F WI[L<I1KJL/2<I691dWNM@693KJPB<I[P/1l19TUV\Ek3769JP_]<I/21`

-?N-jq@<I-#M@<c376K/CM@JL3 / ?WE269JPV&/2-A3MO[nq B2;=-cN6KV&EhWNMO6 [Ml%3 ?E2;=69JP/h69/2[PMO37Jz>cJL193K/G?/21tWNMO6937JLB2<I[L/21q

WCD/2/269{6KV\V&JL/;=3(-I1dGj/esM 3x3&_]69<IV\/:/[L/261v_]WN<IM@/ 6437[LJP/2B1(<I[PWN/1xM@64G?37/JPB<I19WI[P/JP-1ZGI/2-A/ 37JL1K/2WI6 JL- W#I;@3K E;=[P-IE21Bkq3769WI;=M@-I69123KqlJPB2W?<?6K[P/w;@3KGI;=/5-I1(~v/JPg=3Kg@B@1v`sZ/k1937;=BO-A` d31K;=GI-A/213
1
GI/1xi;=1K;@-I12`
2
6 E2B2M@WIJL3K<I[P;@-I1m

/26KV&JP;@-I1 x-A37JP14TUV\Ek376KJL_]<I/ , . . . Ψ
h;=19;=-I1 UTUV&E3769JP_]<I/ 0, 1, 2, . . .
1 3
2 2
1v;=<I1#M@[L[P;=-I1VMOJP-A37/-NM@-A35GIEB269JP6K/<I-B2/2643M@JL-S-I;=V5i?6K/XGI/B2;=-I19E2_]<I/-IB2/1GI/ZB/21 WI69;Op
WI69JPE3KE21dGI/w19TUV&E3K6KJP/O`

$#%$ ' $ * !-+^ $|*2! ) * ' (% ' Q' k*A

h;=V&V\/Q[P/1xCD/269V\JL;=-I1x;=-A3.-IEB2/21917M@JL6K/V\/-]3w<?- 1KWIJL- qjJL[+/2193.JP-I[neoGI/2JL-?1K1KW/2/2V:-I1KiIM@[P/miI[LGI/:/G 1xeoJPG?-I/2Bg=[P69<IE2691v/:GI[PM/

>O[PJLM@iY6K/JP69M@37iIE[P/G efGI<?/-19CDWI/JP6K-(V&GNJP;=MO- -I`1x|[PM ;=<?GI6vJP19<?B2-<I19E1K[PJP/2;@Bk- 37` 69;= - E2q 19JPg=-?;=-I1dGI;=-IBQ` WNM@6 x i
h;=-I19JPGIE6K;=-I1:WNM@65MOJP[P[L/2<I691w<I-I/iIM@1K/XG?/xCD;==-IBk(~37rJP;@,-Iσ1:)G eo;=-IG?/;=64%3 I;=-?;=6KV&E2/15FH<I-?/XWNM@6 p

i i i
37JLB2<I[L/X ϕ (x ) ` +MCD;=-IBk37JL;=- G eo;=-IGI/#[PMWI[P<?1mg=E2-IE67M@[L/5W;=<I6.GIEB269JP6K/ N WNM@693KJPB<I[P/1.WY/<?3

37;=< ;=<I6K1d19/QG?E2B2;@V\W;=1K/6dB2;=V&V\/<I-I/QB2;=V5i?JP-NM@JL1K;=-Z[LJP-IE2M@JP69/GI/wWI69;cG?<IJL3K1m

n i
Ψ(x1 . . . xN ) =
X
cn1 ,n2 ...nN ϕn1 (x1 ) . . . ϕnN (xN )
}c`!"=
@
M L
J |
1 I
< ?
-
/ K
3 2
/ P
[ L
[ u
/ D
C =
; I
-
B K
3 P
J =
;
-
1K/Q[PJLV\Jz37/26M@<cXCD;=-IB3KJP;=-?1lG ef;@-IGI/QM@-A37JL19TUV\Ek3769JP_]<I/21

- o
e 2
/ 9
1 3 2
/ 5
-
n1 ,n2 ...nN
@
g 2
E I
-
E 7
6 @
M ]
[ I
- U
J 9
1 U
T &
V
E 7
3 9
6 P
J ]
_ I
<
/ I
- c
J @
M A
- 7
3 P
J 4
1 U
T \
V k
E 7
3 K
6 L
J ]
_ I
< @
/ O
` h
=
; &
V \
V
/ A
- 3
6 /WI6K/-I;=-I1l[ef/ c/2V&WI[P/.G?/Q WIM@693KJPB2<?[P/21q?/k3d/21K1KMT=;=-I1vGI/mB;=-I193K6K<IJL6K/m<I-?/miNM@1K/mG?/21lCD;=-IB p
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hχ|ϕi = b∗1 a1 + b∗2 a2 + · · · + b∗N aN

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=` hχ|ϕi /2143x[LJP-IE2M@JP69/ WNMO6v6KM@WIW;=693lF

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c ` hχ|ϕi = hϕ|χi
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∗
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hχ1 + λχ2 |ϕi = hχ1 |ϕi + λ∗ hχ2 |ϕi

hχ1 + λχ2 |ϕi = hϕ|χ1 + λχ2 i∗

= hϕ|χ1 i∗ + λ∗ hϕ|χ2 i∗
= hχ1 |ϕi + λ∗ hχ2 |ϕi
I` hϕ|ϕi /193\6KE/2[lBMO6 hϕ|ϕi = hϕ|ϕi `,.--I;@37/M@<?1K1KJ hϕ|ϕi = ||ϕ|| -I;=6KV&/(M@<
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∗ 2
c` |M@6 ]TUW;@3%?821K/Oq hϕ|ϕi ≥ 0 qI/k3 hϕ|ϕi = 0 1KJ/3d19/2<I[L/2V&/2-A3v1KJ |ϕi = 0 `

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3
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(N × N )
N

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(

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†
hχ|A† ϕi = hAχ|ϕi
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`
hχ|A† ϕi = hϕ|Aχi∗
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   
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a∗11 a∗21 · · · a∗N 1
`` ``
a11 a12 · · · a1N
 a21   a∗ 
  †  12 
A=  ⇒ A =  
   
aN 1 · · · aN N a∗1N · · · a∗N N

(AB)† = B † A†

hχ|(AB)† ϕi = hABχ|ϕi = hBχ|A† ϕi = hχ|B † A† ϕi

`L A

x-\;=WYE67MO3K/2<I6r/193 ?/26KV&JL3KJP_]<I/l1efJL[/193E2gAMO[YFw1K;@-B2;@- <Ig=<IE I/6KV&JL37JL_]<I/@qABOef/1939pbF pbG?JP6K/d19J

3
A =A †
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;=-(-I;@3K/QJL-IGIJzyjE6K/2V&V&/2-A3
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A|ϕi = a|ϕi
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c<IW?WY;=19;=-I1v_]<I/ /k3v_U<?/
A|ϕi = a|ϕi A† = A
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M@JL1 hϕ|A|ϕi = ahϕ|ϕi
hϕ|A|ϕi = hϕ|A† |ϕi = hAϕ|ϕi = haϕ|ϕi = a∗ hϕ|ϕi

K6 E2/[ :`z ]
/21#>=/2Bk37/<I6K1ZWI69;=WI69/21&G ef<?-;=WE267M 73 /2<?6 I/6KV&JL3KJP_]<I/M@1K19;cBJPE1XF GI/21
⇒ a = a∗ ⇒ a

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@
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∗
19J a 6= b
ahψ|ϕi = bhψ|ϕi
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0@
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⇒ hψ|ϕi = 0

>=;@JP6lB2;@<I6K1dGI/wV\MO%3 I1`

cJGI/<cX;@WYE67MO3K/2<I691^GIJMOg=;=-NM@[LJP1KM@iI[P/1uB2;=V&V5<?3K/2-A3q];=-WY/<?3^[L/21hG?JM@g=; p
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1KJ /193u>=/B3K/2<I6WI6K;@WI6K/lGI/ A GI/l>OM@[L/2<I6tW?6K;=WI69/ a q B|ϕi /2143hMO<I1K19J?>=/B37/<I6

WI69;=WI6K/wGI/ A GI/m>OM@[P/<I6^WI69;=WI69/ a `

|ϕi

AB|ϕi = BA|ϕi = Ba|ϕi = aB|ϕi

rM@<I69B2/2<?V&-JP/M@6 <?B37M@691Z/\>@ /2A|ϕi t

q
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p I
G
E
B3K/2<I6#-I;@-0-]<I[hGI/ H FH<I-SB;c/ 3&B2JP/-A3 B2;=V&WI[L/kc/WI698217GI/XV12V&/
= a|ϕi a
=
g 2
E ?
- 2
E K
6
E @
/ u
q O
B f
e
/ 9
1 9
3 b
p F b
p ?
G P
J K
6 Z
/ ]
_
< o
e P
J h
[
- f
e / c
P
J 9
1 K
3 /
>@WIMO6K;=[P/2W?<?6K6Z/ WI6Kqc;=JP[W?/26K/@143l` 1Kx;@[PJL;=369WI126Kq;=WIW<I;=JP641937_]JP<I;@-I/ -IB|ϕi
/ 9
1 H
3 @
M I
< 9
1 K
1 .
J =
>
/
B K
3 2
/ I
<
/2[F |ϕi q]1K;@JL3^-]<I[qcG?;=-IBG?/.[MwCD;=6KV&/ B|ϕi = b|ϕiq
6 I
W K
6 @
; I
W K
6 / I
G / A
I
G
/ O
> @
M P
[
/ I
< 6
M}>@/2B b E>@/2-A37<?/2[P[L/2V&/2-A3vE2gAMO[+F 0 `
a
(
U /2B2;@-IGB2M@1m?ab[j/kcJP1437/m<I-(1K;@<I14p /21KWIM@B2/QGI/ H -I;@3KE H 3K/2[ _]<I/ |ϕi ∈ H ⇒ A|ϕi =

` a a
GI/ HM@-I`1 rB2/l<?JPB1KMO_]12< q@eoWJP[j;=/2<I196|3x37WN;=M@<?6 3 A|ϕiTUW;@∈3%IH81K/q B|ϕi

GIJM@g@;=∈-NM@H[LJP17MO` iIr[P/Oeo;=qUW;@E2-6KMOW37/2/<c<I3x6 B[L/mGI/214JMO3ug=GI;=;=-N-?M@B^[LJP<I19/2- 6h;=GIWM@E2-I6K1MO37H/<I6 `
a|ϕi
/21.>=/B3K/2<I691QW?6K;=WI69/21.B;=6K69/219WY;=-?GNM@-A3w1K;=-A3mi?JP/2-1 I6.EgAM@[P/V\/-A3>=/B3K/2<I691QW?6K;=WI69/21.G?/
a a
GI/m>OM@[P/<I6lWI6K;@WI6K/ a `
a a

A

;=-(M@W?WY/[P[P/xB2;=V&V5<?37MO37/<I6^GI/mG?/2<cX;=WYE67MO3K/2<I691l[neo;=WE267M 37/2<?6^GIEI-IJ WNM@6

cJGI/<c;=WE267M 37/2<?6K1dB2;=V&V5<?3K/2-A3q?[P/2<?6lB2;=V&V5<?37MO37/<I6l/2143x-]<I[` [A, B] = AB − BA

/21dB2;=V&V5<?37MO37/<I6K1l1KMO37JL19CD;=-A3d[L/21dV1V\/1l6K8g=[P/1l_U<?/[L/21lB269;cB ?/371vGI/ | ;@JP1K19;=-

• [A, B] = − [B, A]
• [A + B, C] = [A, C] + [B, C]
• [AB, C] = A [B, C] + [A, C] B
E2V&;=-I193K67MO3KJP;=-
[AB, C] = ABC − CAB `L
•
abG?/2-A37Jz37EwGI/=M@B2;@iIJu [A, [B, C]] + [B, [C, A]] + [C, [A, B]] = 0
A [B, C] + [A, C] B = ABC − ACB + ACB − CAB = ABC − CAB
E2V&;=-I193K67MO3KJP;=-
(ABC − ACB − BCA + CBA) + (BCA − BAC − CAB + ACB) `L=
+ (CAB − CBA − ABC + BAC) = 0

{ -GIJLV\/-I1KJL;=-XN-IJL/ ;=-(GIEI-IJL3v[M:3K67M@B/wG ef<?-;=WE26KMO37/<I6dWNM@6m

6 A = Xhn|A|ni
;=R[P/21lEk3MO3K1 |ni CD;=69V\/-A3d<I-I/wiNM@19/;=64%3 I;@-I;=6KV&E2/mG?/Q[ef/1KWNMOB2/wGI/Q~xJL[Pi/26932` n
|;=<?6v[L/21lV\MO3769JPB/212q?;=-M&GI;@-IB#
6 A = XA ii
i
#
[ M#376KM@B2/G ef<?-WI6K;UGI<IJz3.GI/5V\MO3K6KJPB/21v/2143mJP-A>OM@6KJPM@-A37/WNM@6W/269V5<?37MO37JL;=-
B2JL6KB<I[M@JL6K/.G?/21dVM 376KJLB2/12`

6 (A · · · A ) = X(A · · · A
(1) (n) (1) (n)
)ii
M@JL1l[neoE2[LE2V&/2-A3dGI/wVM 376KJLB2/ (A · · · A ) 1efEB26KJz3w

i

(1) (n)
ij
X (1) (2) (n−1) (n)

Ai,i1 Ai1 ,i2 · · · Ain−2 ,in−1 Ain−1 ,j
i1 ,··· ,in−1
⇒
6 (A (1)
, · · · , A(n) ) =
X X (1) (2) (n−1)
Ai,i1 Ai1 ,i2 · · · Ain−2 ,in−1 Ain−1 ,i
(n)
i i1 ,··· ,in−1
X (1) (2) (n−1) (n)
= Ain ,i1 Ai1 ,i2 · · · Ain−2 ,in−1 Ain−1 ,in
i1 ,··· ,in
X (n) (1) (n−1)
= Ain−1 ,in Ain ,i1 · · · Ain−2 ,in−1
=
6 (A
i1 ,··· ,in
(n)
A(1) · · · A(n−1) )
` A

66 (AB) = 6 (BA)

•
(A + B) = 6 (A) + 6 (B)
•
6 ([A, B]) = 0
•
•
6 (ABC) = 6 (CAB) = 6 (BCA)
& % $ + ) ' + (% ' * ' $|" (% ' % * ' !-+* ! *!!Z* '

3v- /219WNM@B/ GI/ ~xJL[Pi/2643(/2193GIJz3G?/ G?JPV&/2-I19JP;=-ZJL-?N-IJL/ 1efJL[m-I/ WY;@1K1K8GI/ WIM@1G?/ iNMO1K/

MTAM@-A3&<I--I;=V:iI6K/XN-?J^G eoE2[PEV\/-A3712ù,m-GIJz3 _]< eoJP[^/193#1KEWNM@6KM@iI[P/ 1efJL[^W;=1K1982GI/(<I-I/(iNMO1K/
GIE-I;=V5iI6KM@iI[L/@`
;=<I1d[P/1d/21KWIM@B2/1x19E2WNM@6KM@iI[L/21d1K;=-A3vJP19;=V&;=6KW#?/212`

;=JL6^B2;=<?6K1vGI/wVMO3 `
BMO-I JP6K_];=<IJL1m/w/k_]c<N/2M@V&-A37WIJL[L_]/2<I1w/@G ` eo/21KWIM@B2/1GI/&~vJP[Pi/2643m1KEWNM@6KM@iI[P/1m1K;=-A3QB2;@<I67M@V&V&/2-A3w<?37JL[PJL1KE21x/2- V\E p

x-#E[PE2V&/2-A3 |ϕi ∈ ` /2143rGIEI-IJNWNM@6t<?-I/l1K<IJz37/^G?/l-I;=V5iI69/21tB;=V&WI[P/ ?/1

37/[P[P/_U<?/
3
`(2) 2
` U
c1 , . . . , cn , . . .
X +∞
2 2
kϕk = |c | < +∞
ef/193x[M569/2WI69E21K/-A3MO3KJP;=-<?37JL[PJP19E2/.GIM@-I1d[M:3 IE2;=69JP/mGI/1xV\MO3K6KJPB/21^G?/~v/2JL1K/2-]i/269gI`
n
n=1
/WI69;cG?<IJL3x1KB2M@[M@JL6K/wGI/
M =
> 2
/ B 2
/ 9
1 .
3 I
G
E N
?
- J
WNM@6w |ϕi = (c , . . . , c , . . .) |ψi 1 = (d , . .
n . , d , . . .) 1 n
hψ|ϕi =
X
d c
+∞
∗
n n
` =@
n=1

kϕk2 , kχk2 < +∞ ⇒

:`s@A
|hϕ|χi| < +∞
ef/193x<I-I/wB2;@-I1KE_U<?/2-IB/5GIJP69/2Bk37/mGI/Q[neoJP-IEgAM@[LJL37EvGI/cB hM@6&

2 2 ` A
2
[M@_]<I/[P[L/.1K/wGIEV\;=-A3K6K/wB2;=V&V&/m1K<IJz3w
|hϕ|ψi| ≤ kϕk · kψk
2 2 2
hϕ − λψ|ϕ − λψi = kϕk − λ∗ hψ|ϕi − λhϕ|ψi + |λ| kψk ≥ 0 ∀λ ∈ C
{ -B I;@JP1KJL1K1KM@-A3 λ = kϕk2
hϕ|ψi
⇒ λ∗ = kϕk2
hψ|ϕi
qI;=-;=i?37JL/2-A3w
kϕk4 kψk2
kϕk2 − kϕk2 − kϕk2 + ≥0
|hψ|ϕi|2
kϕk4 kψk2 ≥ kϕk2 |hψ|ϕi|2
cJ kϕk = 0 qI[neoJP-IEgAM@[LJL37Ev/2143x>U6KM@JP/O`cJ kϕk 6= 0 qN;=-(GIJz>cJL1K/mWNMO6 kϕk
⇒
2
2 2 2
⇒ |hψ|ϕi| ≤ kϕk kψk

|ϕi, |χi ∈ `(2) ⇒ |ϕ + λχi ∈ `(2)

` @

hϕ + λψ|ϕ + λψi = kϕk2 + λ2 kψk2 + λ∗ hψ|ϕi + λhϕ|ψi
M@JL12q

kϕk2 + λ2 kψk2 ≥ λ∗ hψ|ϕi + λhϕ|ψi
/32q
hϕ − λψ|ϕ − λψi ≥ 0 ⇒

kϕ + λψk2 ≤ 2 kϕk2 + λ2 kψk2 < +∞

h;=-?1KJPG?E26K;@-I1[ef/1KWNMOB2/dGI/21rCD;=-IBk37JL;=-I1uB2;@V\WI[L/kc/21 ϕ(x) 1K<I6r[efJL-]3K/264>@MO[P[P/ [a, b] 3K/2[L[P/21u_]<I/w

(2)
([a, b])
Z
dx |ϕ(x)| < +∞
b
2 :`s "A
,.-G?JL3l_]<I/QB2/1dCD;@-IB3KJP;=-I1l19;=-A3G?/QB2M@6K69Em1K;=V&V\M@iI[P/ a

ϕ(x), ψ(x) ∈ L2 ([a, b]) ⇒ ϕ(x) + λψ(x) ∈ L2 ([a, b]))

:`s 0=

{ [P[L/mGIE2B;=<I[P/mG?JP6K/B3K/2V&/2-A3vGI/w[neoJP-IEgAM@[PJz37E

kϕk2 + λ2 kψk2 ≥ λ∗ hψ|ϕi + λhϕ|ψi

cJ ϕ(x) q χ(x) ∈ L (2)
([a, b])
qN[P/mWI69;cGI<?JL3l19BM@[PM@JP69/5
hψ|ϕi ≡
Z b
dx ψ ∗ (x)ϕ(x)
:`s
/2143viIJP/-GIEkN-IJ a

{ -/kyj/k3qN[efJL-IE2gAMO[PJL3KE:
Z b
(ϕ∗ − λ∗ χ∗ )(ϕ − λχ) ≥ 0 (∀λ ∈ C)
B2;@-IGI<IJz3vF a
_]<IJnqIM@WIWI[LJP_]<IEwF Iq B;=-IGI<?JL3vB2;=V&V&/.WI6KEB2EGI/2V&V\/-A3.M@<(69E21K<?[L3M 3d6K/2B ?/26KB ?E@`

kϕk2 + |λ| kχk2 − λ∗ hχ|λi − λhϕ|χi ≥ 0
kϕk2
λ=
ueo/21KWIM@B2/ /2143x19E2WNMO67M@iI[L/@`
hϕ|χi

2
L ([a, b])
eo/2193&<I-?/B;=-I19E2_]<I/2-?B2/HGjef<I-S3 IE2;=6982V&/Z1937M@-IGNM@69GG?/Z[nefM@-NM@[zTc19/
GIW//2<?3v;=1K<I/w6KJLGI/2 E6B2qI ;=_]V&<IJ+W
19;=37 1KJL/WI6v<I19[L/m/2[L_U;=-<?/37;@<?37/mCD;=-IBk37JL;=-(GI/B2M@6K69E19;=V&VM@i?[P/.19<I6x<?-JL-]3K/264>@MO[P[P/ [a, b]

+∞
X
` A
1 2iπnx
ϕ(x) = cn √ e b−a
b−a
M>@/2B
n=−∞
Z b
1 2iπnx
cn = √ dx ϕ(x)e− b−a
b−a a

/21rCD;=-IB3KJP;=-?1 ϕ (x) =
B2;=-I1437Jz37<I/-]3<I-?/xiNMO1K/d;=693 I;=-I;@6KV&E2/lGIE-I;=V5iI6KM@iI[L/lGI/
` { -/yY/3q
2iπnx
n √1 e b−a
b−a
2
L ([a, b])
kϕn (x)k =
1 2
Z b
dx e−
2iπnx
b−a e
2iπnx
b−a =1
`s =
/3
b−a a
Z b
1
`s?}
2iπx(m−n)
hϕn |ϕm i = dx e b−a
b−a a
1 (b − a) h 2iπb(m−n) 2iπa(m−n)
i
= e b−a − e b−a
M@JL1
b − a 2iπ(m − n)

e
2iπb(m−n)
b−a −e
2iπa(m−n)
b−a =e
2iπa(m−n)
b−a
h
e
2iπ(b−a)(m−n)
b−a
i
−1 =0
`s==

ef/193 [M^g@E2-IE67M@[LJP17M 37JP;@-.GI/r[neo/219WNM@B2/rWI69E2BE2GI/-]3 M@<QBM@1+;=Rw[efJL-]3K/264>@MO[P[P/ /2193 69/2V&WI[M@BE
L2 (R)
WN/219M@WN6 M@B2R/v` /2 143h;=<I19E21ZWN[LMO/2671\M@iI6K[LE2/@19qA<IBO[L37ef/MO1937391pbF WIpb6KG?EJPB26K/lE2G?_]/2< -Aeo37JP[N1/ 12cefJPM@19WI3K/dWI[LGIJP_]/2<I1/iN-]M@3219qh/21/k3ZGIE2;=-I- ;@V5W/2iI<?673ZMOiIG?[P/E2[a,12V&` ;=b]-A-376KWN/MO6X6937_]JL<IB2<I/[LJPB2//k623 q

[P/1dCD;@-IB3KJP;=-I1lW?6K;=WI69/21vGI/w[neo;=1KBJP[L[MO3K/2<I6 NM@6KV&;=-IJL_]<I/mB2;=-?1937Jz37<I/-A3x<?-I/iIM@1K/wGIE-I;=V5iI6KM@iI[L/ {
GI/wB2/k3x/1KWNMOB2/QGI/Q~xJP[LiY/6932`
&
$ 'd) " 'd' $ + ' " ' ( $ , + ' !#" "+* :! 'd) "$ '
* ' - ! +* ! *2!Z* '

GIE2cB;=;=V&Jz3 WY|ϕi;=19/26d<I-(1K<?E2JL[L>OE2M@V&-A3Q/2-A 3lG eo<I-(/219WNM@B/mGI/w~xJL[Pi/2693hGI/m-I;=69V\/:=` ;=<?3dE[PE2V&/2-A3 |ψi W/2<c3d1K/
|ψi = a|ϕi + |ϕ i
M>=/B hϕ|ϕ i = 0 `s==
ab[1K.< 3#3vGI/QB I;=JL1KJP6
⊥ ⊥

(
hϕ|ψi = a
|ϕ i = |ψi − a|ϕi
⊥
`s A
⇒ hϕ|ϕ⊥ i = hϕ|ψi − a = 0

/QW?6K; /B37/<I6 1K<I6v[neoE37MO3 |ϕi -I;@3KE

P|ϕi
/2143vGIEN-?JWNM@6
P|ϕi |ψi = a|ϕi = hϕ|ψi|ϕi
`s@

/ WI6K;UGI<IJz3Z1KB2M@[MOJP6K/GI/ /3 /2143(GIEI-IJmWNM@6 hψ|ϕi =

   
a1 b1

|ϕi = . . . |ψi = . . .
`ch/2[PM:1K<?g=g=8269/G eoJP-A3K6K;UGI<IJP69/d[neo/21KWIM@B2/ GI/21h>@/2Bk37/2<?6K1l[PJLg=-I/1v hψ| ≡
an bn
∗
b a + . . . + b a
r
` h
=
; V&V\/\[P/XW?6K;UGI<IJL351KBMO[M@JL6K//193&M@-A3KJP[PJL-IEMOJP6K/&W;=<I65[PM0 >OM@69JM@i?[P/@q ;=- M
∗
iJPI-AJL3K/26K- ;UGI1 I6<IJL3^hλψ| j

` c
5
/ I
i @
M 7
1 @
M A
- m
3 9
1 I
< m
6 P
[ Q
/ 7
3
/ K
6 &
V 5
/ @
M I
- @
g
[ @
M L
J 1 i?67M@B O/3 B26K;UB I/k3 kq JP6KM@B M
1 1 n n
∗ ∗
b ... b
[M:37/6KV&JP-I;@[P;=g=JL/
1 n
∗
= λ hψ|
|ϕi =
O/3 hψ| = iI67M `s "A

#
efM@WI69821vB2/w_]<IJ+WI6KEB28GI/@q
P|ϕi |ψi = hϕ|ψi|ϕi = |ϕihϕ|ψi
`s 0=
⇒ P|ϕi = |ϕihϕ|

GI/1x;@WIJL693 ; {|ϕ/2Bk37i,JL;=i-I1l=GI1,/m37. ;@. <I. ,1dN[P/2}1d<?E[P-IE2/V&iI/2M@-A1K3K/Q1lGI;=69/w3 I[M ;=-IiN;@M@6K19V&/QE2//m193vGIE2/Qg=M@[neo[P/2/w19WNF M@[nB2eo/QJPG?GI/2-A/37~xJz37JLE@[Pì/26932`'+M#1K;=V&V\/

c i

h;=-I19JPGIE6K;=-I1u<?-#>@/2Bk37/2<?6 |ψi _]<I/2[LB2;=-I_]<I/dGI/ H `=,m- W/2<c3uE2B6KJP69/.

|ψi =
X N
c |ϕ i
i i
`s
h;=V&` V\/ef;=[R M5iNM@19/m/2143x;@69%3 ?;=-I;=69V\E/@q hϕ |ϕ i = δ ` JL-I1KJq P c |ϕ i /193d;=64%3 I;@g=;=-NM@[L/mF
i=1
|ϕ i
i
i j ij
N
j6=i j j
P|ϕi i |ψi = ci |ϕi i

N
X N
X
`s
A
⇒ P|ϕi i |ψi = ci |ϕi i = |ψi
h/3937/wWI69;=WI6KJLE3KEQ1efEB269JL3q?/2-H-?;@3MO3KJP;=-ZG?/ JP67MOB i=1 i=1
[ = X |ϕ ihϕ | n n
` A
{ [P[L/./2143B;=-I-]<I/w1K;=<?1x[L/m-I;=V GI/w69/2[M 37JP;@-XGI/mCD/269V\/k37<I69/ `
n

x- ;=WE26KMO37/<I6 Â /2193rG?EN-IJcWNM@6t[PMGI;=-?-IE2/^G?/l1K/21uE[PEV\/-]3K1tGI/^V\MO3K6KJPB/GIM@-I1u<I-I/hiNM@1K/
`
3
A = hϕ |Â|ϕ i
mn m n

Ì}
Â =
X
Amn |ϕm ihϕn |
m,n
/21tE[PEV\/-]3K1tGI/VMO3K6KJLB2/GI< V\/V5iI69/GI/hGI6K;=Jz37/1K;=-A3uG?;=-I-IE1tWNM@6

` ]@
!
X X
hϕ | A |ϕ ihϕ | |ϕ i =
i A hϕ |ϕ i hϕ |ϕ i = A
mn m n j mn i m n j ij
| {z } | {z }
m,n m,n
/:V&/2V5iI69/G?/:GI69;=JL3K/:M&[P/21vV12V&/21vE2[PEV\/-A371G?/:V\MO3769JPB2/w_]<I/ ` +/1GI/<cH;=WYE67MO3K/2<I691
δim δjn
1K;=-A3vGI;=-?BQEgAM@<cY` Â

h;=-I19JPGIE6K;=-I1d<I-;=WE26KMO37/<I6 I/269V\Jz37JL_U<?/ Â `
=`x1Kc;@<I-]W?3uWYM@;=[P19;=;=69-I1|1x;@69_U%3 <??/:;=g=1K/;=1x-NMO>O<cM@[L/2<IGI69/21x<c519;=FJP/GI-]/3v<c37Y;@q@<?/k373u/M@1WI-I69;=82-1t-?GI;=E26Kg@V\E2-IM@E[PJL6K17E2MO/3K12JP`;=+-jq2/JP1x[L1|>@B/2;=B3K-I/214<I37JL693K1.<IWI/2-A69;=3uWI<?6K-I//1
iNGI/wM@19V\/MO;=376469%3 JPIB2;@/-IGI;=/ 6KV&E2/O` E219JPg=-I;@-I1hB/3K3K/iNMO1K/WIM@6 {|ϕ i, i = 1, . . . , N }` /1hE2[LE2V&/2-A371
Â
GIM@-I1dB2/k3K37/wiNMO1K/Q1K;=-A3d37;=<?1vG?JM@g=;@-NM@<cY` { -/yY/3q i
hϕ |Â|ϕ i = a hϕ |ϕ i = a δ = 0
19J j 6= i ` A=
,.-/-G?E2GI<IJz3d_]<I/
j i i j i i ji
Â =
X
a |ϕ ihϕ |
i i i
` A
c`x[cM<IW?GIWYE2;=g=19E;=-I-IE21m69/2_]19B2<I/2/ -?[LB2/2/1G?>OM@/0[L/2[<IM691>OM@WI[L69/2;=<IWI66K/WI1m6K;@WIWI<I6KJL/1K1K/-A3 qx1;=37R 69/ GIWIE2g@69/2E2-I-IG E6KE2V&/12;=qJP-I/k13wM@GIWI/ W/2[L;=-I>O1 M@[LG(i)
i
1KJv[neo<I-I/M@<V\;=JL-I1#GI/21&>OM@[P/<I6K1&WI6K;@WI6K/1/2143XGIEg=E2-?E26KE/@` E219JPg=-I;@-I1GI/WI[P<?1\WNMO6 a i N
2
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i
>=/B3K/2<I691WI69;=WI6K/1vM@1K19;cBJPE21vF [M5>OM@[L/2<I6lWI69;=WI69/ a `,.-HM#M@[L;=6K1

(r)
ϕ , r = 1, . . . , G(i)
i
19J BMO6[L/21m>=/B37/<I6K1:WI6K;=W?6K/21M@191K;UB2JPE1:F(GI/<c >@MO[P/2<?6K1

i
W?6K;=WI69/21dGIJzyjE6K/2-A3K/21d1K;=-A3x;=693 I;=g=;@-NM@<cY`
• hϕ |Â|ϕ i = 0 i 6= j
(r)
i
(r 0 )
j

(r) B MO6 hϕ |ϕ i = δ `
(r 0 ) (r) (r 0 )
,.-(/2-GIE2G?<IJL3v[M569/2WI69E219/2-A3MO3KJP;=-1KW/2Bk376KM@[P/ GI/ Â
• hϕi |Â|ϕi i = ai δrr0 i i rr 0
Â =
G(i)
XX `= (r)
ai |ϕi ihϕi |
(r)
/lCM
;=- B2;@V\VWNMO12BV&37/O/mq=1K;=J -#-I;@3K/21u19` ;=<?>=/-A3 Â = P a |ϕ ihϕ | M>=/2Bv[MxB2;=-A>=/-A37JP;@-\_]<I/
i r=1
i i i i
hϕi |ϕj i = δij ai = a j

/

1v;=<I1vM>=;=-I1d>U<(_U<?/19J GI/2<U;=iI1K/69>OM@iI[L/21lB;=V\V:<?37/-]32qI;=-WY/<?3d[P/1lGIJMOg=;=-NM@[LJP19/26hGIM@-I1
<I<?3K-IJP/Z[PJL1KiI/M@61KB/Z/39B37;=/.V\WIV:69;=<IWI-I69/@JPE`t3KcEJ^W<I;=-S<I6;@[PWY/kE>=67/2MO6h3K[n/2eo<IJP-I6 GIÂEk37/M 6KV&G?JP/2-N15MO>O3KJPM@;=[P-/@MO[P/2<?6WI6K;=W?6K/uGIEg=E2-IE6KE/@Òh;=-I19JPGIE6K;=-I1+/-/kyj/k3|<?-Q;@WYE67MO3K/2<I6 B̂ _]<IJ
B2;@V\V5<c37/.M>@/2B Â qc/3hGIE219JPg=-I;@-I1^WNM@6 {|ϕ i, n = 1, . . . , N } <I-I/iNM@1K/WI6K;=W?6K/.B;=V\V:<I-I/:
n
(
Â|ϕ i = a |ϕ i
n n n ` "A
cJ (a , b ) 6= (a , b ) GI821u_]<I/ n 6= m qO[M.iNMO1K/l/2143rGIE3K/269V\JL-IE2/^1KM@-I1rM@V:iIJPg=< n37EO`=UJI[nefM@V p
B̂|ϕ i = b |ϕ i
n n n
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n n m m

,.-0MOWIWY/[P[L/
{ -I19/2V5i?[P/h;=V\W?[P/3wGje ,.iI19/269>OM@i?[P/21Q_]<IJh;=V&V5<?37/-A3 37;=<c3/-cp
1K/V5iI[L/ Gjef;=WE26KMO37/<I6K1 Â , . . . , Â _U<?JQB;=V&V5<?37/-A3/-A376K/ /2=/B3K/2<I691WI69;=WI6K/1dB2;=V&V5<I-I1l19;=JL3d<?-IJP_]<I/O`cJ;=-(WY;@1K/1 p
Â |ϕ i = a |ϕ i (i)
` 0=
B2/[M 1K<?WIWY;@1K/Q_U<?/ a , . . . , a 6= a , . . . , a GI81v_]<I/ m 6= n.
i n n n
(1) (p) (1) (p)

n n m m
& ! ' ' ! " + (% ' + ' ' " ,^$ " 'd' $ + !Z*k" * $ ' +

3x-;=WE267M 37/2<?6 /2193vGIJz3 12eoJP[Y>=E269JLN/

[
Û
;=<(/-IB2;=69/ Û = Û
†
Û Û = Û Û =
† −1
†
`
3v-;@WYE67MO3K/2<I6lJL-]>@/2691KJPi?[P/m/2143v<I-IJL37M@JP69/19J/3v1K/<I[P/V\/-]3d19JJP[YB2;=-I19/264>=/Q[M
-I;=69V\/O`

= `xcJ Û /193v<I-IJz3M@JL6K/mMO[P;=691 hÛ ϕ|Û ϕi = hϕ|Û Û |ϕi = hϕ|ϕi `

c`dab-A>=/6K1K/V\/-A3q1K<IWIW;=19;=-I1v_U<?/ Û B;=-I19/269>@/[PM -I;=6KV&/@` [P;@6K12q ∀λ ∈ CqI;=-M( †
hÛ (ϕ + λψ)|Û (ϕ + λψ)i = hϕ + λψ|ϕ + λψi

` =
M@JP1
/

hϕ + λψ|ϕ + λψi = hϕ|ϕi + |λ|2 hψ|ψi + λ∗ hψ|ϕi + λhϕ|ψi
= hϕ|ϕi + |λ|2 hψ|ψi + 2< (λhϕ|ψi)
/ 3 hÛ (ϕ + λψ)|Û (ϕ + λψ)i = hÛ ϕ|Û ϕi + |λ| hÛ ψ|Û ψi + 2</ (λhÛ ϕ|Û ψi)
`
= 2
uefEgAM@[LJL37E :` AhJLV\W?[PJP_]<I/
/ /
/ /
< (λhϕ|ψi) = < (λhÛ ϕ|Û ψi)
` c}
V V
λ = 1 ⇒ < (hϕ|ψi) = < (hÛ ϕ|Û ψi)
JL-NM@[P/V\/-A3q ∀|ϕi, |ψi qI;=-M(

λ = i ⇒ = (hϕ|ψi) = = (hÛ ϕ|Û ψi)

hÛ ϕ|Û ψi = hϕ|ψi

` =@
[ ⇒ hϕ|Û † Û |ψi = hϕ|ψi
⇒ Û † Û =
@
M L
J
1 I
W @
M 1 ATUWY;O3%I81K/@q /2193JP-A>@/26K19JPiI[L/@` { -XV5<I[z37JLWI[PJPM@-A3uFG?6K;=Jz37/vWNM@6
WNM@6 Û qN;=-(/2-GIE2G?<IJL3v_]<I/ Û Û = [` Û /2193vGI;@-IBw<I-IJL37M@JP69/@`

Û Û

/ h
3
F A
g @
M ?
@/26K19JPiI[L//193x<I-IJz3M@JL6K/w1KJ+/31K/<I[P/ p
†
V\/-A3x19JJP[ B;=-I19/269>@/[PM -I;=6KV&/@`

- GIJPV&/2-I19JP;=-N-IJP/Oqh[PM WI6K;@WI6KJLE37E [xJPV&WI[PJL_]<I/_]<I/[L/

GIE3K/269 V\ JL-N M@-A 3dGI/ /2143-?{ ;=-(-U<?[nqNGI;=-?BQ_]<I/ /193xJP-A>=/6K19JPiI[L/@Û` Û =

Û

Û
†

*

h;=-I19JPGIE6K;=-I1v<I-I/wiNMO1K/Q;=693 I;=-I;=69V\E/ /k3v<I-H;=WE26KMO37/<I6d<I-IJz3M@JL6K/

Û
` {|ϕn i, n = 1, . . . , N }

/21l>=/B3K/2<I691 |ϕ i = Û |ϕ i B2;@-I193KJL37<?/2-A3v<I-I/wiNM@19/Q;@693%?;=-I;=69V\E/@`
0
n n

hϕ0m |ϕ0n i = hÛ ϕm |Û ϕn i = hϕm |Û † Û |ϕi = hϕm |ϕn i = δmn
` @=

ba -A>=/6K19/2V&/2-A3q|B2;=-I19JPGIE6K;=-?1GI/<c iNM@19/21Q;=693 I;=-I;=69V\E/21 {|ϕ i} /k3 {|ϕ i} qGIEI-IJP191K;=-I1

<I-;=WE267M 37/2<?6 Û WNM@6 Û |ϕ i = |ϕ i ` n
0
n
0
n
/193v<I-IJz3M@JL6K/O`
n

Û

c;=Jz3 |ψi <I-E2[PEV\/-A3dGI/ H `,.-WY/<?3dE2B6KJL6K/#

X X
|ψi =
n
cn |ϕn i
X
⇒ |Û ψi =
n
X
cn |ϕ0n i
2
` ]
⇒ hÛ ψ|Û ψi = c∗m cn hϕ0m |ϕ0n i = |cn | = hψ|ψi
| {z }
B;=-I1K/69>@/:[M5-?;=6KV&/@qIJL[ /2143vGI;=-IBw<I-IJz3M@JL6K/O`
m,n n
δmn
Û

c ;@JP/2-A3 {|ϕ i} /3 {|ϕ i} GI/2<c iNM@1K/1(;=693 I;=-I;=69V\E/213K/2[L[P/21_U<?/ |ϕ i = Û |ϕ i q/3

GIE1KJPg@-I;=-I15WIM@6 /k3 [L/215B;c;=69GI;=-I-?E2/21:G ef<?-0>=/2Bk37/<I6 |ψi 6K/219WY/B3KJL>=/V\/-A3#GNM@-I1
0 0
B2/1xG?/2<c(iIM@1K/12` {c } {c }
n n n n
0
n n

c =
X
Û c 0
n
` = †
nm m
m

X
c0n = hϕ0n |ψi = hϕ0n |ϕm ihϕm |ψi
m
X
=
m
X
hÛ ϕn |ϕm ihϕm |ψi
` "A
= hϕn |Û † |ϕm ihϕm |ψi
m
X
†
= Ûnm cm
m

#

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F [M iNM@19/wGI/wGIE2WNMO693v/2143x<?-IJL37M@JP69/@`
h;=-?1KJPG?E26K;@-I1l<I-X;=WE26KMO37/<I6 Â qc/k3lGIE219JPg=-?;=-I1^WNMO6 A [PMV\MO3769JPB2/v[P/x6K/WI6KE1K/2-A37M@-A3xGIM@-I1
[M5iIM@1K/QGI/wGIE2WIM@693 {|ϕ i} ij
i
A = hϕ |Â|ϕ i ij i j
` 0=

E219JPg=-?;=-I1mWNM@6 {|ψ i} [PM\iNM@19/ GI/519/21.>=/B3K/2<I691WI69;=WI69/212qY/3mWIM@6 D = d δ [PMV\MO3769JPB2/

[P/Q6K/WI6KEF 1K/2-A37M@-A3wqjGNBOM@ef/-I191x39pbB2F /pb39G?37JP/6K/QiNM@37/1K[/O` _]U<I;=/ JL3v/2-cN- Û [neo;=WqYE2/k673mM 37GI/2E<?1K6xJPg@<I-I-?;=JL-I3MO1.JPWI6K/wM@6 _]<IJ+CM@17JLM 3
WNGIJM@MO19g=1K/2;=6m-NM@G?[L/ /m{|ϕ
i ij i ij
VM 376KJLB2/.GIM@-I1v[i}M5iNM@19{|ψ/ {|ϕi} i}`

i i
i
|ψ i = Û |ϕ i i i U ij

/21dV\MO3769JPB2/1
/3 Â 1KMO37JL19CD;=-A3
Û

Û ÂÛ †

=dδ i ij
`
ij

di δij = hψi |Â|ψj i
`
=
X
= hψi |ϕm ihϕm |Â|ϕn ihϕn |ψj i
m,n
X
† †
= Uim Amn Unj = Û ÂÛ
ij
m,n
&
$ 'd) " 'd' $ + ' " ' ($ , + ' !#" "+*:! 'd) "$ ' +
* ' - ! +* ! ! H!Z* '

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JP-?I-IJP/m/193v<I-WI6K;=i?[P82V&/m1K<?i?37JL[n`
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Â|ϕ i = a |ϕ i |ϕ i ∈ H
[ = X |ϕ ihϕ |
n n n n
X
n
n n
!` " =
Â = an |ϕn ihϕn |
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n
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!` "?}
x̂
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x̂ϕ(x) = x ϕ(x) 0
2
#
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M@<cZ;=WYE67MO3K/2<I691 x̂ /k3 p̂ `

v;=<I1xM}>@;=-I1l>U<_]<I/Q[M DC ;=-IB3KJP;=- δ(x − x ) GIEkN-IJP/wWNMO6

x̂
1
0
M >=/2B 19J x ∈/ x − , x +
δ(x − x0 ) = lim
( a→0
ϕx(a)
0
(x)
!` "==
19J x ∈ x − , x +
ϕx(a) (x) =
0 0
a
2 0
a
2
;@-HW/2<?3M@<I191KJ [neo;=i?37/-IJP6lB;=V&V\/w[PJLV\Jz37/1lG esMO<?3769/21dCD;=-IB3KJP;=-?1lWY/6KV&/3K37M@JL3dG?/:GIEkN-IJP6d[L/21

0 a a
1 0 2 0 2
@/k371 |x i WNM@6
!` "@A
0
Z +∞
;=GIRZEkN[P-IMJP/wCD;=/-I- Bk37 JP:;@- ` "Aδ(x

W 2
/ ?
< 3 1k3769/.WI6KJL1K/.B;=V&V\/x[M[LJPV&JL3K/vGjesM@<c376K/1^CD;=-IBk37JP;@-I1h_]<I/mB/2[P[L/
hx |ϕi = dx δ(x − x )ϕ(x) = ϕ(x )
0 0 0
−∞
=k` [P;@6K1l;=-M#[P/m6KE1K<I[z3MO3d19<IJL>OM@-A3w
−x ) 0

Z +∞
dx |xihx| =
[ `!" ]
−∞

hϕ|
Z +∞
dx |xihx||ψi =
Z +∞
`!" =
dx hϕ|xi hx|ψi = hϕ|ψi
| {z } | {z }
/ ueo/2-I19/2V5i?[P/.GI/1lE37MO371 {|xi, x ∈ R} B2;=-I1437Jz37<I/.<?-I/miNM@19/mGI/m[neo/219WNM@B2/
−∞ −∞
ϕ∗ (x) ψ(x)
GI/w~vJP[Pi/2643` -(/kyj/k3qNB2/k3K3K/Q69/2[PMO37JL;=-XGI/.CD/6KV&/37<?6K/mW/26KV&/3dG?/mGIE2B;=V\W;=19/26^37;@<?3 @/k3 |ϕi

1K<?JL>OM@-A3w {

|ϕi =
Z
dx |xihx|ϕi =
+∞ Z
dx ϕ(x)|xi
:` " "A
+∞
esM@W?6K821B2/\_U<?JWI69E2B82GI/Oq ;=- >=E269JLN/M@JP19E2V&/2-A3

_]<I/Q[neo;=WY
E67/MO 3K/2<I6
x̂ W;=1K 1982GI/Q[M 69/2WI69E2 1K/x̂-A3M@JL;=-19WY/B3K67M@[L/m1K<IJz>@MO-]3K/#
−∞ −∞

x̂ =
Z
dx x|xihx|
+∞
!` " 0=
−∞

uef;=WE26KMO37/<I6 p̂ /2143xG?EN-IJ+WNMO6
p̂

p̂ϕ(x) = −i~
∂ϕ `!"
∂x
/21lCD;=-IBk37JP;@-W?6K;=WI69/21dGI/ p̂ 17M 37JP14CD;=-A3

−i~
∂ϕ
∂x
= pϕ(x) `!" =
⇒ ϕ(x) = Ceipx/~
WI<IJL1K_]<I` / −i~
-
/ Y
y
/ 2
3 q `xh/21CD;=-IBk37JP;@-I1(-I/ 19;=-A3 WNMO1GNMO-I1
{

e ∂
∂x
ipx/~
= −i~ ip~ eipx/~ = peipx/~
2
L (R)
Z +∞
dx |ϕ(x)| = C 2 2
Z +∞
dx
GIJL>@/269g=/ ` 0
=
−∞ −∞

+ x
M K
6
/ I
W K
6
E K
1
/ ]
- 7
3 O
M 7
3 L
J =
; - K
1
W 2
/ k
B 7
3 K
6 @
M P
[
/ 2
/ 9
1 3 N
i @
M 9
1 2
E ^
/ 9
1 I
< 6 P
[ x
M I
- @
; K
3 P
J =
;
- I
G
CDWN;=M@-I6 Bk37JP;@- `Nc;@JL3 ϕ(x) <I-?/.CD;=-IB3KJP;=-ZG?/ L (R) `N?M /2143dGIEN-?JP/

/ K
3 7
6 @
M ?
- 9
1 D
C =
; 9
6 \
V
E h
/ I
G / @
; I
< K
6 L
J 2
/ 6
G f
e ?
@/2691K/Q/2-
−∞
ϕ(x) = √
1
Z +∞
dk e ϕ̃(k) ikx
` 0=@
2π
cJ;=-(-I;@6KV\M@[PJL1K/[L/21lCD;=-IBk37JL;=-I1lWI69;=WI6K/1dGI/ p̂ WIM@6
−∞

ϕ (x) = √ p
1
e ipx/~ ` 0@=
[M 6K/[MO3KJP;=-GI/mCD/26KV&/3K<I6K/w1efEB26KJz3
2π~
[ = Z dp |pihp| +∞ ` 0 A

−∞

Z +∞ Z +∞
hx| dp |pihp||ϕi = dp hx|pihp|ϕi
−∞ −∞
Z +∞ Z +∞
1 ipx/~ 1 0
= dp √ e dx0 √ e−ipx /~ ϕ(x0 )
−∞ 2π~ −∞ 2π~
Z +∞ Z +∞
1 0
dx0 eipx/~ e−ipx /~ ϕ(x0 )
` 0 =
= dp
2π~ −∞ −∞
Z +∞ Z +∞
1 ipx/~ 0
= dp e dx0 e−ipx /~ ϕ(x0 )
2π~ −∞ −∞
Z +∞ √ p
1 ipx/~
= dp e 2πϕ̃
2π~ −∞ ~
Z +∞
1 1
=√ dk ~eikxϕ̃(k)
2π ~ −∞
;=R ;=-#M.JL- /2Bk37E^[PM6K/[MO3KJP;=-:GI/hCD/269V\/k37<I69/^1K<?6u[P/21 E3M 371 |xi GIM@-I1u[P/WI6K;UGI<IJz3t19BM@[PM@JP69/ hp|ϕi

= ϕ(x)
W;=<I6lWNM@191K/6xGI/w[PM5WI6K/V\JL826K/wF#[M5G?/2<ccJP8V\/w[LJPg=-I/O`N,.-M&G?;=-IBwGIE2V&;=-A3769Em_]<I/ ∀|xi, |ϕi

hx|
Z +∞
dp |pihp||ϕi = hx|ϕi
` 0 "A
B2/w_]<IJEk3M@iI[LJL3l[PM WI6K;=W?6KJPEk37Em69/2B I/6KB IE/@` −∞
,.-Z/2-ZG?E2GI<IJz3^/-]3K6K/mMO<?3769/_]<I/m[neo/2-?1K/2V:iI[P/xGI/21Êk3MO3K1 {|pi, p ∈ R} B;=-I1437JL3K<I/.<I-?/.iNM@19/

GI/w[neo/219WNM@B/QG?/~vJP[LiY/693`

,.-M#G?E2V&;=-A376KEw_]<I/QWY;@<I6^37;=<c37/.CD;=-IBk37JL;=- ;=-MZ
x̂ p̂
ϕ(x)
Z +∞
0
dx ϕ(x ) 0

1
Z +∞
dp e ipx/~ −ipx0 /~
e

= ϕ(x)
` 0 0=
efM@WI69821v[M5GIEkN-IJL3KJP;=-(GI/w[PM:CD;=-IB3KJP;=-
−∞ 2π~ −∞
δ(x − x0 )
qN;=-(/2-GIE2GI<?JL3v_]<I/
1
Z +∞
dp ei
p(x−x0 )
~ = δ(x − x0 )
` 0
^M@[LB2<I[L;=-I1lGIE1K;=69VM@JL1l[P/1lWI6K;UGI<IJz371l1KB2M@[MOJP6K/1 hx|x i /k3 hp|p i
2π~ −∞
0 0
Z +∞ Z +∞
1
` 0 A
0 0 0
hx|x i = dp hx|pihp|x i = dp eipx/~ e−ipx /~ = δ(x − x0 )
−∞ 2π~ −∞
⇒ hx|x0 i = δ(x − x0 )

Z +∞ Z +∞
1
` =
0 0 0
hp|p i = dx hp|xihx|p i = dx eip x/~ e−ipx/~ = δ(p0 − p)
−∞ 2π~ −∞
BM@6 δ(p − p) = δ(p − p ) `

⇒ hp|p0 i = δ(p − p0 )
0 0

{B2;=-A3K-5JP-]GI<JPk`V&+/2c-?Ju1K;@JP;@- -69JL/2-?WN82-I69JL/\/@q [L[P/2/1.1 >O;=M@W[PE2/6K<IMO6K371m/<IW?6K6K1|;=WI;=69-A/23t1w/2GI-:JL1Kg=B2E269-I8E3K67/2M@1Q[UWN<IM@-56 19WY//B3w3K6K[L/^/21mGIJL>O1KM@B[P6K//<I3 6K 1mWI<I69-5;=WI1969WY/2/1wB3KGI6K< /

1KW/2Bk376K/QB2;@-]3KJP-]<WNM@6 ν qN;=-M GI/mCM

;=-(g=E2-IE67M@[L/# n
[ = X |nihn| + Z dν |νihν| ` }

/3 n
Â =
X
na |nihn| + dν a(ν)|νihν|
Z
` @
1KJ[L/21l>=/B37/<I6K1xWI6K;@WI6K/1v19;=-A3 -I;=69VM@[LJP19E21 vWNM@6d[P/1lB2;=-IG?JL37JL;=-I1m
n
UTUV5iY;@[P/mGI/ m6K;=-?/2B @/6 ` =

hm|ni = δ
0
hν|ν i = δ(ν − ν )
mn
0 P
J 4
1 7
3 K
6 L
J I
i ?
< K
3 P
J =
; - δ
& $ %' * " " ' -! + Q$|* '
h;=-I19JPGIE6K;=-I1hGI/2<cZ19TU193K82V&/21l#W ATU1KJL_U<?/21dGIE2B6KJz371l6K/1KW/2Bk37JL>@/2V&/2-A3dWNM@6hGI/2<cX/219WNM@B2/1dGI/
~37x/JL-I[Pi1K;=/26969JP3 /H[ GI/ GIJPV&/2-?1KJP;@- M q iNM@1K/ {|mi} /3 H GIJPV&/2-I19JP;=- N q}iIM@1K/ {|ni} k` /rWI6K;UGI<IJz3
/3 /2143x[ef/1KWNMOB2/wGI/w~xJL[Pi/2643lGI/mGIJLV\/-I1KJL;=- M N -I;@3KE H ⊗ H GI;=-A3
[P/1vE[PEV\/-]3K1lH1K;=-A3xGIH/w[M:CD;=69V\/
1 2
1 2 1 2
|Ψi =
X
b |m ⊗ ni
m,n
` ]
;=R([P/1 O/3K1 |m ⊗ ni 1K;=-A3v1K<IW?WY;=19E21v;=693 I;=-I;@6KV&E21m`
m,n
` @
c;=JL/2-A3 |Φi /k3 |χi G?/2<c O/371vGI/ H /3 H
0 0
hm ⊗ n |m ⊗ ni = δ mm0 nn0 δ
1 2

"!$#%&'(
) *)+%$,$
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/,0 $ 1
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|Φi =
X
cm |mi; |χi =
X
dn |ni
` "A
m n
/ ! ! |Φi |χi /2143xG?EN-IJWIM@6

|Φi ⊗ |χi =
X
cm dn |m ⊗ ni
:` 0=
m,n
u6K;@WI6KJLE37E1w

=` |mi<B2⊗;@<I|niW qN;==-|m-I;@3K⊗/mniJP-IGI` JzyjE6K/V\/-]3d[L/mWI6K;UGI<IJz3

|Φi ⊗ |χi
;=< |Φ ⊗ χi `
c` |Φix<?37⊗ 69/2V&|χ/2-A+3vGIλχJL32qIi[P/m=WI69|Φi;cG?<I⊗JL3^|χ3K/2-Ii19+;=6Kλ|χ
1 2 1 2
JL/2[/19i3v` [PJL-IEM@JL6K/O`
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WNM@h6l;=G?-?/21K1dJPG?3767E2MO6K-I;@-I19CD1x;=69/V-HM /k37yjJP;@/k3x-I1^G?/2<I1-IJziI3M@M@1KJL6K//1 1l{|ii}
F WNM@69/k3K3 JP6l{|ji} ;@69%3 ?;=/-I3 ;=69V\E/21l GI/ H /3 H ;=i?37/-]<I/21
GI/ {|mi} 1
{|ni}
2
P
|ii = Pm Rim |mi ` @
|ji = n Sjn |ni
|M@6h6KM@WIW;=693FB/3937/iIM@1K/Oqc[L/vW?6K;UGI<IJL3r3K/2-I19;=6KJL/2[GI/ |Φi /k3 |χi W;=<I6967M@Jz3 1k3769/xGIEkN-IJWNM@6

^
|Φi ⊗ |χi =
X
cei dej |ii ⊗ |ji
:` A
i,j
u6K;@WY;=19JL3KJP;=-

^
|Φ ⊗ χi = |Φ ⊗ χi
:` A
EV\;@-I193K67MO3KJP;=-

X X X
−1
|Φi = cm |mi = cm Rmi |ii
m m i
X
−1
⇒ cei = cm Rmi
GI/wV12V&/ dej =
X
m
−1
dn Snj
n
X X
^
⇒ |Φ ⊗ χi = cei |ii ⊗ dej |ji
i j
XX XX
−1 −1
= cm Rmi |ii ⊗ dn Snj |ji
i m j n
XX X XX X
−1 −1
= cm Rmi Rim0 |m0 i ⊗ dn Snj Sin0 |n0 i
i m m0 j n n0
X X X X
= cm (R−1 R)mm0 |m0 i ⊗ dn (S −1 S)nn0 |n0 i
=
X
m
cm |mi ⊗
m0
X
cn |ni = |Φ ⊗ χi
n n0
:` ?
{ 3MO3K1vJL-A376KJL_]<IE21
m n
/.>=/2Bk37/<I6[L/mWI[P<I1lg@E2-IE67M@[GI<WI69;cGI<?JL3^3K/2-I19;=6KJL/2[G eo/219WNM@B2/1GI/Q~vJP[Pi/2643l12eoE2B6KJz3
|Ψi =
X
bm,n |m ⊗ ni
`==
{WY/<?3 -:3Kg=6KE;=-I<cE2>=6K/2M@6 [nq}B/- eo/214-I3t;=WNV5MO1|iI[L69//21 W?6K;UGI <IJL3+3K/2-I19;=6KJL/2[A GI//3 GI/2<U :Ek3MO3K12Òh/h-j37/2ef/[L1 193|_][P<I/r/ BM@1|_]<I/19J][neo;=- `
m,n
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EE3737MOMO3.3^JL_]-]<I3KJ|6KJL-I_U/:<?E@W`?/2h<?/231^WNEkM@31xMO3K121 eoE2B2;=69<IJP69//5-A3lB2;=<IV&-XV&6 =/Q[P/d[L/:CD;=WI-I69GN;cMOG?V\<IJL/3v-]3737/M@-I[1KGN;=M@69-IJP/1[ [PG?/2/51GIGIE/2>@<U/2 [L;=EkWI3WMO/23K1V&12/2ef-AM@37WI1lW69/2E2[LB2[P/Q/-A<I37- 1
m n mn m n
1K<I6d[L/21 ;=69GIJP-NM 37/2<?6K1l_]<NM@-A37JL_]<I/21 O`

u6K;UGI<IJz3l37/-I1K;=69JP/[G ef;@WYE67MO3K/2<I691
WNM@6m/m WI69;cGI<?JL3^3K/2-I19;=6KJL/2[jG?/mGI/2<cZ;=WYE67MO3K/2<I691 Â /3 B̂ MOg=JP1917M@-A3dGNM@-?1 H /3 H /193dGIEkN-IJ 1 2
:` =A
;=<?3m;@WYE67MO3K/2<I6 M@g=JP1917M@-A3GNM@-I1 W/2<c3 13K6K/:3K6KJL>UJPM@[P/V\/-]3xE3K/2-IG?< F H ⊗ H /2-
(Â ⊗ B̂)(|Φi ⊗ |χi) = |ÂΦi ⊗ |B̂χi
B2;@-I 1KJLGIE26KM@-A3x[efJLGI/2-A3KÂJL37EGNM@-I1 H H 1 1 2
:` ]
2
b⊗ [
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A
;=V&/39376K/m[efJLGI/2-A3KJL37EO` Â
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xWIWI[PJLBMO3KJP;=-?1
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x y z
|~ri
1K;@-]3v69/2[PJLE21dM@<U @/k371 |xiq |yi /3 |zi WIM@6 ~r x y z
` =
cJ[ef;@-6KM ;=<?3K/w[P/.19WIJP- qN;@-M#GI/wV 12V&/

|~ri = |xi ⊗ |yi ⊗ |zi
:` "A
;=<I6:<?-I/WNMO6937JLB2<I[L/#1K/G?E2WI[PM@BM@-A3:GNM@-I1Q[neo/219WNM@B2/Oq|[L/21QE37MO371193M 37JP;@-I-NM@JL6K/21wB;=-I1KJLGIE269E21
|~r, σi = |xi ⊗ |yi ⊗ |zi ⊗ |σi
GI< W;=JL-]3xGI/Q>c<?/5GI< WI69;cG?<IJL3v37/-I1K;=69JP/[|19;=-A3m/2- g@E2-IE67M@[ JP-A3769JP_]<IE12àb[P1-?/:[P/Q1K;@-]3.WNM@119J

[neoE2_]<NM 37JP;@-ZGI/cB I6K;U/2G?JP-Ig=/6d/2193v19E2WNM@6KM@iI[L/@`
6 /2V\M@6K_]<I/1
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GIF /GI1^/WN1xM@Ek64337MOJLB23K<I1v[LW/21;=19JP1KGIJP/i?-][P/23KJP1 _]<I B/C|12Bq?N<?M@-IWI/.Jz37WN69M@/Q641937<IJL/x6d19[P/2/<I1v[L/2WIV&M@69/23K-AJPB23^<?GI[P/2/1h[nJPeo/2GI1K/WI-]M@3KB2JP_]/.<IW?/6K1;UkGI` <IJL3B2;@6K6K/1KW;=-IG

c`dab[-I/CM@<?3:WNM@1 B;=-?CD;=-IG?6K/X[L/WI69;cGI<?JL3:3K/2-I19;=6KJL/2[M>=/2B([PM1K;@V\V&/GIJL6K/B37/GI/XGI/<c
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1 2
i;=[P/ ⊗ WY;@<I6d[P/21lW?6K;UGI<IJL3K1^37/-I1K;=69JP/[P1lG eoE37MO371d;=<G eo;=WYE67MO3K/2<I6912`

1 2

ZZ

2 Y! ", w$ ' Q' ++* ' !(!

' , ' '

Z +∞
dx e − 21 Ax2
=
r
2π `L}
−∞ A
E2V&;=-I14376KMO37JL;=- |;=19;=-I1 z = R +∞
−∞
dx
1
e− 2 Ax
2
Z +∞ Z +∞
2 − 21 Ax2 1 2
z = dx e dy e− 2 Ay
Z−∞ −∞
1 2 2
= dxdy e− 2 A(x +y )
R2
Z +∞ Z 2π
1 2
= dr r dθ e− 2 Ar
0
= 2π
Z +∞ 0
du e−Au
` @
0
−Au +∞
e
= 2π
−A 0
2π
=
A
r
2π
⇒ z=
A

%$ !#", w$ ' Q' ++* ' !!

' , ' ' d) ' !
' ' $ ' %-'
' $ ) '

Z +∞
dx e − 21 Ax2 +Bx
=
r
2π B2
e 2A
`fA
A
EV\;=-?19376KMO37JL;=-
−∞
2
1 2 1 B B2
− Ax + Bx = − A x − +
2
Z +∞
− 12 Ax2 +Bx
2
B2
Z
A
+∞
2A
− 21 A(x− B )
2 B2
Z +∞
1 2
`]
⇒ dx e =e 2A dx e A =e 2A du e− 2 Au
−∞ −∞
| −∞ {z }
√ 2π
Q' +++* ' !(!

A

!#", w$ ' ' ' )*'

Z +∞
dx e −α2 x2
=
√
π `!=
α
x ∈ R <e(α ) ≥ 0 ! ! −
−∞
2
π π
≤ arg α ≤
EV\;=-?19376KMO37JL;=- |;@1K;=-I1 α = ae M>=/2B − ≤ θ ≤ /k3 a > 0 `
4 4
iθ π π
`"A
4 4
Z +∞ Z +∞ Z +∞
−α2 x2 1 −e2iθ u2 2 2iθ u2
dx e = du e = du e−e
1x;@<I1:MO[P[P;@-I1.BMO[PB2<?[P/26wB/3K3K/\JL-A37E2g@67M@[L/ WNM@6w[MZV&E3%?;cGI/#GI/1:69E21KJLGI<I1` h;@-I1KJLGIE269;=-I1FB/3
−∞ a −∞ a 0
/yY/3^[MmCD;=-IB3KJP;=- e M>=/2B z ∈ C qU/3^B2M@[PB<I[P;@-I1h19;=-XJP-A3KE2g=6KM@[P/v1K<IJz>OM@-A3^[P/vB2;@-]3K;=<I6^G?;=-I-IE

1K<?6v[PM:Ng=<I69/ B.1 `h;=V&V\/ e /2193xM@-IM@[LT]37JL_]<I/@qI;@-M iIJL/2-1 I6 I + I + I = 0 M>@/2B
−z 2
−z 2
1 2 3
Z
`!0=
R
2
I1 = dx e−x
0
Z +∞ √
−x2 π
⇒ lim I1 = dx e =
N;=-(W;=1K/ qIGjef;=R
R→+∞ 0 2
I2 z = Reiϕ ⇒ dz = iReiϕ dϕ z 2 = R2 e2iϕ = R2 (cos 2ϕ + i sin 2ϕ)
Z θ
⇒ I2 = iR dϕ e(−R (cos 2ϕ+i sin 2ϕ)+iϕ)
2 `
0

=m(z)
I3
I2
θ
0 I1 R <e(z)
`L h;=-A37;=<?6vW;=<I6l[efEk>OM@[P<NM 37JP;@-XGI/ e−z
2 GIM@-I1d[P/mWI[PM@-(B2;=V&WI[L/kc/@`
I3
N;=-(WY;@1K/ z = reiθ ⇒ dz = eiθ dr
Z
`=
0
iθ 2iθ r 2
⇒ I3 = e dr e−e
R
Z +∞
iθ 2iθ r 2
⇒ lim I3 = −e dr e−e
^M@[PB<I[P;@-I1l[M5[LJPV&JL37/xGI/ I [P;=691K_]<I/ R→+∞
R → +∞
0
x`L =
2
Z θ Z 2θ
−R2 cos 2ϕ R 2
|I2 | ≤ R dϕ e = dϕ e−R cos ϕ
2
;=R[neo;=-(M&<c37JP[LJP19E[neoJP-?E2gAM@[LJL3KE Z dx f (x) < Z dx |f (x)| Ìab[ CM@<c3dGIJP1437JP-?g=<I/26lG?/2<c(B2M@1Q
0 0
b b
=` 2θ < ` M@-I1dB/QB2M@12q cos ϕ ≥ cos 2θ ⇒ e ≤ e qI/3

π
a a
−R2 cos ϕ −R2 cos 2θ
x`L=}
2
R −R2 cos 2θ
I ≤ 2θe −−−−→ 0
c` 2θ,.-=>OM 1K` E WNM@M@69-?/21.6dB2[n/eoJP-AB37M@E1g=qY67[LMO/[P/.V\/M -;=GI6K/M@2<c-A3WNGIM@<H6437WIJL6K/2/1mV\ JL/26vBM@1x-I/:19<.3#3.WNM@1xBM@6 cos 2θ = 0 `
2
R→+∞
π
2
Z Z π
R R −R2 cos
2 sin ϕ −R2 cos ϕ
|I2 | ≤ dϕ e| {z } + dϕ e
2 2 |sin
{z}
x`L @
0 2
≥e−R cos ϕ
≥1
Z 0 R2 u
R −R2 cos R e
⇒ |I2 | ≤ e + du
2 2 − cos sin
2
R −R2 cos R 1 − e−R cos
⇒ |I2 | ≤ e + −−−−→ 0
2 2 sin R2 R→+∞

;=R[neo;=-5MdCM@JL3 [P/B NM@-?g=/2V&/2-A3uGI/>OM@6KJPM@iI[P/ u = − cos ϕ Fv[M [LJPg=-?/@`JL-I1KJq lim

0
q?/3vJP[ 69/21437/ R→+∞ I2 =
lim I1 = − lim I3 = 0
`LA
R→+∞ R→+∞
√ Z +∞
π 2iθ 2
⇒ = eiθ du e−e u
2 0
Z +∞ √
−e2iθ u2 π
⇒ du e = iθ
2e
,.-/-G?E2GI<IJz3dWNM@6 `!"=kq
0
Z +∞
dx e −α2 x2
=
√
2 π
iθ
=
√
π `L ]
−∞ a 2e α

!#", w$ ' ' ++* ' !(!
' ' )*' d) ' !
' ' $ '
%(' ' $)'
<e(α ) ≥ 0 ∀β ∈ C ! Z

+∞
!
! ! β

2 (x+β)2
2
dx e−α
−∞

/yYE/V\32qO;=19-?J 19376KMO37JL;=- ,.Mv- <IWY-I//h<?WI3 M@691K3K/\JP/r6K/6K19E37/269[P/2[L/rJL-I;=GI-:6K/XW/2M@<?<03 [nBeoMOJP-I1:B;=;=R 6KWβ;=69/2/6193 GNM@W?-?<I1 6K/V\q C/M@-]JP3:69/JPV\[L/rM@B g=NJLM@-N-IM@g=JP69//@V\` /{ -A- 3
GI/(>OM@6KJPM@βiI[P=/1 w+iy
/ X
3
[ f
e L
J A
- 7
3 2
E @
g 7
6 @
M L
[ X
/ K
6
/ 9
1 7
3
/ 7
6 M L
J I
- B NM@-?g=E2/O`^h;=x-?1KJPG?E26K;@-I1\[PM CD;@-IB3KJP;=-
e −α2 z 2
qN/k3xB2M@[PBx<I[P;@=-I1lx1K;=+-(wJL-]3KE2g=6KM@[P/m19<I6d[P/mB;=-A37;=<I6dGI;@-I-IEw1K<I6d[PM:Ng=<I69/ x` c`
0
=m(z)
I3
β
I4 I2
−R 0 I1 R
<e(z)
`s h;=-A3K;=<I6dWY;@<I6d[neoE>OM@[P<IMO37JL;=-XGI/ e−α

2 z2 GNM@-I1v[P/mW?[M@-ZB;=V\W?[P/kc/O`

Z +∞ √
−α2 x2 π
I1 −−−−→ dx e =
R→+∞ −∞ α
x`L
@
Z β
2 (R+iy)2
I2 = dy ie−α −−−−→ 0
0 R→+∞
⇒ I4 −−−−→ 0
R→+∞
Z +∞
2 (x+β)2
I3 −−−−→ − dx e−α
h;=V&V\/ e −α2 z 2
/2143MO-NM@[LT]3KJP_]<I/@q?[M51K;@V\V&/ R→+∞
P
−∞
i Ii =0
qNG eo;=R([P/m6KE1K<I[z3MO3
Z +∞
dx e −α2 (x+β)2
=
Z +∞
dx e−α
2 x2 x`L"=

<e(α ) ≥ 0 ∀B, β ∈ C
−∞
2
−∞
Z +∞
dx e −α2 (x+β)2 +Bx
=
√
π B22
e 4α
x`L
0@
E2V&;=-I14376KMO37JL;=- −∞ α
2 2
−α x + Bx = −α 2

B
x− 2
2
B2
+ 2
x`L
efM@WI6K81x[L/m[P/V\V&/@qc[neoJP-A37Eg=67M@[L/GI;@-I-I/ Nq Gjef;=R([L/m6KE219<I[L37MO3` √
α
π
2α 4α

-' ' /. -' ' + + $ "+* ^) ' * ' $ +

Z +∞
dx e
i
2
Ax2
=
s
2π i
e
(A) π4
∀A ∈ R
x`L=
|A|
E2V&;=-I14376KMO37JL;=-
−∞
α2 = −
iA
⇒ α=
r
|A| −i
e
(A) π4
x`
=
2 2

Z +∞
dx e
i
2
Ax2 −iBx
=
s
2π i
e
(A) π4 −i B
e 2A
2
∀A ∈ R
x` c}
|A|
E2V&;=-I14376KMO37JL;=-
−∞
i 2 i

Ax − iBx = A x −
B
2
−i
B2 x` =@
2 2 A 2A

!#", w$ ' + ) :! " ' ! ! " ' ! ' Q' +++* ' !(!
'

Z +∞
dx x2 e− 2 Ax =
1 2 √
2πA− 2
3
∀A ∈ R
` OA
−∞
EV\;=-?19376KMO37JL;=- |;@1K;=-I1 I(A) = R +∞

−∞
dx e− 2 Ax
1 2 `,.-1KM@JL3d_]<I/
I(A) =
r
2π
⇒
dI
=−
1√ 3
2πA− 2
` ]
A dA 2
M@JL1lG efM@WI6K81x19;=-/kcWI6K/1K19JP;=-1K;=<?1vCD;=69V\/JP-A37Eg=67M@[L/@q
Z
` =
dI 1 +∞ 1 2
=− dx x2 e− 2 Ax
dA 2 −∞
Z +∞ √
1 2 3
⇒ dx x2 e− 2 Ax = 2πA− 2
−∞
,.-W/2<c3lCM@B2JL[P/2V&/2-A3lG?E2V&;=-A376K/6d<I-I/mCD;=6KV:<I[P/.W?[P<I1dg=E-IE26KM@[P/

J n ≡
R +∞
−∞
1
dx xn e− 2 Ax
2
( √ n

` "A

n+1
(n − 1)!! 2πA− 2
Jn =
0 n

n!! = 1 · 3 · 5 · . . . · n
n !
! !

cJ EV\;=/2-?143:1937WI6KMOM@37JPJL6w;=-M@[L;= 6Kc1mJ ;@n- /WI193v69;cJPBV&82GIWN/&M@JL6hWNM@MO6m[P;=6969E21lB[n<IeoJP6K-A6937/2E-Ig=B67/@M@` -A,m3h- /2193vMZJL>cV\< WN_]MOJP<I6K/#/xB@/3deo/219[ef3JL-]>U3K67E2M@g=Ju6KM@W[P;=/x<I/26 143x-]<I[L[P/Oq`

n n=2

1K<IW?WY;=19;=-I1v_]<I/BOef/193d>U67M@JW;=<I6 n /k3xV&;=-A3769;=-I1l_]<I/QB@eo/2143v>U6KM@JWY;@<I6 n + 2
n
dn 1 √ n+1
[I(A)] = − (1 · 3 · . . . · (n − 1)) 2πA− 2
dAn 2
n Z +∞
1 1 2
= − dx xn e− 2 Ax
2 −∞
√ n+1
⇒ Jn = (n − 1)!! 2πA− 2
n
dn+1 √
x` 0@
1 n+1 n+1
[I(A)] = − (1 · 3 · . . . · (n − 1)) 2π − A− 2 −1
dAn+1 2 2
n
1 √ 1 n+3
= − (1 · 3 · . . . · (n − 1)) 2π(n + 1) − A− 2
2 2
n+1
1 √ n+3
= − (1 · 3 · . . . · (n − 1) · (n + 1)) 2πA− 2
2
n+1 Z +∞
1 1 2
= − dx xn+2 e− 2 Ax
2 −∞
√ n+3
⇒ Jn+2 = (n + 1)!! 2πA− 2

,.-B;=-I19JPGI86K/w<I-19TU193K82V&/[LJP-IE2M@JP69/GI/ N E2_]<NMO3KJP;=-?1dF N JP-?B2;=-I-]<I/1w

`` `` `` `z
a11 x1 + · · · + a1N xn = y1
a21 x1 + · · · + a2N xn``` = y2
a N 1 x1 + · · · + a N N xn = y N
,.- WY/<?3m69/2WI69E21K/-A37/26mB/:14Tc14378V\/ 19;=<I1CD;=69V\/QV\MO3769JPB2JL/2[L[P/ A~x = ~y ;=R A /2143m[M&VMO3K6KJLB2/
N ×N
GI/wB2;U4/ 3&B2JL/2-A371 (a ) Ù;=-G?E37/6KV&JP-NMO-]3d1efEB269JL3Q
ij
` a` ·` · · a `
` `` `

det(A) =
`
a

11
`s=

12 1N

aN 1 aN 2 · · · aN N
,.->OM <?37JL[PJL1K/26hGI/2<cZWI6K;=W?6KJPEk37E1vG?<GIEk37/6KV&JP-NM@-A3w
=`xGIcJEk37;=/2-69V\V:JL<I-N[LM@3K-AJPWI3d[L/2JP/^143v<IV5-?/<IB2[L3K;@JP[PWI;=[L-IJPE-?// WN M@[PJP6lg@-IB//}39 37GI/w/ B2A;=-?19WI3M@MO6-]<?3K/@-I` /B;=-I1937M@-A37/ c MO[P;=691[PMQ>OM@[L/2<I6rGI<
c`x,. [LJP-0g=-?W/2/21<?35GI/M ;=<?1K3KM@/26-I1dFB N<IM@-I-?/Xg=B/2;=6 [P;=-?-I/ [P` JPg@-I/}.GI/ A GI/21:V5<I[L3KJPWI[L/21wG efM@<?3K6K/21B2;@[P;=-I-?/21

,.-W/2<?3v<?3KJP[LJP1K/6h[PM#W?6K/2V&JP86K/mWI69;=WI69JPE3KEmWY;@<I6lE2B6KJP69/#
A det(A)
` ` ` `

x det(A) =
r
`
a
11 12 a

` · · ·
r 1r x a
` · ·
1N· a
`

`fA

aN 1 aN 2 · · · xr aN r · · · a1N
;=M R ;=<?x3K/26/193[M(CD;=JL6 1^[MJP-? B2;=-I-]B;=<I[P/&;=-?GI-I< /@q19TU193K82CD;@V&JP1^/@` [PM ,m - q ?< 3KJP[PJLq 1K/ /CD-I;=1KJP<I1^Jz37[PM /& [MZ1KB2/;=B2[L;=;=-?-IGI-I//.WIF569[;=M5WI69B2JP;@E[P3K;=E#-I-?WY/ ;=<?6 q
r

x 1 x 2 ... x
k r

W;=<I6 k 6= r

`` ``
a11 a12 · · · (a11 x1 + · · · + a1r xr + · · · a1N xN ) · · · a1N

`` ``

xr det(A) =
aN 1 aN 2 · · · (aN 1 x1 + · · · + aN r xr + · · · aN N xN ) · · · aN N
`]
| {z }
r

JL-I1KJqI1KJ x , . . . , x /2143x<?-I/19;=[P<c37JP;@-ZGI<(19TU193K82V&/@q;=-M

1 N
` a` · · · y` · · · a `

x det(A) =
`
a
r
` ` ` 11 12 1 1N

= det(Ar )
`!=

aN 1 aN 2 · · · yN · · · aN N
;=R A /2143u[MvVM 376KJLB2/;=i?3K/2-]<I/l/2- 69/2V&WI[M M@-A3|[Mx6 B;=[P;=-?-I/hGI/ A WNM@6|[P/>@/2Bk37/2<?6  `  `


y1 ` 
{ -WIM@693KJPB2<?[PJP/6h19J det(A) 6= 0 qN;=-M yN
x = r
det(A ) r
r = 1, 2, . . . , n
!` "A
det(A)
eo/2193#B/X_]<I/Z[neo;=- M@WIW/2[P[L/[PM ` -SWI67MO3KJP_]<I/X;@-0[neo<?37JL[PJL1K/#67M@69/2V&/2-A3
B[M MO6mVWYM@;=JL<?- 6.OquGI3/2MO1w-IWGI/JP3K1\JL37_]1<I19/TU19WY3K;@82V&<I6/21wGI/;= 1Z- g=WI 676KMO;U-IB2GI E1XGI/2146KTcMZ1437WI 8[PV\<? 3/ @13m{ [PWNM MOV&6.1KE<I3 Ii?;c1937G?Jz/37<?GI3KJP/2;=1Z-W?/kJL3w>=;O6K37E1X1K;=GI[L<?/ 37JL5Q;=- M@<?21KF 1

-IEB2/2191KJz37/QV\;=JL-I1^G eo;=WE26KMO37JL;=-I12`

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§ iWU`aiZFW  §¨n=n=N{f5>V8AnO?AW¨B2NZFBu@iZFWu<cZN ­N5Z6Wu@A<`->{fVWU8A8AW?AW x̂ ?/N58AnµZ6WÈv&>V8A?/N`aWU8;:EN5Z/x hϕ |x̂ |ϕ i~ 

ZFWÉv&>V8i?/N5`-Wu8:ªN5Z\4  N8AnJZ [ TU:ªN$:b?AWAZF@inb /N5n=nwWaTU8AWu<wjVDFWÁ>V8·?AD:J @c[^D6ZÈf·N+?AWun UW@^LTUk_`L QhBEPkc

SVU_`PRLTQTSVURFCc NA1WUZFTUWung?/N58AngBUWHBuN5n UR@^LTU_`LTQhBEPkc [ F?R> BEQ PRL EY^]CB 4

     0 q̂ N p̂ 6 ?[ 6     6

MNº @iWunw:=DF>V8·;@AD nwW1>VnwWQ8/N:=@A<=WUZFZFWU`aWU8: 7ºBuWnt:ªN5?AWQWUnw:J?AWQn=N2­V>VD6<bBu>V`-`aWU8::E<w>V@i­VWU<

P< (AB) = P< (BA) x Kh4eK5z~

 [^N5A<wkunpZ [ W hA<wWun=nwDF>V8?AW x̂ WU: p̂ Wu8©v&>V8ABC:EDF>58?iW a WU: a Á/>V8©WU8?ATU?A@AD: 

YWU:w:EWJ:ERATU>V<=D6W5ÁA;@ADWunt:ZFNÉA<=WU`aD6ku<wWJ:=RATu>5<=DFW CW iN5BU:=W Á"B[^WUnw:wq 7$q9?iDF<=WbZFNQA<=WU`aD6ku<=Wv&>5<=`-W

N5AA<w>hBªRiWHWUnw:g/N<_W hWu`-AZ6WbZNÉ /N5nwWb?AWbZNÉ;@/N8;:=D6/BuN:ED6>V8+?A@©BªR/N5`-+TuZ6WuBC:E<=>5` N5j58ATU:=DF;@AW54

Wu8<=WU`aAZFNM2N8;: q WC: p /N5<p?AWUn>VTu<=N:EWU@A<=nU48>V i:=DFWu8:N5Z6>V<=ng@A8>V1TU<EN:=Wu@A<gRAWU<=`-D6:=DF;@AW

MµWunBu>V8in=Tu;@AWU8ABuWUn ARf n=D6 @iWun ?AWÀBuWÀBªR/N58ijVWu`-Wu8:<EN5?AD6B2N5Z5?AW >VD68;:?iWÀ­ @AWÀn=>V8:Bu>V8in=DF?iTCq

hϕ|x̂|ϕi = hαϕ1 + βϕ2 |αx1 ϕ1 + βx2 ϕ2 i = |α|2 x1 + |β|2 x2

(x̂ + iλp̂ ) |ϕi λ∈R

k(x̂0 + iλp̂0 ) |ϕik2 ≥ 0

= hϕ|x̂2 |ϕi − 2hϕ|x̂|ϕi2 + hϕ|x̂|ϕi2

 WJ` U `aWÁ = hϕ|x̂2 |ϕi − hϕ|x̂|ϕi2

M¨[^N58/N5Z6>VjVDFW E = ~ω Á p~ = ~~k WU:¨ZFN<wWuZN$:EDF>58IBUZN5nwn=DF;@AWY1>V@i<È@A8AWY/N5<w:=DFBU@AZFWÀZFD6 A<=W E =

<=WU` N<=;@AWunS>58;:SN5`aWU8ATJshBªRi<=« ?ADF8Aj5Wu<?7É>Vnw:=@AZFWU<_;@AWbZNHv&>V8ABU:=DF>V8 ?[^>58A?AWb?[ @A8AWb/N<w:ED6Bu@AZ6W

LNF 1HR> c ÁWUnw:bZFN- AN5n=WÉ?iWZNQ:ERiTu>V<wDFWZFN-iZF@An@i:ED6ZFDFnwTuWJ>V@A<p?ATuBU<=DF<wWZ6WI`->V@i­5Wu`-Wu8:?AWUn/N5<rq

:ED6Bu@AZ6WunS`aN:ETU<=D6WuZFZ6WunÀ:EWuZ6ZFWUnS @iWHZ\[^TUZFWUBU:E<w>V8©?/N58Ang@A8>5:EWU8;:=DFWUZW :ETU<=D6Wu@A<U4

B2N5<¨Z\[^TU;@/N:ED6>V8É?AD cTU<=WU8;:=DFWUZFZFW Wunt:7­N5<wDN5 iZFWunn=TU/N5<EN AZFWUnC4  W_:=WuZ6ZFWunÈn=>VZ6@i:ED6>V8An nU[eN5i1WUZFZFWU8:

MµWi<=Wu`-DFWU<QjV<EN8A? nw@ABuBUkuna?AW»s BªRA<=« ?ADF8ijVWu<-N·TU:ET?AW©?ATU`a>V8:=<=Wu<-;@AWZFWun )u¥,0{#.O)

   j 6  0      

hs @AA>Vnw>V8An 2j + 1 − λ 6= 0 ∀j ÁWC:TC:E@A?iDF>V8AnpZFWHBu>5`a>V<w:=Wu`-Wu8:N5nwf `-i:E>:EDF;@AWH?AWUnn=>5ZF@hq

N5DFn 1>V@i< SjV<=N58A?

 [^N5A<=kUn¨Z [ Rfh>5:=RAkunwWSn=WuZ6>V8QZN @iWuZFZ6W Z6Wun nw>VZF@h:EDF>58AnÈ?A>5D6­VWU8: U :E<wW_ >V<=8ATUWunUÁVBuWC:=:EWSnw>VZF@h:EDF>58

sh>VZ6@i:ED6>V8An_D6`aAN5DF<wWun  8DF`-/N5D6<uÁ a = 0 n=D S/N5D6<_WU: a = a = . . . = 0

MµWunpn=>5ZF@i:=DF>V8An H (q) n=>V8:p?A>V8ABJ?AWUng1>VZf 85V`-Wunu4

MµWungv&>V8ABC:ED6>V8AnSA<w>VA<=WUnpN5n=nw>hBUDFTuWUngn=>V8:?AWunSv&>V8ABC:ED6>V8AnS?A@©:9f 1W H (q) e − 12 q 2 N2­VWUB

3V4 [x̂, p̂] = i~

,-) (.0/213) 4&!#4&)657$98:5<;>=

"!$#&%('% )+*-,/.102

h4 (N:=<=DFBUWunS?AWH¾N5@AZFDµWC:pop>:ªN:=DF>V8An4I4H4J4I4H4I4H4H4I4H4I4H4H4H4H4H4I4H4I4H4H4¨3 5

"¢¼0}µ'%h)-' iÇÇO!} #¶Åi0}#&.

b)uÇO/V% '%(#¥&Ã¨% !{0 i¦

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L6

@A8©TuZ6WuBU:=<=>V8+?c[^@A8©nw>VZFD6?AW5Á DFZ"vN5@i:SZ6@AD1v&>5@A<=8AD6<Y@A8iWbTu8AWU<=jVD6W E xN5AWuZFTUW:E<=N25NDFZ?AWbn=>V<t:ED6W{~C4

@A8AWg:EWUZFZFWS>58A?AWpTuZFWUBU:=<=>V`aN5jV8ATC:ED6 @iW"!2Á@A8aTuZ6WuBU:=<=>V8-8AWp1WU@i:YN5ZF>V<wnN5Bu;@ATU<=D6< ;@[ @A8AWTu8AWU<=jVD6W

ZFWbBuN5n n = 1 x&n=TU<=DFWJ?AWIMf ` N58/~YBu>V<w<=Wunw1>58A?W7Q?AWUn>V8i?AWun p¿4"MWUnnwTu<wDFWun n = 3, 4, 5, . . .

MN:=RATu>V<wDFW ?AWSXY>VRi<ÈWunt:¨ /N5nwTuW_nw@A<ZFNpv&>V<w`É@AZN$:EDF>58HRAN5`aD6Z6:=>V8ADFWU8A8AW?A@É`->V@i5Wu`-Wu8:¨?[ @A8

Wu@i5Wu8:¨n=W ?ATuBU<=D6<=W 7Z [^N5D6?AW?AWunO5N<=DN AZFWUnNBU:ED6>V8hq9N58AjVZ6W (I , ω ) Á (I , ω ) WC: (I , ω ) :EWUZFZFWUn

?AWunÈ>V<= AD:EWUnTu<wDF> ?ADF;@AWUnO:=WuZFZ6Wun;@AW_Z\[eN5BC:ED6>V8Jn=>VD:È@A8`É@AZ6:=DFAZ6W¨Wu8:ED6Wu<O?AW ~ Á$WC:;@AW Z [ Tu8AWU<=jVD6W

MN C:=RATu>5<=DFWg?AWUn ;@/N8;:EN x&>V@ hD6WuD6ZFZFWY`aTUB2N58AD6;@AWg @AN58:EDF;@AW 2~¨Wunw:Y?A>V8ABp /N5nwTuWpn=@A< ZFWUn

<=>{fNZFW5Wu<=ngZFN;@/N58:ED/B2N:=DF>V8 ÁiWC: 7É/N5<t:EDF<Y?AWÉ3{zi3{|hÁi>V8©NÉWUn=n=N{f5TI?iWbZ [^N5AAZ6DF;@AWu< 7Q?AD 1TCq

D6ZÈ?A>VD:f N25>VDF<b@A8iW-<=N5DFnw>V8 AZ6@AnbA<=>v&>V8A?AWQnw@A<bZN5;@AWUZFZ6WÉZN :=RATu>V<wDFWÉ?iWunJ;@/N58:ªN©8AW

?A@©:9f 1WJ?AWJ?AWUjV<=TJ?AWJZ6DF Wu<w:=TWU:p?AWUnBU>V8A?AD:ED6>V8AnSN5@ ©ZFD6`aD:EWunU4

§ hWu`-AZFW ¾O>V@A<gZ [ >Vn=BUDFZ6ZN:=Wu@A< R/N5<=`->V8AD6;@AWb?ATUA8ADµ/N5<SZ\[^R/N`aD6Z6:E>58ADFWU8

N58An+BUWU:w:EW·n=WUBU:ED6>V8Á_8i>V@AnN5ZFZ6>V8Ana?ATu`->V8:E<wWu<+;@AW Z [ Rf 1>5:=RAkunwW [q̂, p̂] = i~ Bu>V8A?i@AD6:

sh@iA1>5n=>V8AngWU8(W1WU:p;@AW a a|ϕi = λ|ϕi Á/N2VWUB hϕ|ϕi = 1 4"8N

¾O>V@A< ν nw@ -nEN5`-`aWU8:jV<=N58A?Á λ − ν < 0 4O8yWu8Aj5Wu8A?A<wW @A8yVWUBU:EWU@A<i<=>VA<wW

Y>V8in=DF?iTu<=>58An @i8aVWUBU:=Wu@A<_i<=>VA<wW ?AWpN5ZFWU@A<¨A<=>5A<=W 4hM¨[^N5AAZ6DFBuN:ED6>V8

n=D6 AZFW?AW-?ATUBuDF?iWu<Hnu[ DFZ¨fyN@i8Ån=WU@AZÀTU:ªN$:n=N:ED6nwvN5D6nEN58: a|ϕi = 0 4 >V@AnJVWU<=<w>V8An;@AWa?/N58An

ZFWJB2N?A<=WJ?AWHZ [^N5AA<w>hBªRiWH?iWÉshBªRi<=« ?ADF8Aj5Wu<uÁ/Z6Wv&>V8A?/N`aWU8;:EN5ZµWunt:8i>V8?iTujVTU8ATu<wT541sh@AA>Vnw>V8An

²:ªN5WJn=@AD5N8;:=W MµWUnÉN5@i:=<=WUnTU:EN:EnIn=>V8:tq9DFZ6nJ?ATujVTU8ATu<wTun TU`a>V8:=<=>V8AnI;@AW 8A>58 /N5<H<=T q

A<=>5A<=WUnS?AW N ?AWN5Z6Wu@A<_i<=>VA<wW n ÁhWU:g;@AWJ/N5<_Rf >5:ERAkUn=W n Wunt:g8A>V8+?ATUjVTu8iTu<=TÁ/DFZ1W hDFnt:EW

Wu<w8ADFkU<=WJTU:EN5W Y>V`-`aWU8;:Bu>58Anw:=<=@AD6<=WÉZ6Wun5WuBC:EWu@i<=nbA<w>VA<=WUn?AWN5Z6Wu@A<A<=>5A<=W n ; @AWuZ q

>V<w` NZFDFn=N:ED6>V8 s @AA>Vn=>V8in |ϕ i 8i>V<=`aN5ZFD6n=T4

1>5<w:EWg;@AWUZFZFWg>V in=Wu<tN5 AZFWg?/N8An 8c[^D6`a>V<w:=WS;@AWuZ"TU:EN:Ànu[ >V i:=DFWu8: Wu8aW hA<=D6` N8;:Z\[^>5 An=WU<wN5 AZ6W

7QZ [^N5DF?AWb?iWun a Á a WU:pWu8@i:=DFZFD6nEN58:YZNQ<=kUjVZFWb?AWJBU>V`a`@i:ªN:=DF>V8 a, a = 1 4

§ iWU`aiZFW §¨n=n=N{f5>V8AnO?AW¨B2NZFBu@iZFWu<cZN N5Z6Wu@A<`->{fVWU8A8AW?AW x̂ ?/N58AnµZ6WÈv&>V8A?/N`aWU8;:EN5Z/x hϕ |x̂ |ϕ i~

ZFWÉv&>V8i?/N5`-Wu8:ªN5Z\4 N8AnJZ [ TU:ªN$:b?AWAZF@inb /N5n=nwWaTU8AWu<wjVDFWÁ>V8·?AD:J @c[^D6ZÈf·N+?AWun UW@^LTUk_`L QhBEPkc

SVU_`PRLTQTSVURFCc NA1WUZFTUWung?/N58AngBUWHBuN5n UR@^LTU_`LTQhBEPkc [ F?R> BEQ PRL EY^]CB 4

0 q̂ N p̂ 6 ?[ 6 6

MNº @iWunw:=DF>V8·;@ADnwW1>VnwWQ8/N:=@A<=WUZFZFWU`aWU8: 7ºBuWnt:ªN5?AWQWUnw:J?AWQn=N2V>VD6<bBu>V`-`aWU8::E<w>V@iVWU<

P< (AB) = P< (BA) x Kh4eK5z~

[^N5A<wkunpZ [ W hA<wWun=nwDF>V8?AW x̂ WU: p̂ Wu8©v&>V8ABC:EDF>58?iW a WU: a Á/>V8©WU8?ATU?A@AD:

YWU:w:EWJ:ERATU>V<=D6W5ÁA;@ADWunt:ZFNÉA<=WU`aD6ku<wWJ:=RATu>5<=DFW CW iN5BU:=W Á"B[^WUnw:wq 7$q9?iDF<=WbZFNQA<=WU`aD6ku<=Wv&>5<=`-W

N5AA<w>hBªRiWHWUnw:g/N<_W hWu`-AZ6WbZNÉ /N5nwWb?AWbZNÉ;@/N8;:=D6/BuN:ED6>V8+?A@©BªR/N5`-+TuZ6WuBC:E<=>5` N5j58ATU:=DF;@AW54

Wu8<=WU`aAZFNM2N8;: q WC: p /N5<p?AWUn>VTu<=N:EWU@A<=nU48>V i:=DFWu8:N5Z6>V<=ng@A8>V1TU<EN:=Wu@A<gRAWU<=`-D6:=DF;@AW

MµWunBu>V8in=Tu;@AWU8ABuWUnARf n=D6 @iWun?AWÀBuWÀBªR/N58ijVWu`-Wu8:<EN5?AD6B2N5Z5?AW >VD68;:?iWÀ @AWÀn=>V8:Bu>V8in=DF?iTCq

WJ` U `aWÁ = hϕ|x̂2 |ϕi − hϕ|x̂|ϕi2

M¨[^N58/N5Z6>VjVDFW E = ~ω Á p~ = ~~k WU:¨ZFN<wWuZN$:EDF>58IBUZN5nwn=DF;@AWY1>V@i<È@A8AWY/N5<w:=DFBU@AZFWÀZFD6 A<=W E =

<=WU` N<=;@AWunS>58;:SN5`aWU8ATJshBªRi<=« ?ADF8Aj5Wu<?7É>Vnw:=@AZFWU<_;@AWbZNHv&>V8ABU:=DF>V8 ?[^>58A?AWb?[ @A8AWb/N<w:ED6Bu@AZ6W

LNF 1HR> c ÁWUnw:bZFN- AN5n=WÉ?iWZNQ:ERiTu>V<wDFWZFN-iZF@An@i:ED6ZFDFnwTuWJ>V@A<p?ATuBU<=DF<wWZ6WI`->V@i5Wu`-Wu8:?AWUn/N5<rq

:ED6Bu@AZ6WunS`aN:ETU<=D6WuZFZ6WunÀ:EWuZ6ZFWUnS @iWHZ\[^TUZFWUBU:E<w>V8©?/N58Ang@A8>5:EWU8;:=DFWUZW :ETU<=D6Wu@A<U4

B2N5<¨Z\[^TU;@/N:ED6>V8É?AD cTU<=WU8;:=DFWUZFZFW Wunt:7N5<wDN5 iZFWunn=TU/N5<EN AZFWUnC4 W_:=WuZ6ZFWunÈn=>VZ6@i:ED6>V8AnnU[eN5i1WUZFZFWU8:

MµWi<=Wu`-DFWU<QjV<EN8A? nw@ABuBUkuna?AW»s BªRA<=« ?ADF8ijVWu<-N·TU:ET?AW©?ATU`a>V8:=<=Wu<-;@AWZFWun )u¥,0{#.O)

j 6 0

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N5DFn 1>V@i< SjV<=N58A?

[^N5A<=kUn¨Z [ Rfh>5:=RAkunwWSn=WuZ6>V8QZN @iWuZFZ6W Z6Wunnw>VZF@h:EDF>58AnÈ?A>5D6VWU8: U :E<wW_ >V<=8ATUWunUÁVBuWC:=:EWSnw>VZF@h:EDF>58

sh>VZ6@i:ED6>V8An_D6`aAN5DF<wWun 8DF`-/N5D6<uÁ a = 0 n=D S/N5D6<_WU: a = a = . . . = 0

MµWunpn=>5ZF@i:=DF>V8An H (q) n=>V8:p?A>V8ABJ?AWUng1>VZf 85V`-Wunu4

MµWungv&>V8ABC:ED6>V8AnSA<w>VA<=WUnpN5n=nw>hBUDFTuWUngn=>V8:?AWunSv&>V8ABC:ED6>V8AnS?A@©:9f 1W H (q) e − 12 q 2 N2VWUB

Kh4 x̂ uW nw:pRAWU<=`-D6:=DF;@AW54 = i~ϕ

UW 8 DF8:=TujV<=N58: AN5</N5<w:=DFWU=n WChϕ|p̂|ψi

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opWUA<=WU8A>V8AnSZ\[^W hWu`-AZFWp?AWbZ [ >VnwBuDFZ6ZN:=Wu@A<R/N<=`->V8ADF;@AW4 N58An_Z6WB2N?A<=W?i@©v&>5<=`aN5ZFD6n=`-WS?AW

8A>V<w` NZFDFnwTunSNA<=kUnp?iD6 DFnwDF>V8+/N< n! 4

[ Wunt:SZ [^N58/N5Zf n=Wg`aD68;@i:ED6Wu@AnwWp?iWunYW h1TU<=DFWU8ABuWUn_?AWp?AD 1<ENBU:ED6>V8;@ADcNHBu>V8i?A@AD6: 7HZNbv&>V<=`É@ q

nwD6:=@ATunnw@A<bZ [ TuBU<EN58(> Z [ >V8»BU>VZFZ6WuBU:=WZ6WunTUZFWuBC:E<w>V8Anu4µYWÉB2N5Z6Bu@AZ8[ Wunw:JAN5nn=D6`aiZFWWC:bn=WU<EN 2

vN5D6: AZ6@AnY:ªN<=?º?/N8AnSZFWBu>V@A<wnu4i¾>V@A<YZ [ DF8Ant:ªN58:2Á DFZ8A>V@in_n=@ :g?AWnEN2V>VD6<Y;@AWbZ\[^D68;:=Wu8AnwD6:=TWunt:

;@[^D6ZNQ@A8AWHW :EWU8An=D6>V8nw/N:=DN5Z6W5ÁAWC:;@[ DFZcWunw:?AD c<=N5BU:=Tb/N5<gZFWbBU<=DFnt:ªN5Z\4i]@i:E<wWu`-Wu8:?iD6:2Ái>V8

mi43 § hWu`-AZ6WH?iWJv&>5<=`aN:ED6>V8º?[ @A8AWb/jV@i<=WJ?[ DF8:EWU<wv&Tu<wWu8ABUWun/N5<S?AWUnpTUZFWUBU:E<w>V8AnU4

143d-4Za5@CE>I@/D1hS >=?&LN3d/D14%3 X(E+ 3,Ch3`= CYS >I.fCE361hS (EI@+,(E143dI@+`3e1.-J)0>[8&I.I.3dLj3dI"= 5@>)2)H>5.5_&):=iN+`3G/25.C<>WI@/dO

YWC:=:EW DF8:EWU<=A<wTU:EN:ED6>V8Á{;@AD;n=@Ai1>VnwWYZ\[eN5 AN58A?A>V8H?[ @A8AWÀBuWU<w:ªNDF8AWv&>V<=`-W?AWÀ?ATU:=Wu<=`-DF8iDFn=`-W5Á

8[^Nº/N5nTC:ETQNBuBuWUi:ETUWÉvN5BuD6ZFWU`aWU8;:u4 WunbBªRAWU<=BªRAWU@A<=nIN5@Anwn=DTu`-DF8AWU8;:=n;@[^§D68Anw:=WuD68 8[ f>V8:

MONJA<w>V /N5 AD6ZFD:ETS?AWg:E<w>V@iVWU< ZFNHAN5<w:=DFBu@iZFWg8[ DF`-1>V<t:EWS>-?/N58inYZ [ Wunw/N5BUW?A>5D6: U:=<=WpTujN5Z6W

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